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Published in IET Generation, Transmission & Distribution
Received on 11th August 2011
Revised on 9th March 2012
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2011.0592

ISSN 1751-8687

High-speed non-unit transmission line protection

using single-phase measurements and an adaptive
wavelet: zone detection and fault classification
F.E. Perez1 R. Aguilar1 E. Orduna1 J. Jager2 G. Guidi1
1

Instituto de Energa Electrica, Universidad Nacional de San Juan, Av. Lib. Gral. San Martn 1109,
Oeste J5400ARL, San Juan, Argentina
2
Lehrstuhl fur Elektrische Energieversorgung, Friedrich-Alexander-Universitat Erlangen-Nurnberg, Cauerstrae 4,
Erlangen 91058, Deutschland
E-mail: fperez@iee.unsj.edu.ar

Abstract: This work describes a transmission line protection scheme with two protection functions: directional zone and fault
classication. The proposed scheme requires no information from remote ends and uses current measurements of only one
phase of the three-phase systems for determining the fault direction, the faulted line and the fault type. Information
concerning the high-frequency components of transient current signals is extracted with discrete wavelet transform (DWT) by
using an adaptive wavelet, which has been specically designed for relaying purposes, as analysis lter. After that, Bayesian
linear discriminant analysis is employed for data classication. The present work highlights that the adaptive wavelet used
here presents advantages for transmission line protection rather than predened mother wavelets. Results demonstrate that the
proposed scheme effectively distinguishes the faulted zone, the fault direction and the fault type. Therefore it offers primary
protection to total line length, remote backup protection for the next transmission line and also the possibility to implement
single-pole tripping. Current signals of roughly 2 ms are analysed then the proposed methodology can be implemented in
high-speed protection schemes for extra- and ultra-high voltage (EHV/UHV) networks.

Introduction

When large energy blocks must be transported between remote

locations, power transmission at extra- and ultra-high voltage
(EHV/UHV) is implemented. Fault occurrences at such
voltage levels could lead to unstable power system operating
conditions. Thus, protection schemes with fast operational
capabilities simultaneously featuring selectivity, reliability
and simplicity are required.
The transient-based protection (TBP) philosophy suggests
that the high-frequency components contained in transient
signals provides useful information for achieving fast
and accurate protective relaying [1]. In this eld, several
approaches using wavelet transform (WT) appear in
technical literature [2 4]. However, those proposals do not
employ a mother wavelet specically designed for
processing fault generated transient signals, in consequence
they do not ensure good performance.
In the protection scheme proposed in this work, two
protection functions are developed, directional-zone
function is used for dening not only the fault direction but
also the faulted transmission line and, fault classication
function is employed to distinguish the fault type. In this
manner, the proposed methodology offers both primary and
remote backup protection.
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2012, Vol. 6, Iss. 7, pp. 593 604
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2011.0592

Both protection functions contemplated in this work are

based on a previously proposed methodology employed by
the authors in [5], where wavelets specically adapted for
fault classication on a transmission line were generated.
This paper presents a comparative analysis between results
obtained with an adaptive wavelet and results obtained with
Daubechies 4, which is one of the foremost mother
wavelets employed in power system applications [6, 7].
The proposed methodology is able to dene the faulted
transmission line without exchanging information with
remote relays, that is it is a non-unit protection scheme
which avoids reliability issues associated with sending and
receiving data from remote ends [8].
Results demonstrate that this non-communication
protection scheme can effectively provide primary protection
to the total line length and also remote backup protection
for the forward line. Contrary to conventional protection
systems which require three-phase supervision and
measurement of voltage and current signals, the proposed
methodology uses current measurements of only one phase
of the three-phase systems for achieving both zone detection
and fault classication. Additionally, by using time windows
of roughly 2 ms, the presented protection scheme features
swifter operational capabilities therefore it can be used in
EHV/UHV applications.
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Bayesian linear discriminant analysis [9] is employed as
classier in both directional-zone and fault classication
algorithms. The discriminatory criterion known as leaveone-out cross-validated quadratic probability measure
(CVQPM) was selected since it offers a good measure of
the classication quality [10].
The appropriate frequency band to be employed in the
proposed methodology was dened by using the wavelet
packet decomposition method.
In this paper a brief description of the math tools employed
is presented in Section 2. The proposed protection scheme
is detailed in Section 3. The power system, on which the
proposed protection scheme was tested, is described in
Section 4. Results are detailed in Section 5. Finally, the
main conclusions of this work are summarised in Section 6.

