Weldability

To many people 'weldability' is simply a measure of how easy it is to make a weld in a particular
material without cracks. If it is easy to avoid cracking, the material is deemed 'weldable'. For a weld
to be truly successful, however, it is also necessary for it to have adequate mechanical properties,
and to be able to withstand degradation in service (eg corrosion damage). Thus, weldability is a
measure of how easy it is to:
Obtain crack free welds
Achieve adequate mechanical properties
Produce welds resistant to service degradation.
Weldability is not a fixed parameter for a given material, but will depend on joint details, service
requirements, and welding processes and facilities available. This variability in weldability is
illustrated in the following examples:
Example 1
Which of these two C-Mn steels is most weldable?
C

Si

Mn

Ni

Cr

Mo

Cu

Nb

Ti

Al

CEIIW

Pcm

CEN

0.16

0.027

0.011

0.20

0.61

0.03

0.02

<0.01

<0.01

0.03

<0.005

<0.01

<0.001

0.27

0.2

0.27

0.002

0.047

0.43

0.27

0.43

Steel
1
Steel 0.19 <0.002 0.021 0.28 1.38 0.01 0.02 <0.005 <0.01 0.005 0.024
2

The answer clearly depends on which type of cracking is of most concern:

Low
restraint
fillet
onto
- Hydrogen crack, steel 1 more weldable
Restrained
high
dilution
MIG
- solidification crack, steel 2 more weldable
Full
penetration
highly
restrained
- lamellar tearing, steel 2 more weldable.

thick

steel

nozzle

weld

butt

Example 2
Which of these materials is most weldable? ( Welding a fairly thin walled (~3mm) pipe)
Commercially pure titanium
316 L austenitic stainless steel
22% Cr duplex stainless steel
6% Mo high alloy austenitic stainless steel
The answer will depend on an individual's experience, and available facilities.
The titanium expert knows that it is one of the easiest materials to weld - but he is very familiar with
very good back purges, and the use of a trailing shield.
The expert in austenitic stainless steel would see this level of control to be very difficult. He knows
to watch out for solidification cracking, and is careful to check the penetration characteristics of
each cast, and does not consider that these pose a significant risk.
An expert in duplex stainless steels will tell you that it is much easier to weld than austenitic
stainless steel, because there is no real risk of solidification cracking, and less of a variable
penetration problem. But now, you generally need filler.
High alloy austenitic steel is similar to duplex, expect that with a Ni based filler there is a risk of
microfissuring.

Example 3
Consider Example 2, but now add that the weld will be operating in an acid, chloride containing
environment at about 30C. Had the concern been purely about freedom from cracking, then duplex
and titanium would have been on an equal footing, with the high alloy austenitic being the least
weldable because of the risk of solidification cracking.
Now, however, the duplex stainless steel becomes more of a problem, as it becomes necessary to
work within quite a narrow heat input window. It can be difficult to pass procedure qualification tests
involving corrosion tests with duplex stainless steels.
Example 4
Consider examples 2 and 3, but now add a toughness requirement. Now titanium is not so
weldable, as near perfect shielding is necessary to avoid toughness degradation.
Example 5
Is AISI 4130 weldable?
The composition range for AISI 4130 is:
C
S
P
0.27-0.34
<0.040
<0.035

Si
0.15-0.35

Mn
0.35-0.60

Cr
0.80-1.15

Mo
0.15-0.25

It is not possible to answer this question without knowing the intended service. The answer would
be different for a gear component, to operate in a warm oil bath, and a piece of wellhead equipment
to carry sour gas.
Weldability of materials
Steels
In arc welding, as the weld metal needs mechanical properties to match the parent metal, the
welder must avoid forming defects in the weld. Imperfections are principally caused by:

poor welder technique;

insufficient measures to accommodate the material or welding
process;
high stress in the component.

Techniques to avoid imperfections such as lack of fusion and slag

inclusions, which result from poor welder techniques, are relatively
well known. However, the welder should be aware that the material
itself may be susceptible to formation of imperfections caused by the
welding process. In the materials section of the Job Knowledge for
Welders, guidelines are given on material weldability and precautions
to be taken to avoid defects.
Material types
In terms of weldability, commonly used materials can be divided into the following types:
Steels
Stainless steels
Aluminium and its alloys
Nickel and its alloys
Copper and its alloys
Titanium and its alloys

 Cast iron
Fusion welding processes can be used to weld most alloys of these materials, in a wide range of
thickness. When imperfections are formed, they will be located in either the weld metal or the
parent material immediately adjacent to the weld, called the heat affected zone (HAZ).

As chemical composition of the weld metal determines the risk of imperfections, the choice of filler
metal may be crucial not only in achieving adequate mechanical properties and corrosion
resistance but also in producing a sound weld. However, HAZ imperfections are caused by the
adverse effect of the heat generated during welding and can only be avoided by strict adherence to
the welding procedure.
This part of the materials section of Job Knowledge for Welders considers the weldability of carbonmanganese (C-Mn) steels and low alloy steels.
Imperfections in welds
Commonly used steels are considered to be readily welded. However, these materials can be at
risk from the following types of imperfection:
porosity;
solidification cracking;
hydrogen cracking;
reheat cracking.
Other fabrication imperfections are lamellar tearing and liquation cracking but using modern steels
and consumables, these types of defects are less likely to arise.
In discussing the main causes of imperfections, guidance is given on procedure and welder
techniques for reducing the risk in arc welding.
Porosity
Porosity is formed by entrapment of discrete pockets of gas in the solidifying weld pool. The gas
may originate from poor gas shielding, surface contaminants such as rust or grease, or insufficient
deoxidants in the parent metal (autogenous weld), electrode or filler wire. A particularly severe form
of porosity is 'wormholes', caused by gross surface contamination or welding with damp electrodes.
The presence of manganese and silicon in the parent metal, electrode and filler wire is beneficial as
they act as deoxidants combining with entrapped air in the weld pool to form slag. Rimming steels
with a high oxygen content, can only be welded satisfactorily with a consumable which adds
aluminium to the weld pool.
To obtain sound porosity-free welds, the joint area should be cleaned and degreased before
welding. Primer coatings should be removed unless considered suitable for welding by that
particular process and procedure. When using gas shielded processes, the material surface
demands more rigorous cleaning, such as by degreasing, grinding or machining, followed by final
degreasing, and the arc must be protected from draughts.
Solidification cracking
Solidification cracks occur longitudinally as a result of the weld bead having insufficient strength to
withstand the contraction stresses within the weld metal. Sulphur, phosphorus, and carbon pick up
from the parent metal at high dilution increase the risk of weld metal (solidification) cracking
especially in thick section and highly restrained joints. When welding high carbon and sulphur
content steels, thin weld beads will be more susceptible to solidification cracking. However, a weld
with a large depth to width ratio can also be susceptible. In this case, the centre of the weld, the last
part to solidify, will have a high concentration of impurities increasing the risk of cracking.
Solidification cracking is best avoided by careful attention to the choice of consumable, welding
parameters and welder technique. To minimise the risk, consumables with low carbon and impurity