2
2.1

Math tools
Wavelet transform

The WT is a linear transform similar to the fast Fourier

transform, although differing in that the window function
(mother wavelet) used here is moved and dilated
automatically during the analysis.
As a result, a better time frequency resolution is attained
for a given signal, as compared with the results given by
the fast Fourier transform.
The WT is capable of providing an accurate time
location and classication of electrical transients in power
systems [11], given the fact that it discloses the location
in time domain of frequency components existing in a signal.
Continuous wavelet transform (CWT) for a given function
f (t) can be calculated as follows [12]
1
CWT(f , a, b) = 
a



tb
dt
f (t)c
a
1

1

(1)

where a and b are the scaling (dilation) and translation

(time shift) constants, respectively, and c is the mother
wavelet function. The discrete wavelet transform (DWT) is
given by

m
1 
n kao
DWT[f , m, n] = 
f [k]c
am
am
o k
o

594

a Wavelet lters bank and MRA

b Sub-band encoding for a signal f [k] with sampling rate equal to 2p

2.2

Wavelet packet

The wavelet packet (WP) method is a generalisation of

the wavelet decomposition that offers a more convenient
analysis for the signals, because both the cAl (low
frequency) and the cDl (high frequency) are processed
through the pair of lters that dene the wavelet. In this
way, a uniform frequency decomposition of a discrete
signal f [k] is obtained [14].
Fig. 2a shows how the resulting signals from each lter
are decomposed again by both lters (low- and high-pass),
and action that can be repeated up to a maximum
decomposition level lo determined likewise done for the
DWT. This way, what is known as the WP tree is developed.
For the example of Fig. 2a, the signal analysis is made
up to level 3. The original signal is represented by the
coefcients of zero level and zero band (0, 0).

(2)

where f [k] is the sampled waveform ( p 1 vector), a = am

o
and b = kam
o are the discretised parameters of scaling and
translation, respectively.
The DWT is based on multi-resolution analysis (MRA) or
sub-band coding, which are detailed in Fig. 1. A discrete
signal f [k] passes through two mid-band digital lters,
one high-pass lter g[z] and another low-pass lter h[z],
which produce the detail (cDl ) and approximation
(cAl ) coefcients, respectively. These lters cover various
frequency ranges depending on the decomposition level (l )
of the original signal (see Fig. 1b).
The analysis can be made up to a maximum level lo stated
by the size p of the signal f [k]. The pair of lters used for the
analysis represents the mother wavelet of the DWT.
There is an ample range of mother wavelets: Haar,
Daubechies, Morlet, Coiet, Bi-orthogonals etc., which
can be chosen according to the specic application [13].

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Fig. 1 DWT analysis

Fig. 2 Wavelet packet analysis

a Wavelet packet tree
b Frequency-domain division of WP at level 3
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If the decomposition level is l and the highest frequency
present in the original signal isp Hz, then the width of each
frequency band corresponding to each node of the WP tree
is p/2l [15]. Fig. 2b shows the various frequency bands that
correspond to the resulting coefcients (l, t) of the WP,
where l is the decomposed level 3 and t is the frequency
band (t [ 0, . . . , 7).
2.3

where P(r) is the prior probability of each class which is

assigned according to the statistical information of historical
data, for this case. The probability density of class
p(x[l]
i(r) (t)|r) is assumed by following a multi-variate normal
distribution, and it is computed as
p/2
T
|S pooled |1/2 exp[ 0.5(x[l]
x[l]
p(x[l]
r/i (t))
i(r) (t)|r) = (2p)
i(r) (t) 
[l]
S 1
x[l]
pooled (xi(r) (t) 
r/i (t))]

Discriminant criterion

The measure or discriminant criterion selected is the

CVQPM, related to the classication methods based on
probability; since these allow for attaining information on
the accuracy of the classication.
The CVQPM is the average of an appreciation quadratic
index aQ that operates by comparing the probabilities
of belonging of a given object to a pre-dened class
r [ 1, . . . , R, and is formulated as follows
R
1
1
2
aQ/i (i) = + P/i (r|x[l]
P (r|x[l]
i (t))
i(r) (t))
2
2 r=1 /i