levels and relatively high manganese and silicon contents are preferred. High current density
processes such as submerged-arc and CO2, are more likely to induce cracking. The welding
parameters must produce an adequate depth to width ratio in butt welds, or throat thickness in fillet
welds. High welding speeds also increase the risk as the amount of segregation and weld stresses
will increase. The welder should ensure that there is a good joint fit-up so as to avoid bridging wide
gaps. Surface contaminants, such as cutting oils, should be removed before welding.
Hydrogen cracking
A characteristic feature of high carbon and low alloy steels is that the HAZ immediately adjacent to
the weld hardens on welding with an attendant risk of cold (hydrogen) cracking. Although the risk of
cracking is determined by the level of hydrogen produced by the welding process, susceptibility will
also depend upon several contributory factors:
material composition (carbon equivalent);
section thickness;
arc energy (heat) input;
degree of restraint.
The amount of hydrogen generated is determined by the electrode type and the process. Basic
electrodes generate less hydrogen than rutile electrodes (MMA) and the gas shielded processes
(MIG and TIG) produce only a small amount of hydrogen in the weld pool. Steel composition and
cooling rate determines the HAZ hardness. Chemical composition determines material
hardenability, and the higher the carbon and alloy content of the material, the greater the HAZ
hardness. Section thickness and arc energy influences the cooling rate and hence, the hardness of
the HAZ.
For a given situation therefore, material composition, thickness, joint type, electrode composition
and arc energy input, HAZ cracking is prevented by heating the material. Using preheat which
reduces the cooling rate, promotes escape of hydrogen and reduces HAZ hardness so preventing a
crack-sensitive structure being formed; the recommended levels of preheat for various practical
situations are detailed in the appropriate standards e.g. BS 5135:1984. As cracking only occurs at
temperatures slightly above ambient, maintaining the temperature of the weld area above the
recommended level during fabrication is especially important. If the material is allowed to cool too
quickly, cracking can occur up to several hours after welding, often termed 'delayed hydrogen
cracking'. After welding, therefore, it is beneficial to maintain the heating for a given period (hold
time), depending on the steel thickness, to enable the hydrogen to diffuse from the weld area.
When welding C-Mn structural and pressure vessel steels, the measures which are taken to prevent
HAZ cracking will also be adequate to avoid hydrogen cracking in the weld metal. However, with
increasing alloying of the weld metal e.g. when welding alloyed or quenched and tempered steels,
more stringent precautions may be necessary.
The risk of HAZ cracking is reduced by using a low hydrogen process, low hydrogen electrodes and
high arc energy, and by reducing the level of restraint. Practical precautions to avoid hydrogen
cracking include drying the electrodes and cleaning the joint faces. When using a gas shielded
process, a significant amount of hydrogen can be generated from contaminants on the surface of
the components and filler wire so preheat and arc energy requirements should be maintained even
for tack welds.
Reheat cracking
Reheat or stress relaxation cracking may occur in the HAZ of thick section components, usually of
greater than 50mm thickness, Fig. 4. The more likely cause of cracking is embrittlement of the HAZ
during high temperature service or stress relief heat treatment.

As a coarse grained HAZ is more susceptible to cracking, low arc energy input welding procedures
reduce the risk. Although reheat cracking occurs in sensitive materials, avoidance of high stresses
during welding and elimination of local points of stress concentration, e.g. by dressing the weld
toes, can reduce the risk.
Weldability of steel groups
European Standard EN 287 identifies a number of steels groups which have similar metallurgical
and welding characteristics. The main risks in welding these groups are:
Group W 01 low carbon unalloyed (carbon-manganese) steels and/or low alloyed steels
For thin section, unalloyed materials, these materials are normally readily weldable. However, when
welding thicker section material with a flux process (MMA), there is a risk of HAZ cracking which will
needs low hydrogen electrodes. The more highly alloyed materials also require preheat, or a low
hydrogen welding process, to avoid HAZ cracking .
Group W 02 chromium-molybdenum (CrMo) and/or chromium-molybdenum-vanadium
(CrMoV) creep resisting steel
Thin section material may be welded without preheat but using a gas shielded process (TIG and
MIG); for thicker section material, and when using a flux process, preheat with low hydrogen
electrodes (MMA) is needed to avoid HAZ and weld metal cracking. Post-weld heat treatment is
used to improve HAZ toughness.
Group W 03 fine-grained structural steels and nickel steels (2% to 5%)
The weldability is similar to Group W 02 in that preheat is required for welding thick section material
with flux processes.
Group W 04 ferritic or martensitic stainless steel, with chromium (12% to 20%)
When using filler to produce matching weld metal strength, preheat is needed to avoid HAZ
cracking. Post-weld heat treatment is essential to restore HAZ toughness.
An austenitic stainless steel filler can be used where it is not possible to apply a preheat and postweld treatment.

Arc weldability of alloy steels

Cracking
Alloy steels are potentially susceptible to the following types of cracking:
Hydrogen cracking
Solidification cracking
Reheat cracking
Liquation cracking

With knowledge of the factors that control these cracking mechanisms, it is generally possible for
weld procedures to be developed for most modern alloy steels to allow crack-free weldments to be
produced by arc welding. More details on each of these cracking mechanisms can be found in
Fabrication cracking mechanisms in ferritic steels - A guide to best practice
Mechanical properties
In the majority of cases, elevated temperature strength and oxidation behaviour are the key areas
of concern. Joint strength can generally be readily achieved through the use of appropriate welding
consumables although the long term creep performance can be reduced relative to base material
(by up to ~20%), particularly in higher alloy grades, by the development of a creep-weak or 'soft'
zone in the outer HAZ, known as the Type IV zone.