CVQPM =

(3)

n
1
a (i)
n i=1 Q/i

The mean vector x[l]

r/i (t) is calculated for each class, when the
(t)
is
not
present, and is expressed as follows:
vector x[l]
i(r)
x[l]
r/i (t) =

nr
1 
x[l] (t)
nr 1 j=1 j(r)

The Bayesian linear discriminant analysis assumes that

the covariance matrices of class Sr/i are equal to each other.
Therefore in (6) they are substituted by a combined
covariance matrix Spooled , calculated as
nr

(4)
S r/i =

where
is one of the n-objects for which the
probabilities of belonging to each class are calculated,
P/i (r|x[l]
i(r) (t)) is the posterior probability for the true class of
P/i (r|x[l]
i (t))

[l]
[l]
T
x[l]
x[l]
i=1 (xi(r) (t) 
r/i (t))(xi(r) (t) 
r/i (t))

nr

2.4

Bayesian classification

In order to compute the posterior probabilities needed

to obtain the factor aQ the Bayesian classication is
used, which considers the problem of assigning the object
x[l]
i(r) (t) within one of the predened R classes.
For the case under study, each object represents a fault
current consisting of p discrete measurements, and is
represented by the vector xi (x1i , . . . , xpi)T. These data
objects arising from the same r class are stored as columns
in the p nr matrix X, where nr is the number of objects.
Then, the object to be classied x[l]
i(r) (t) represents the
coefcient vector (l, t) of current signal xi belonging to
class r.
The Bayesian rules assign the object under classication
into the class that maximises the posterior probability
p(x[l]
i(r) (t)| r)P(r)
P(r|x[l]
(t))
=

i(r)
[l]
R
r=1 p(xi(r) (t)| r)P(r)
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2012, Vol. 6, Iss. 7, pp. 593 604
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2011.0592

(5)

(8)

R
S pooled =

x[l]
i (t)

and
is the posterior probability for
belonging to class r.
With the CVQPM, the posterior probability that a given
object belongs to a given class is attained when the
covariance matrices and the mean vectors have been
computed in absence of said object. The sub-index/i
represents the absence of the object x[l]
i(r) (t) in the calculus in
every equation it appears in. Therefore CVQPM is used
because the classication of an object is done without
interfering in the process, thus achieving an objective
quantication of the classication.
The values of CVQPM range from zero to one. High values
of CVQPM mean that the classes can be better distinguished
[16].

(7)

j=i

x[l]
i(r) (t)

x[l]
i(r) (t)

(6)

r=1 nr S r/i

(9)

Protection scheme

The present protection scheme combines two protection

functions. A directional-zone function is used for
determining whether the fault is backward, inside or forward
the primary protective zone and a fault classication
function is employed to distinguish the fault type.
The proposed scheme provides protection to total line
length by using current signal of only one phase (that could
be phase A) of the three-phase systems measured at only
one end of the transmission line. Independently whether the
monitored phase is or is not involved in the fault, this
single-end single-phase-based protection scheme is able to
determine whether a fault is internal or external through
directional-zone function. If external faults are detected, the
directional-zone function distinguishes between forward and
backward faults. In this manner, directional-zone protection
is attained and the relay is able to act as remote backup
protection for forward transmission line.
The present work only analyses transients because of faults.
Transients generated by other causes such as switching
operations or lightning strokes must be discriminated by using
an additional methodology such as that proposed in [17].
3.1

Signal recording and processing

Spectral analysis of transients generated by faults on

the modelled transmission lines (Section 4.1) found
frequency components up to 230 kHz. Thus, in order to
avoid corrupted information after analogue-to-digital (A/D)
conversion, a sampling frequency of 500 kHz was employed
(Nyquist frequency 250 kHz).
Since this proposal follows the TBP principles, highfrequency components contained in transient signals were
analysed. After a previous analysis to determine the best
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frequency band to distinguish between classes, by using the
WP method revealed that the appropriate frequency band to
be employed by both protection functions range from 31.25
to 62.5 kHz, that is the frequency band of node (3, 1) of
WP tree. The common frequency band for directional-zone
function and fault classication added simplicity to the
scheme, since it is not necessary to develop all WP tree for
selecting the frequency band required, it is enough by
developing the DWT until level 3 and selecting the detail
coefcient vector (cD3) for both functions.
Once a disturbance is detected, for instance with the
methodology suggested in [18], the relay captured the
wavefront of transient signal. The length of this wavefront
(data window) comes from a compromise between accuracy
and speed. After several evaluations, balance between both
characteristics was achieved using a time window of
2.048 ms. In this way, with the sampling frequency
employed the size of the analysed discrete signals
corresponds to a vector of order 1024 1.
Given that current transformers (CTs) present better
frequency response than voltage transformers (VTs) [19],
and given that CTs do not saturate for the selected time
window, this work employs information from current
signals. However, voltage signals can also be considered if
they come from voltage transducers with wide frequency
range such as optical transducers.
Table 1 shows the coefcients Ci of low-pass and high-pass
lters that dene the adaptive wavelet employed in the two
proposed protection functions.

3.2

Fault classification function

Input current signals are processed with DWT using the

aforesaid adaptive wavelet. This process results in a set of
coefcient vectors which reect the harmonic content, both
in time and frequency, of the input signals.
The coefcient vector of selected frequency band (31.25
62.5 kHz) enters in a Bayesian classier which considers four
classes corresponding to the four typical types of faults on
transmission lines, that is single-phase faults (1fg), isolated
Table 1

two-phase faults (2fi), two-phase to ground faults (2fg)

and three-phase faults (3f ).
As was demonstrated in [5], the fault classication function
is immune to the fault resistance change. Therefore in this
work only one value of fault resistance (Rf ) was considered
for each ground contact fault type. This is 40 V for 1fg
and 5 V for 2fg.
Posterior probabilities given by the Bayesian classier
denes the type of fault for each current signal tested.

3.3

Directional-zone function

Fig. 3 illustrates the operation criterion of the proposed

protection scheme.
For improving security at dening the faulted transmission
line, the directional-zone function employs two Bayesian
classiers, which individually and simultaneously determine
the faulted zone.
The rst classier (Inside-Back) denes whether
the simulated fault is within the protected line or behind it.
The second classier (Inside-Forward) determines whether
the fault is on the forward line to protected line or within it.
When an internal fault occurs, both classiers result in
1-logic otherwise they result in 0-logic. On the other hand
for external faults, the posterior probabilities of InsideForward and Inside-Back classiers establish whether the
fault is in the forward direction or in the backward
direction, respectively.
Possible combinations of inputs of the logical operator
OR and the truth table are shown in Table 2.
The ideal situation is that every internal fault produces the
combination (1, 1), that means that both classiers have
detected an internal fault and then redundancy largely
improves classication reliability.
From the results of this work, 99.7% of internal faults
evaluated were classied by a combination (1, 1). However,
input combinations (0, 1) and (1, 0) can also be possible,
especially when the supervised phase is unfaulted (healthy).
These combinations appear under particular events which
presents problems in dening the faulted transmission line

Adaptive wavelet filters

Filter
low pass (h[z])
high pass (g[z])

C1
0.0579
2 0.0244

C2
0.2424
2 0.1024

C3
0.6554
2 0.1831

C4

C5

0.6723
0.1085

2 0.1085
0.6723

C6
2 0.1831
2 0.6554

C7
0.1024
0.2424

C8
2 0.0244
2 0.0579

Fig. 3 Operating diagram of the proposed scheme

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Table 2

Possible events and truth table of logical operator OR

Event
external fault
internal faults detected by only Inside-Back classifier
internal faults detected by only Inside-Forward classifier
internal faults detected by both classifiers

(faulted zone). More details about these cases are presented in

Section 5.2.
Since fault classication function is able to determine
the fault type of signals arising from external faults, the
directional-zone function is used to enable or block tripping
of local circuit breaker according to the case. That is under
the proposed scheme design in internal fault conditions,
the fault classication function gives the nal tripping
instruction, single-pole tripping for 1fg or three-pole
tripping for multi-phase faults. However, the faulted phase
has to be dened in order to perform a single-pole tripping.
Thus, phase selection function must also be implemented.
Nevertheless, phase selection function is considered as part
of future development.
3.4