These materials are generally used in the PWHT condition and the toughness of both HAZ or weld
metal is usually satisfactory. For low alloy steels, HAZ toughness can be improved by ensuring a
sufficient level of alloying to give transformation to low carbon martensite rather than bainite, and in
this respect Ni-additions can be beneficial.
However, depending on the impurity content, low alloy steels may be susceptible to temper
embrittlement if cooled slowly through the 350-600C temperature range, either during PWHT or,
more commonly following elevated temperature service. Susceptibility to temper embrittlement can
be minimised through careful control of impurity levels in base material and welding consumables at
the time of procurement. For more information, look at the FAQ - What is temper embrittlement and
how can it be controlled?
Service degradation
Welds in alloy steels may be subject to temper embrittlement (as previously discussed), hydrogen
embrittlement, hydrogen attack and creep damage.
During elevated temperature hydrogen service, gaseous hydrogen can enter steel and, if the partial
pressure and temperature are below those required to achieve hydrogen attack, no problems will be
encountered at elevated temperature. If allowed to cool to near ambient temperature, for example
during shut down, hydrogen embrittlement can occur which may lead to cracking. If the temperature
and partial pressure of hydrogen are high, hydrogen attack may occur. The hydrogen absorbed into
the steel, combines with carbon in the steel to form methane; this may lead to decarburisation and
the formation of voids or microcracks and blistering can develop.
If subjected to an applied load at elevated temperature (within the creep regime) for extended
periods of time, creep damage/deformation may occur. Creep occurs by a combination of
dislocation movement, grain boundary sliding and diffusion. Creep damage can vary in severity
from a coarsening of carbides and the formation of isolated cavities to orientated cavities through to
microcracks and macrocracks. Where a material operates within the creep regime regular
inspection including dimensional measurements and microstructural replication, is required to allow
the material condition and residual life to be assessed.

Weldability of SS materials
Stainless steels are chosen because of their enhanced
corrosion resistance, high temperature oxidation resistance
or their strength. The various types of stainless steel are
identified and guidance given on welding processes and
techniques which can be employed in fabricating SS
components without impairing the corrosion, oxidation and
mechanical properties of the material or introducing defects
into the weld.
Material types
The unique properties of the stainless steels are derived from the addition of alloying elements,
principally chromium and nickel, to steel. Typically, more than 10% chromium is required to produce
a stainless iron. The four grades of stainless steel have been classified according to their material
properties and welding requirements:
Austenitic
Ferritic
Martensitic
Austenitic-ferritic (duplex)
The alloy groups are designated largely according to their microstructure. The first three consist of a
single phase but the fourth group contains both ferrite and austenite in the microstructure.

As nickel (plus carbon, manganese and nitrogen) promotes austenite and chromium (plus silicon,
molybdenum and niobium) encourages ferrite formation, the structure of welds in commercially
available stainless steels can be largely predicted on the basis of their chemical composition. The
predicted weld metal structure is shown in the Schaeffler diagram in which austenite and ferrite
promoting elements are plotted in terms of the nickel and chromium equivalents.
Because of the different microstructures, the alloy groups have both different welding characteristics
and susceptibility to defects.
Austenitic stainless steel
Austenitic stainless steels typically have a composition within the range 16-26% chromium (Cr) and
8-22% nickel (Ni). A commonly used alloy for welded fabrications is Type 304 which contains
approximately 18%Cr and 10%Ni. These alloys can be readily welded using any of the arc welding
processes (TIG, MIG, MMA and SA). As they are non-hardenable on cooling, they exhibit good
toughness and there is no need for pre- or post-weld heat treatment.
Avoiding weld imperfections
Although austenitic stainless steel is readily welded, weld metal and HAZ cracking can occur. Weld
metal solidification cracking is more likely in fully austenitic structures which are more crack
sensitive than those containing a small amount of ferrite. The beneficial effect of ferrite has been
attributed largely to its capacity to dissolve harmful impurities which would otherwise form low
melting point segregates and interdendritic cracks.
As the presence of 5-10% ferrite in the microstructure is extremely beneficial, the choice of filler
material composition is crucial in suppressing the risk of cracking. An indication of the ferriteaustenite balance for different compositions is provided by the Schaeffler diagram. For example,
when welding Type 304 stainless steel, a Type 308 filler material which has a slightly different alloy
content, is used.
Ferritic stainless steel
Ferritic stainless steels have a Cr content typically within the range 11-28%. Commonly used alloys
include the 430 grade, having 16-18% Cr and 407 grade having 10-12% Cr. As these alloys can be
considered to be predominantly single phase and non-hardenable, they can be readily fusion
welded. However, a coarse grained HAZ will have poor toughness.
Avoiding weld imperfections
The main problem when welding this type of stainless steel is poor HAZ toughness. Excessive grain
coarsening can lead to cracking in highly restrained joints and thick section material. When welding
thin section material, (less than 6mm) no special precautions are necessary.
In thicker material, it is necessary to employ a low heat input to minimise the width of the grain
coarsened zone and an austenitic filler to produce a tougher weld metal. Although preheating will
not reduce the grain size, it will reduce the HAZ cooling rate, maintain the weld metal above the
ductile-brittle transition temperature and may reduce residual stresses. Preheat temperature should
be within the range 50-250 deg.C depending on material composition.
Martensitic stainless steel
The most common martensitic alloys e.g. type 410, have a moderate chromium content, 12-18% Cr,
with low Ni but more importantly have a relatively high carbon content. The principal difference
compared with welding the austenitic and ferritic grades of stainless steel is the potentially hard
HAZ martensitic structure and the matching composition weld metal. The material can be
successfully welded providing precautions are taken to avoid cracking in the HAZ, especially in
thick section components and highly restrained joints.
Avoiding weld imperfections

High hardness in the HAZ makes this type of stainless steel very prone to hydrogen cracking. The
risk of cracking generally increases with the carbon content. Precautions which must be taken to
minimise the risk, include:
using low hydrogen process (TIG or MIG) and ensure the flux or flux coated consumable are
dried (MMA and SAW) according to the manufacturer's instructions;
preheating to around 200 to 300 deg.C. Actual temperature will depend on welding
procedure, chemical composition (especially Cr and C content), section thickness and the
amount of hydrogen entering the weld metal;
maintaining the recommended minimum interpass temperature.
carrying out post-weld heat treatment, e.g. at 650-750 deg.C. The time and temperature will
be determined by chemical composition.

Thin section, low carbon material, typically less than 3mm, can often be welded without preheat,
providing that a low hydrogen process is used, the joints have low restraint and attention is paid to
cleaning the joint area. Thicker section and higher carbon (> O.1%) material will probably need
preheat and post-weld heat treatment. The post-weld heat treatment should be carried out
immediately after welding not only to temper (toughen) the structure but also to enable the
hydrogen to diffuse away from the weld metal and HAZ.
Duplex stainless steels
Duplex stainless steels have a two phase structure of almost equal proportions of austenite and
ferrite. The composition of the most common duplex steels lies within the range 22-26% Cr, 4-7% Ni
and 0-3% Mo normally with a small amount of nitrogen (0.1-0.3%) to stabilise the austenite. Modern
duplex steels are readily weldable but the procedure, especially maintaining the heat input range,
must be strictly followed to obtain the correct weld metal structure.
Avoiding weld imperfections
Although most welding processes can be used, low heat input welding procedures are usually
avoided. Preheat is not normally required and the maximum interpass temperature must be
controlled. Choice of filler is important as it is designed to produce a weld metal structure with a
ferrite-austenite balance to match the parent metal. To compensate for nitrogen loss, the filler may
be overalloyed with nitrogen or the shielding gas itself may contain a small amount of nitrogen.

Weldability of Nickel and nickel alloys

Nickel and nickel based alloys are chosen because of their:

corrosion resistance

heat resistance and high temperature properties

low temperature properties
Types of nickel alloys are identified and guidance is given on welding processes and techniques
which can be used in fabricating nickel alloy components without impairing their corrosion or
mechanical properties or introducing defects into the weld.
Material types
The alloys can be grouped according to the principal alloying elements. Although there are National
and International designations for the alloys, trade names such as Inconel and Hastelloy are more
commonly used.
In terms of their weldability, these alloys can be classified according to the means by which the
alloying elements develop the mechanical properties, namely solid solution alloys and precipitation
hardened alloys. A distinguishing feature of precipitation hardened alloys is that mechanical
properties are developed by heat treatment (solution treatment plus ageing) to produce a fine
distribution of hard particles in a nickel rich matrix.
Solid solution alloys
Solid solution alloys are Nickel 200, Monel alloy 400 series, Inconel alloy 600 series, Incoloy alloy
800 series, Hastelloys and some Nimonic alloys (such as 75, and PE13). These alloys are readily
fusion welded, normally in the annealed condition. As the heat affected zone (HAZ) does not
harden, heat treatment is not usually required after welding.
Precipitation hardening alloys
Precipitation hardened alloys are the Monel alloy 500 series, Inconel alloy 700 series, Incoloy alloy
900 series and most of the Nimonic alloys (such as 80,90,263 and PE16). These alloys may
susceptible to post-weld heat treatment cracking.
Weldability
Most nickel alloys can be fusion welded using gas shielded processes like TIG or MIG. Of the flux
processes, MMA is frequently used but the SAW process is restricted to solid solution alloys (Nickel
200, Inconel alloy 600 series and Monel alloy 400 series) and is less widely used.
Solid solution alloys are normally welded in the annealed condition and precipitation hardened
alloys in the solution treated condition. Preheating is not necessary unless there is a risk of porosity
from moisture condensation. It is recommended that material containing residual stresses be
solution-treated before welding to relieve the stresses.
Post-weld heat treatment is not usually needed to restore corrosion resistance but thermal
treatment may be required for precipitation hardening or stress relieving purposes to avoid stress
corrosion cracking.
Filler alloys
Filler composition normally matches the parent metal. However, most fillers contain a small mount
of titanium, aluminium and/or niobium to help minimise the risk of porosity and cracking.
Filler metals for gas shielded processes are covered in BS 2901: Pt 5 and in the USA by AWS
A5.14. Recommended fillers for selected alloys are given in the table.
Table 1: Filler selection for nickel alloys
Filler designations
Alloy
Pure nickel

BS
2901:Part AWS A5.14 Tradenames Comments
5

Nickel 200

'Matching' filler metal normally contains

3%Ti

NA32

ERNi-3

Nickel 61

NA33

ERNiCu-7

Monel 600

'Matching' filler metal contains additions of

Mn, Ti and Al

Brightray S

NA34

NC 80/20

Nimonic 75

NA34

NC 80/20

Ni-Cr and Ni-Cr-Fe filler metals may be

used

Incoloy 800

NA43

Usually welded with Ni-Cr-X alloys, but

Inconel
625
ERNiCrMomore nearly matching consumables are
Thermanit
3
available which contain higher C and also
21/33
Nb

Inconel 600

NA35

ERNiCr-3

Inconel 718

NA51

ERNiFeCr-2 Inconel 718

'Matching' filler metal can be used but

Inconel 625 is an alternative consumable
offering increased crack resistance

Inconel 625

NA43

ERNiCrMoInconel 625
3

'Matching'Inconel 625 filler metal is also

used widely (for cladding and dissimilar
welds)

Hastelloy C-22

ERNiCrMo- Hastelloy
10
22

NA44

ERNiMo-7

NA40

ERNiCrMo- Hastelloy
2
Waspaloy

Nickel copper
Monel 400
Nickel chromium

Nickelchromium-iron

Inconel 82

'Matching' filler metal contains Nb addition

Nickelchromiummolybdenum

C-

Nickelmolybdenum
Hastelloy B-2

Hastelloy B-2

Corrosion
resistant
matching fillers

alloys

require

High
temperature
alloys
Hastelloy-X
Waspaloy

Mechanical properties required in joints

X dictate whether matching precipitation
hardening fillers or solid solution alloys
such as Inconel 625 are used

Imperfections and degradation

Nickel and its alloys are readily welded but it is essential that the surface is cleaned immediately
before welding. The normal method of cleaning is to degrease the surface, remove all surface oxide
by machining, grinding or scratch brushing and finally degrease.
Common imperfections found on welding are:
porosity
oxide inclusions and lack of inter-run fusion
weld metal solidification cracking
microfissuring
Additionally, precautions should be taken against post-welding imperfections such as:
post-weld heat treatment cracking
stress corrosion cracking