Operation time

Once a disturbance arrives to relay location, the detection

algorithm identies the initial wavefront and the 2.048 mslength discrete signal is recorded. This signal is processed
through the DWT until level 3. The detail coefcient vector
cD3 is input data for the three Bayesian classiers.
Classiers operate independently and simultaneously and
dene the fault direction, faulted zone and fault type.
If considering a microprocessor-based relay with a
performance of 1 GFLOPS (109 oating point operations
per second), signal processing and classication process
would be performed approximately in 7 and 10 ms for fault
classication and directional-zone functions, respectively.
Therefore the proposed scheme would require an overall
operation time of roughly 2.058 ms.

Modelling and simulation

4.1 Modelling power system and transmission

lines
The proposed protection scheme was evaluated on the
Argentinean power system (fundamental power frequency

Input B

Input A

Output S

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

0
1
1
1

50 Hz) modelled in electromagnetic transients program

ATP/EMTP.
The evaluation was performed at different operation
status and conguration of the power system from those
employed for obtaining the adaptive wavelet in [5]. In the
present analysis, power system at maximum load is
considered.
Fig. 4 illustrates a simplied network of the power system
modelled in ATP/EMTP. In fact, the modelled system in
ATP/EMTP represents the Argentine Electrical System as an
electric network containing 27 buses, 37 transmission lines,
16 equivalent circuits of smaller networks, 7 transformers and
12 generators. Here, three 500 kV transmission lines denoted
as RinconMercedes (RIME), MercedesColonia Elia
(MECE) and Colonia EliaBelgrano (CEBE) of 288, 396
and 180 km, respectively, were modelled using the
frequency-dependent line model [20].
ME CE is the transmission line to be protected (Zone 1)
by relay R1 located at ME bus. Therefore RI ME and CE
BE are the adjacent backward line (Zone 2) and forward
line (Zone 3), respectively. The reader must not confuse the
term Zone 1 (2 or 3) used in this paper with protection
zone used in distance protection relays.
In Fig. 4 relays R2 and R3 also are disposed for illustration
purposes.
4.2

Fault simulation

With the intention of evaluating a representative sample of the

possible faults which could appear in the considered
transmission lines, a vast number of faults were computer
generated for different conditions of location, fault
inception angle (u0) and fault type. Rf values specied in
Section 3.2 were considered.
Phase A voltage was considered as reference to generate
faults with u0 ranging from 0 to 3308 with 308 step. For
each fault type and for each u0 , 37 faults were simulated for
different fault locations along the three transmission lines.
Thus, 5328 faults (12 inception angles 4 fault types 37

Fig. 4 Power system and transmission lines

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doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2011.0592

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fault location points 3 transmission lines) were evaluated
with the proposed protection scheme.

4.3

Prior probabilities

Table 3 summarises the percentages of occurrence with regard

to each fault type in power systems with a network of
overhead lines, which were considered as their respective
prior probabilities.
Previously performed analysis showed that for the chosen
DWT decomposition level (l 3), prior probabilities are
only a requirement of the math model indicated in (5) since
they have no inuence on the classication. In this case, the
classication only depends on the probability density given
in (6). Therefore the posterior probability (which denes
whether or not a fault belongs to one of the classes
considered) depends only on the probability density. On the
other hand, for decomposition levels equal to or greater
than level 6, for each established frequency band by the

Table 3

Prior probability of each fault type on overhead lines [21]

Fault

Percent, %

single-phase faults
isolated two-phase faults
two-phase to ground faults
three-phase faults

Table 4

80
8
10
2

WP, the classication is not possible since the probability

density exerts no inuence on the posterior probabilities.
In these cases, the posterior probabilities are equal to the
prior probabilities. Thus, by choosing a suitable DWT
decomposition level, the directional-zone and fault
classication algorithms proposed can be applied in a
power system with different prior probabilities.