Porosity
Porosity can be caused by oxygen and nitrogen from air entrainment and surface oxide or by
hydrogen from surface contamination. Careful cleaning of component surfaces and using a filler
material containing deoxidants (aluminium and titanium) will reduce the risk.
When using argon in TIG and MIG welding, attention must be paid to shielding efficiency of the weld
pool including the use of a gas backing system. In TIG welding, argon-H 2 gas mixtures which
provide a slightly reducing atmosphere are particularly effective.
Oxide inclusions and lack of inter-run fusion
As the oxide on the surface of nickel alloys has a much higher melting temperature than the base
metal, it may remain solid during welding. Oxide trapped in the weld pool will form inclusions. In
multi-run welds, oxide or slag on the surface of the weld bead will not be consumed in the
subsequent run and will cause lack of fusion imperfections.
Before welding, surface oxide, particularly if it has been formed at a high temperature, must be
removed by machining or abrasive grinding; it is not sufficient to wire brush the surface as this serve
only to polish the oxide. In welding, surface oxide and slag must be removed between runs.
Weld metal solidification cracking
Weld metal or hot cracking results from contaminants concentrating at the centreline and an
unfavourable weld pool profile. Too high a welding speed produces a shallow weld pool which
encourages impurities to concentrate at the centreline and, on solidification, generates sufficiently
large transverse stresses to form cracks.
This risk can be reduced by careful cleaning of the joint area and avoiding high welding speeds.
Microfissuring
Similar to austenitic stainless steel, nickel alloys are susceptible to
formation of liquation cracks in reheated weld metal regions or
parent metal HAZ. This type of cracking is controlled by factors
outside the control of the welder such as grain size or content
impurity. Some alloys are more sensitive than others. For example,
the extensively studied Inconel 718 is now less sensitive than some
cast superalloys which cannot be welded without inducing liquation
cracks.
Post-weld heat treatment cracking
This is also known as strain-age or reheat cracking. It is likely to
occur during post-weld ageing of precipitation hardening alloys but
can be minimised by pre-weld heat treatment. Solution annealing is
commonly used but overageing gives the most resistant condition.
Inconel 718 alloy was specifically developed to be resistant to this
type of cracking.
Stress corrosion cracking
Welding does not normally make nickel alloys susceptible to weld metal or HAZ corrosion. However,
when the material will be in contact with caustic soda, fluosilicates or HF acid, stress corrosion
cracking is possible.
After welding, the component or weld area must be given a stress-relieving heat treatment to
prevent stress corrosion cracking.

Weldability of Copper and copper alloys

Copper and copper alloys are chosen because of their corrosion resistance and electrical and
thermal conductivity.
The various types of copper alloys are identified and guidance is given on processes and
techniques which can be used in fabricating copper alloy components without impairing their
corrosion or mechanical properties or introducing defects into the weld.
Material types
The alloys are grouped according to the principal alloying
elements. Although there are UK standards (BS 2780-2875) for the
alloy designations, the alloys are more commonly known by the
generic type:
C Pure copper
CH Copper with small alloy additions
CZ Brasses such as copper-zinc (Cu-Zn)
NS Nickel silvers such as copper-zinc-nickel (Cu-Zn-Ni)
PB Bronzes such as copper-tin (Cu-Sn) (phosphor bronze
alloys also contain phosphorus)
G Gunmetals such as copper-tin-zinc (Cu-Sn-Zn) (some
alloys may contain lead)
CA Aluminium bronze such as copper-aluminium (Cu-Al)
(most alloys also contain iron and many nickel)
CN Cupro-nickels such as copper-nickel (Cu-Ni)
A number of popular alloys are listed in the Table together with the recommended filler metal
(compositions of TIG and MIG filler wires are given in BS2901 Part 3).
Typical alloys and recommended filler for inert gas welding
Alloy group

Typical alloys

Recommended filler

Coppers

Tough pitch

C7, C8

Phosphorus deoxidised C7, C8

Brasses
Nickel Silvers
Silicon Bronze

Low zinc, up to 30% Zn C9, C13

High zinc, 40% Zn

Not Recommended

20% Zn / 15% Ni

C9, C13

45% Zn / 10% Ni

Not Recommended

3% Si

C9

Phosphor Bronze 4.5% to 6% Sn / 0.4% P C10

Aluminium Bronze < 7.8% Al

Gunmetal
Cupro - Nickel

C12, C12 Fe

> 7.8% Al

C13, C20

6% Al / 2% Si

C23

Low lead

C10, C9, C13

Leaded

Not Recommended

10%Ni

C16, C18

30% Ni
C18
In terms of weldability, alloys have quite different welding characteristics. Copper, because of its
high thermal conductivity, needs substantial preheat to counteract the very high heat sink. However,
some of the alloys which have a thermal conductivity similar to low carbon steel, such as cupronickel alloys, can normally be fusion welded without a preheat.

Copper
Copper is normally supplied in the form of
oxygen bearing, tough pitch copper
phosphorus deoxidised copper
oxygen-free copper
Tough pitch copper contains stringers of copper oxide (<0.1% oxygen as Cu 2 O) which does not
impair the mechanical properties of wrought material and has high electrical conductivity. Oxygenfree and phosphorus deoxidised copper are more easily welded.
TIG and MIG are the preferred welding processes but oxyacetylene and MMA welding can be used
in the repair of tough pitch copper components. To counteract the high thermal conductivity, helium
and nitrogen-based gases, which have higher arc voltages, can be used as an alternative to argon.
Avoiding weld imperfections

In fusion welding tough pitch copper, high oxygen content leads to embrittlement in the heat
affected zone (HAZ) and weld metal porosity. Phosphorus deoxidised copper is more weldable but
residual oxygen can result in porosity in autogenous welds especially in the presence of hydrogen.
Porosity is best avoided by using appropriate filler wire containing deoxidants (Al, Mn, Si, P and Ti).
Thin section material can be welded without preheat. However, over 5mm thickness all grades need
preheat to produce a fluid weld pool and avoid fusion defects . Thick section components may need
a preheat temperature as high as 600 deg.C.
Copper with small alloying additions
Low alloying additions of sulphur or tellurium can made to improve machining. However, these
grades are normally considered to be unweldable.
Small additions of chromium, zirconium or beryllium will produce precipitation hardened alloys
which, on heat treatment, have superior mechanical properties. Chromium and beryllium copper
may suffer from HAZ cracking unless heat treated before welding. When welding beryllium copper,
care should be taken to avoid inhaling the welding fumes.
Brasses (copper-zinc alloys) and nickel silvers
When considering weldability, brasses can be conveniently separated into two groups, low zinc (up
to 20% Zn) and high zinc (30 to 40% Zn). Nickel silvers contain 20 to 45% zinc and nickel to
improve strength. The main problem in fusion welding these alloys is the volatilisation of the zinc
which results in white fumes of zinc oxide and weld metal porosity. Only low zinc brasses are
normally considered suitable for fusion welding using the TIG and MIG processes.
Avoiding weld imperfections
To minimise porosity, a zinc-free filler wire should be used, either silicon bronze (C9) or an
aluminium bronze (C13). High welding speeds will reduce pore coarseness.
TIG and MIG processes are used with argon or an argon-helium mixture but not nitrogen. A preheat
is normally used for low zinc (<20% Zn) to avoid fusion defects because of the high thermal
conductivity,. Although preheat is not needed in higher zinc content alloys, slow cooling reduces
cracking risk. Post weld heat treatment also helps reduce the risk of stress corrosion cracking in
areas where there is high restraint.

Bronzes (tin bronze, phosphor bronze, silicon bronze and gun metal)
Tin bronzes can contain between 1% and 10% tin. Phosphor bronze contains up to 0.4%
phosphorus. Gunmetal is essentially a tin bronze with up to 5% zinc and may additionally have up
to 5% lead. Silicon bronze contains typically 3% silicon and 1% manganese and is probably the
easiest of the bronzes to weld.
Avoiding weld imperfections
These are generally considered to be weldable, apart from phosphor bronze and leaded gun metal,
and a matching filler composition is normally employed. Autogenous welding of phosphor bronzes is
not recommended due to porosity, but the risk can be reduced by using a filler wire with a higher
level of deoxidants. Gun metal is not considered weldable due to hot cracking in the weld metal and
HAZ.
Aluminium bronze
There are essentially two types of aluminium bronzes; single phase alloys containing between 5
and 10% aluminium, with a small amount of iron or nickel, and more complex, two phase alloys
containing up to 12% aluminium and about 5% of iron with specific alloys also containing nickel and
manganese and silicon. Gas shielded welding processes are preferred for welding this group of
alloys. In TIG welding, the presence of a tenacious, refractory oxide film requires AC (argon), or DC
with a helium shielding gas. Because of its low thermal conductivity, a preheat is not normally
required except when welding thick section components.
Avoiding weld imperfections
Rigorous cleaning of the material surface is essential, both before and after each run, to avoid
porosity. Single phase alloys can be susceptible to weld metal cracking and HAZ cracking can occur
under highly restrained conditions. It is often necessary to use matching filler metals to maintain
corrosion resistance but a non-matching, two phase, filler will reduce the cracking risk. Two phase
alloys are more easily welded. For both types, preheat and interpass temperatures should be
restricted to prevent cracking.
Cupro-nickels
Cupro-nickel alloys contain between 5 and 30% nickel with specific alloys having additions of iron
and manganese; 90/10 and 70/30 (Cu/Ni) alloys are commonly welded grades. These alloys are
single phase and generally considered to be readily weldable using inert gas processes and, to a
lesser extent, MMA. A matching filler is normally used but 70/30 (C18) is often regarded as a
'universal' filler for these alloys. As the thermal conductivity of cupro-nickel alloys is similar to low
carbon steels, preheating is not required.
Avoiding weld imperfections
As the alloys do not contain deoxidants, autogenous welding is not recommended because of
porosity. Filler metal compositions contain typically 0.2 to 0.5% titanium, to prevent weld metal
porosity. Argon shielding gas is normally used for both TIG and MIG but in TIG welding, an argonH2 mixture, with appropriate filler, improves weld pool fluidity and produces a cleaner weld bead.
Gas backing (usually argon) is recommended, especially in pipe welding, to produce an oxide-free
underbead.

Weldability of Titanium and titanium alloys

Titanium and its alloys are chosen because of the following
properties:
high strength to weight ratio;
corrosion resistance;
mechanical properties at elevated temperatures.
Titanium is a unique material, as strong as steel but half its weight
with excellent corrosion resistance. Traditional applications are in the
aerospace and chemical industries. More recently, especially as the
cost of titanium has fallen significantly, the alloys are finding greater
use in other industry sectors, such as offshore.
The various types of titanium alloys are identified and guidance
given on welding processes and techniques employed in fabricating
components without impairing their corrosion, oxidation and
mechanical properties or introducing defects into the weld.
Material types
Alloy groupings
There are basically three types of alloys distinguished by their
microstructure:
Titanium - Commercially pure (98 to 99.5% Ti) or strengthened by small additions of oxygen,
nitrogen, carbon and iron. The alloys are readily fusion weldable.
Alpha alloys - These are largely single-phase alloys containing up to 7% aluminium and a small
amount (< 0.3%) of oxygen, nitrogen and carbon. The alloys are fusion welded in the annealed
condition.
Alpha-beta alloys - These have a characteristic two-phase microstructure formed by the addition of
up to 6% aluminium and varying amounts of beta forming constituents - vanadium, chromium and
molybdenum. The alloys are readily welded in the annealed condition.
Alloys, which contain a large amount of the beta phase, such as chromium, are not easily welded.
Commonly used alloys are listed in Table1 with the appropriate ASTM grade. The internationally
recognized designation.In industry, the most widely welded Ti alloys are the commercially pure
grades and variants of the 6%Al and 4%V alloy which is regarded as the standard aircraft alloy.