Results

As was mentioned in Section 4.1, the line to be protected is

ME CE. Then, the main interest of this section is to
evaluate the protection scheme in relay R1 located at ME
bus. However, results of fault classication function at
relays R2 and R3, in the case of external faults, are also
shown for demonstrating the validity of the adaptive
wavelet applied to different transmission lines.
Since the proposed methodology is a single-end singlephase-based protection scheme, that is it uses measurements
of only one phase at only one end of the transmission line;
the two possible conditions of the supervised phase are
analysed. These are faulted phase or healthy phase.
In the following sections, CVQPM values were included in
result tables since they provide relevant information
concerning the classier quality. CVQPM values close or
equal to 1 means that signals are correctly classied
within their true class with a posterior probability close to
1. On the contrary, when the classier has problems in
distinguishing the true class of the signals, CVQPM values
are relatively low. For instance, if the posterior probability

Directional-zone function at R1, faulted phase evaluation

u0 , 8

Directional-Zone function at relay R1

CVQPM

Adaptive wavelet
0
1.00
30
1.00
60
0.86
90
1.00
120
1.00
150
0.99
180
1.00
210
1.00
240
0.86
270
1.00
300
1.00
330
0.99
Daubechies 4 a
0
0.99
30
0.93
60
0.81
90
0.96
120
0.99
150
0.99
180
0.99
210
0.93
240
0.81
270
0.96
300
0.99
330
0.99

Zone detection, %

Fault classification, %

Zone 1 (Inside)

Zone 2 (Backward)

Zone 3 (Forward)

Zone 1 (Inside)

Zone 2 (Backward)

Zone 3 (Forward)

100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00

100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00

100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00

100.00
100.00
99.66
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
99.66
100.00
100.00
100.00

100.00
100.00
66.89
99.32
100.00
95.27
100.00
100.00
67.57
99.32
100.00
94.59

100.00
100.00
47.97
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
49.32
100.00
100.00
100.00

100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00

100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00

100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00

100.00
81.76
95.95
99.66
99.66
98.99
100.00
81.76
95.95
99.66
99.66
98.99

95.95
93.92
50.68
81.08
95.27
98.65
95.95
93.92
50.68
81.08
95.27
98.65

100.00
100.00
50.00
95.27
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
50.00
95.27
100.00
100.00

Since allowed the best results with this mother wavelet, the frequency band employed corresponds to the node (3, 3) of WP tree

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of belonging for a given fault signal is computed as 0.51 for
one class and 0.49 for another one, fault classication
becomes difcult and CVQPM value results quite lower
than 1 (0.76 for this case), which indicates that the classier
gives no security in its results although the signal has been
properly classied within its true class. Low values of
CVQPM mean that fault classication is not reliable.
Since each block of directional-zone function was designed
to evaluate eight classes, there are four fault types inside the
line and four fault types outside the line; the directional-zone
function performs both zone detection and fault classication
simultaneously. Then, results of fault classication with
directional-zone function are also presented, although they
do not intervene in the scheme operation.
5.1 Case A: supervised phase under fault
conditions
Table 4 shows results after evaluating the set of faults detailed
in Section 4.2 with directional-zone function at relay R1, in
the case that the supervised phase is under fault conditions.
Results show that with the adaptive wavelet or Daubechies
4, directional-zone function successfully identies the
faulted zone for all the 5328 evaluated cases.
All the faults generated at Zone 1 were classied with
combination (1, 1) at the inputs of the OR logical operator
of directional-zone function.
Since the classiers of directional-zone function evaluate
eight classes, CVQPM values are not only affected by zone
classication but also by fault-type classication. Thus,
CVQPM are lower than 1 for certain u0 , where directionalzone function did not correctly identify the fault type.
However the main objective of directional-zone function is
to dene the faulted zone which was completely successful
for all the evaluated cases. CVQPM values show that
adaptive wavelet attains improved classication as
compared with Daubechies 4.
Table 4 shows that for most of the evaluated cases the
directional-zone function using the adaptive wavelet can
also identify the fault type even for faults generated outside
the Zone 1. However, for faults generated with u0 of 60 and
2408, fault-type classication was not completely successful
even though the faulted zone was correctly identied.
Table 6

Table 5

Fault classification function at R1, faulted phase

evaluation

u0 , 8

Fault classification function at R1

0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330

CVQPM

Classification, %

CVQPM

Classification, %

1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00

100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00

1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00

100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00

Since allowed the best results with this mother wavelet, the
frequency band employed corresponds to the node (3,3) of WP
tree