Table 1: Commonly used titanium alloys and the recommended filler material
ASTM Grade Composition

UTS (min) Mpa Filler

Comments

Ti-0.15O2

240

ERTi-1

Commercially pure

Ti-0.20O2

340

ERTi-2

,,

Ti-0.35O2

550

ERTi-4

,,

Ti-0.20O2-0.2Pd 340

ERTi-7

,,

Ti-3Al-2.5V

615

ERTi-9

Tube components

Ti-6Al-4V

900

ERTi-5ELI Aircraft alloy

23

Ti-6Al-4V ELI

900

ERTi-5ELI Low interstitials

25

Ti-6Al-4V-0.06Pd 900

Matching

Corrosion grade

Filler alloys
Titanium and its alloys can be welded using a matching filler composition; compositions are given in
The American Welding Society specification AWS A5.16-90. Recommended filler wires for the
commonly used titanium alloys are also given in Table 1.
When welding higher strength grades of unalloyed titanium or titanium alloys, fillers of a lower
strength are sometimes used to achieve adequate weld metal ductility. For example, an unalloyed
filler ERTi-2 can be used to weld Ti-6Al-4V and Ti-5Al-2.5Sn alloys in order to of balancing
weldability, strength and formability requirements.
Weld imperfections
This material and its alloys are readily fusion welded providing suitable precautions are taken. TIG
and plasma processes, with argon or argon-helium shielding gas, are used for welding thin section
components, typically <10mm. Autogenous welding can be used for a section thickness of <3mm
with TIG, or <6mm with plasma. Pulsed MIG is preferred to dip transfer MIG because of the lower
spatter level.
The most likely imperfections in fusion welds are:
Weld metal porosity
Embrittlement
Contamination cracking
Normally, there is no solidification cracking or hydrogen cracking.
Weld metal porosity
Weld metal porosity is the most frequent weld defect. As gas solubility is significantly less in the
solid phase, porosity arises when the gas is trapped between dendrites during solidification. In
titanium, hydrogen from moisture in the arc environment or contamination on the filler and parent
metal surface, is the most likely cause of porosity.
It is essential that the joint and surrounding surface areas are cleaned by first degreasing either by
steam, solvent, alkaline or vapour degreasing. Any surface oxide should then be removed by
pickling (HF-HNO3 solution), light grinding or scratch brushing with a clean, stainless steel wire
brush. On no account should an ordinary steel brush be used. After wiping with a lint-free cloth,
care should be taken not to touch the surface before welding. When TIG welding thin section
components, the joint area should be dry-machined to produce a smooth surface finish.
Embrittlement
Embrittlement can be caused by weld metal
contamination by either gas absorption or by
dissolving contaminants such as dust (iron
particles) on the surface. At temperatures
above 500C, titanium has a very high affinity
for oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen. The weld
pool, heat affected zone and cooling weld
bead must be protected from oxidation by an
inert gas shield (argon or helium).
When oxidation occurs, the thin layer of
surface oxide generates an interference
colour. The colour can indicate whether the
shielding was adequate or an unacceptable degree of contamination has occurred. A silver or straw
colour shows satisfactory gas shielding was achieved but for certain service conditions, dark blue
may be acceptable. Light blue, grey and white shows an unacceptable level of oxygen
contamination.

For small components, an efficient gas shield can be achieved by welding in a totally enclosed
chamber, filled with the shielding gas. It is recommended that before welding, the arc is struck on a
scrap pieces of titanium, termed 'titanium-getters', to remove oxygen from the atmosphere; the
oxygen level should be reduced to approximately 40ppm before striking the arc on the scrap
titanium and <20ppm before welding the actual component.
In tube welding, a fully enclosed head is equally effective in shielding the weld area and is be
preferable to orbital welding equipment in which the gas nozzle must be rotated around the tube.
When welding out in the open, the torch is fitted with a trailing
shield to protect the hot weld bead whilst cooling. The size and
shape of the shield is determined by the joint profile whilst its
length will be influenced by welding current and travel speed. It
is essential in 'open air' welding that the underside of the joint
is protected from oxidation. For straight runs, a grooved bar is
used with argon gas blown on to the joint. In tube and pipe
welding, normal gas purging techniques are appropriate.
Contamination cracking
If iron particles are present on the component surface, they dissolve in the weld metal reducing
corrosion resistance and, at a sufficiently high iron content, causing embrittlement. Iron particles are
equally detrimental in the HAZ where local melting of the particles form pockets of titanium - iron
eutectic. Microcracking may occur but it is more likely that the iron-rich pockets will become
preferential sites for corrosion.
Particular attention should be paid to separating titanium from steel fabrications, preferably by
designating a specially reserved clean area. Welders should guard against embedding steel
particles into the surface of the material by:

Avoiding steel fabrication operations near titanium components.

Covering components to avoid airborne dust particles settling on the surface
Not using tools, including wire brushes, previously used for steel
Scratch brushing the joint area immediately before welding
Not handling the cleaned component with dirty gloves.
To avoid corrosion cracking, and minimise the risk of embrittlement through iron contamination, it is
best practice to fabrication titanium in a specially reserved clean area.

Weldability of Cast irons

Cast irons are iron based alloys containing more than 2% carbon, 1 to 3% silicon and up to 1%
manganese. As cast irons are relatively inexpensive, very easily cast into complex shapes and
readily machined, they are an important engineering and structural group of materials.
Unfortunately not all grades are weldable and special precautions are normally required even with
the
so-called
weldable
grades.
Material types
Cast irons can be conveniently grouped according to their structure which influences their
mechanical properties and weldability; the main groups of general engineering cast irons are shown
in the first figure.
Grey cast irons
Grey cast irons contain 2.0 - 4.5% carbon and 1 - 3% silicon. Their
structure consists of branched and interconnected graphite flakes in a