Similar results appear for faults generated at u0 150 and

3308. In these cases the directional-zone function of R1
failed to correctly identify the fault type of eight faults
generated in Zone 2.
Given that directional-zone function did not perform 100%
successful fault-type classication for all the evaluated faults
in Zone 1, the proposed protection scheme employs the fault
classication function for achieving reliable results. Table 5
shows results of fault classication function of R1 for
internal faults.
Additionally, in order to assess the performance of fault
classication function in relays located at distinct
transmission lines, faults generated in Zones 2 and 3 were
evaluated by relays R2 and R3, respectively. Results from
this evaluation are presented in Table 6.
Results from Tables 4 6 point out that, when the
supervised phase is under fault conditions, both protection
functions conduct to proper performance of the proposed

Fault classification function at R2 and R3, faulted phase evaluation

u0 , 8

Fault classification function at R2 and R3

Daubechies 4a

Adaptive wavelet
Relay R2

0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330

Daubechies 4a

Adaptive wavelet

Relay R3

Relay R2

Relay R3

CVQPM

Classification, %

CVQPM

Classification, %

CVQPM

Classification, %

CVQPM

Classification, %

1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00

100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00

1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00

100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00

1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00

100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00

1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00

100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00

Since allowed the best results with this mother wavelet, the frequency band employed corresponds to the node (3,3) of WP tree

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2012, Vol. 6, Iss. 7, pp. 593 604
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2011.0592

599

& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2012

www.ietdl.org
scheme, indistinctly whether adaptive wavelet or Daubechies
4 is used. Furthermore, results from Table 6 indicate that an
adaptive wavelet can be used in different transmission lines,
even though it was generated from data of a specic
transmission line, ME CE in this case.
5.1.1 Faulted phase evaluation. Examples: The
following example shows the evaluation of a 2fi generated
in Zone 1, at 1 km from ME bus and u0 08. Tables 7 and
8 show posterior probabilities obtained from directionalzone classiers of relay R1 using the adaptive wavelet.
As shown in Tables 7 and 8, both classiers correctly
identify the faulted zone, which is a fault inside the
protected line. Outputs from both classiers lead to a
combination (1, 1), therefore the directional-zone function
determines that faulted zone is Zone 1 of R1. Once the
directional-zone function identies that Zone 1 is under
fault, it emits a permissive tripping instruction. The nal
tripping instruction is given by fault classication function,
which denes single-pole or three-pole tripping in
accordance to the type of fault. Table 9 shows fault-type
classication from the posterior probabilities of fault
classication function.
Now, an external fault is analysed in the following
example. This is a 2fi in Zone 3, at 1 km from CE bus and
u0 608. Tables 10 and 11 show posterior probabilities
obtained from directional-zone classiers of relay R1 using
the adaptive wavelet.
Inside-Forward classier correctly dene that the fault is in
Zone 3. However, it failed to identify the correct fault type,
and then CVQPM value becomes low. On the other hand,
Inside-Back classier determines that the fault is not within

Table 9 Posterior probabilities obtained with R1-Fault

classification
Simulated fault

Class

1fg
2fi
2fg
3f

Fault classification
Posterior probabilities

CVQPM

0
1
0
0

1
2
3
4

Table 10 Posterior probabilities obtained with R1-InsideForward classifier

Simulated fault

Class

Inside-Forward classifier
Posterior probabilities

1fg in Zone 1
2fi in Zone 1
2fg in Zone 1
3f in Zone 1
1fg in Zone 3
2fi in Zone 3
2fg in Zone 3
3f in Zone 3

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

0
0
0
0
0
0.319666652
0.680331057
2.29103E06

Simulated fault

1fg in Zone 1
2fi in Zone 1
2fg in Zone 1
3f in Zone 1
1fg in Zone 3
2fi in Zone 3
2fg in Zone 3
3f in Zone 3