matrix which is pearlite, ferrite or a mixture of the two. The graphite flakes form planes of weakness
and so strength and toughness are inferior to those of structural steels.
Nodular cast irons
The mechanical properties of grey irons can be greatly improved if the
graphite shape is modified to eliminate planes of weakness. Such
modification is possible if molten iron, having a composition in the range
3.2 - 4.5% carbon and 1.8 - 2.8% silicon, is treated with magnesium or
cerium additions before casting. This produces castings with graphite in
spheroidal form instead of flakes, known as nodular, spheroidal graphite
(SG) or ductile irons. Nodular irons are available with pearlite, ferrite or
pearlite-ferrite matrices which offer a combination of greater ductility and
higher tensile strength than grey cast irons.
White cast irons
By reducing the carbon and silicon content and cooling rapidly, much of the carbon is retained in the
form of iron carbide without graphite flakes. However, iron carbide, or cementite, is extremely hard
and brittle and these castings are used where high hardness and wear resistance is needed.
Malleable irons
These are produced by heat treatment of closely controlled compositions of white irons which are
decomposed to give carbon aggregates dispersed in a ferrite or pearlitic matrix. As the compact
shape of the carbon does not reduce the matrix ductility to the same extent as graphite flakes, a
useful level of ductility is obtained. Malleable iron may be divided into classes. Whiteheart,
Blackheart and Pearlitic irons.
Whiteheart malleable irons
Whiteheart malleable castings are produced from high carbon white cast irons annealed in a
decarburising medium. Carbon is removed at the casting surface, the loss being only compensated
by the diffusion of carbon from the interior. Whiteheart castings are inhomogenous with a
decarburised surface skin and a higher carbon core.
Blackheart malleable irons
Blackheart malleable irons are produced by annealing low carbon (2.2 - 2.9%) white iron castings
without decarburisation. The resulting structure, of carbon in a ferrite matrix, is homogenous with
better mechanical properties than those of whiteheart irons.
Pearlitic malleable irons
These have a pearlite rather than ferritic matrix which gives them higher strength but lower ductility
than ferritic, blackheart irons.
Weldability
This depends on microstructure and mechanical properties. For example, grey cast iron is
inherently brittle and often cannot withstand stresses set up by a cooling weld. As the lack of
ductility is caused by the coarse graphite flakes, the graphite clusters in malleable irons, and the
nodular graphite in SG irons, give significantly higher ductility which improves the weldability.
The weldability may be lessened by the formation of hard and brittle microstructures in the heat
affected zone (HAZ), consisting of iron carbides and martensite. As nodular and malleable irons are
less likely to form martensite, they are more readily weldable, particularly if the ferrite content is
high. White cast iron which is very hard and contains iron carbides, is normally considered to be
unweldable.
Welding process

Bronze welding is frequently employed to avoid cracking. As oxides and other impurities are not
removed by melting, and mechanical cleaning will tend to smear the graphite across the surface,
surfaces must be thoroughly cleaned, for example, by means of a salt bath.
In fusion welding, the oxy-acetylene, MMA, MIG/FCA welding processes can all be used. In
general, low heat inputs conditions, extensive preheating and slow cooling are normally a prerequisite to avoid HAZ cracking.
Oxy-acetylene because of the relatively low temperature heat source, oxy-acetylene welding will
require a higher preheat than MMA. Penetration and dilution is low but the wide HAZ and slow
cooling will produce a soft microstructure. Powder welding in which filler powder is fed from a small
hopper mounted on the oxy-acetylene torch, is a very low heat input process and often used for
buttering the surfaces before welding.
MMA widely used in the fabrication and repair of cast iron because the intense, high temperature
arc enables higher welding speeds and lower preheat levels. The disadvantage of MMA is the
greater weld pool penetration and parent metal dilution but using electrode negative polarity will
help to reduce the HAZ.
MIG and FCA MIG (dip transfer) and especially the FCA processes can be used to achieve high
deposition rates whilst limiting the amount of weld penetration.
Filler alloys
In oxy-acetylene welding, the consumable normally has slightly higher carbon and silicon content to
give a weld with matching mechanical properties. The most common MMA filler rods are nickel,
nickel - iron and nickel - copper alloys which can accommodate the high carbon dilution from the
parent metal and produces a ductile machinable weld deposit.
In MIG welding, the electrode wires are usually nickel or Monel but copper alloys may be used. Flux
cored wires, nickel-iron and nickel-iron-manganese wires, are also available for welding cast irons.
Powders are based on nickel with additions of iron, chromium and cobalt to give a range of
hardnesses.
Weld imperfections
The potential problem of high carbon weld metal deposits is avoided by using a nickel or nickel alloy
consumable which produces finely divided graphite, lower porosity and a readily machinable
deposit. However, nickel deposits which are high in sulphur and phosphorus from parent metal
dilution, may result in solidification cracking.
The formation of hard and brittle HAZ structures make cast irons particularly prone to HAZ cracking
during post-weld cooling. HAZ cracking risk is reduced by preheating and slow post-weld cooling.
As preheating will slow the cooling rate both in weld deposit and HAZ, martensitic formation is
suppressed and the HAZ hardness is somewhat reduced. Preheating can also dissipate shrinkage
stresses and reduce distortion, lessening the likelihood of weld cracking and HAZ.
Table 1: Typical preheat levels for welding cast irons
Cast iron type

Preheat temperature degrees C

MMA

MIG

Gas (fusion) Gas (powder)

Ferritic flake

300

300

600

300

Ferritic nodular

RT-150 RT-150 600

200

Ferritic whiteheart malleable RT*

RT*

600

200

Pearlitic flake

300-330 300-330 600

350

Pearlitic nodular

200-330 200-330 600

300

Pearlitic malleable

300-330 300-330 600

300

RT
room
* 200 degrees C if high C core involved.
As cracking may also result from unequal expansion, especially
likely during preheating of complex castings or when preheating
is localised on large components, preheat should always be
applied gradually. Also, the casting should always be allowed to
cool slowly to avoid thermal shock.

temperature

An alternative technique is 'quench' welding for large castings

which would be difficult to preheat. The weld is made by
depositing a series of small stringer weld beads at a low heat
input to minimise the HAZ. These weld beads are hammer
peened whilst hot to relieve shrinkage stresses and the weld
area is quenched with an air blast or damp cloth to limit stress
build up.
Repair of castings
Because of the possibility of casting defects and their inherent brittle nature, repairs to cast iron
components are frequently required. For small repairs, MMA, oxy-acetylene, bronze and powder
welding processes can all be used. For larger areas, MMA or powder technique can be used for
buttering the edges of the joint followed by MMA or MIG/FCA welding to fill the groove.
Remove defective area preferably by grinding or tungsten carbide burr. If air arc or MMA
gouging is used, the component must be preheated locally to typically 300 degrees C.
After gouging, the prepared area should be lightly ground to remove any hardened material.
Preheat the casting to the temperature given in Table 1.
Butter the surface of the groove with MMA using a small diameter (2.4 or 3mm) electrode;
use a nickel or Monel rod to produce a soft, ductile 'buttered' layer; alternatively use oxyacetylene with a poder consumable.
Remove slag and peen each weld bead whilst still hot.
Fill the groove using nickel (3 or 4mm diameter) or nickel-iron electrodes for greater
strength.
Finally, to avoid cracking through residual stresses, the weld area should be covered to ensure the
casting will cool slowly to room temperature.