Table 8

Class

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

InsideForward classifier
Posterior probabilities

CVQPM

0
0.999990542
9.45813 1026
0
0
0
0
0

Posterior probabilities obtained with R1-Inside-Back

classifier
Simulated fault

Class

Inside Back classifier

Posterior probabilities

1fg in Zone 1
2fi in Zone 1
2fg in Zone 1
3f in Zone 1
1fg in Zone 2
2fi in Zone 2
2fg in Zone 2
3f in Zone 2

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0

600

& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2012

0.537148095

Table 11 Posterior probabilities obtained with R1-Inside Back

classifier
Simulated
fault

Class

Inside-Back classifier
Prob. density

Posterior
probabilities

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Table 7

Posterior probabilities obtained with R1-InsideForward classifier

CVQPM

1fg in Zone 1
2fi in Zone 1
2fg in Zone 1
3f in Zone 1
1fg in Zone 2
2fi in Zone 2
2fg in Zone 2
3f in Zone 2

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

CVQPM

its supervised zones, since the probabilities given by

probability density for the analysed signal results in a vector
of zeros. From results of both classiers, the OR logical
operator receives the combination (0, 0) at its input which
outcomes in a 0-logic at its output, this result corresponds to
fault outside the protected line. Therefore the directionalzone function blocks tripping of local circuit breakers,
independently of the result from fault classication function.
Table 12 shows posterior probabilities of fault classication
function for the present case.

CVQPM

5.2
1

Case B: supervised phase free of fault

A similar analysis was made for current signals of phase C,

which had no fault for all cases except for the 3f. The fact
that current signals from phase C were used does not
change the initial proposal of supervising only one of the
line phases, because phase C would represent in this
case phase A free of fault.
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2012, Vol. 6, Iss. 7, pp. 593 604
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2011.0592

www.ietdl.org
Table 12 Posterior probabilities obtained with R1-Fault
classification, external fault evaluation
Simulated
fault

Class

Fault classification
Posterior
probabilities

1fg
2fi
2fg
3f

faults only by the Inside-Forward classier whereas the

Inside-Back classier categorised them as external faults.
These particular cases are detailed below

1
2
3
4

CVQPM

0
1
0
0

Table 13 shows results obtained from directional-zone

function of R1, when the supervised phase is healthy.
Table 13 highlights the advantages of using an adaptive
wavelet instead of Daubechies 4, because the adaptive
wavelet achieves 100% successful zone detection whereas
Daubechies 4 did not perform correctly in some cases, in
particular for faults occurring in Zone 1.
In the present case, as well as in the faulted phase case, the
directional-zone function does not provide correct fault-type
classication. This is reected in CVQPM values smaller
than 1.
Furthermore, by using the adaptive wavelet for healthy
supervised phase, 99.4% of faults generated in Zone 1 were
identied with the combination (1, 1), the remainder 0.6%
corresponds to 32 faults classied in Zone 1 with the
combination (1, 0), that is they were identied as internal

1fg internal faults with u0 0 and 1808 located close to

relay R1 (fault location less than 66 km). They were
detected as 1fg faults backward the protected line by
Inside-Back classier.
2fi internal faults with u0 150 and 3308 located close to
relay R1 (fault location less than 88 km). They were detected
as 2fg faults backward the protected line by Inside-Back
classier.
Evaluation of one of the above-mentioned faults is
explained in Section 5.2.1.
As in the case of faulted phase, once faults are detected in
Zone 1, tripping of local circuit breakers is enabled otherwise
it remains blocked. Then, fault classication function gives
the nal tripping instruction. Results from fault
classication function, when relay R1 evaluates healthy
phase signals from internal faults are presented in Table 14.
Table 14 shows that fault classication function using the
adaptive wavelet does not exhibit advantages over fault
classication using Daubechies 4. However, for directionalzone function the adaptive wavelet is primordial to achieve
improved results, particularly when the supervised phase is
healthy. Thus, the proposed protection scheme employs the
adaptive wavelet for both protection functions.

Table 13 Directional-zone function at R1, healthy phase evaluation

u0 , 8

Directional-zone function at relay R1

CVQPM

Adaptive wavelet
0
0.99
30
0.99
60
0.75
90
0.99
120
0.88
150
0.98
180
0.99
210
0.99
240
0.75
270
0.99
300
0.88
330
0.98
Daubechies 4 a
0
0.98
30
0.94
60
0.68
90
0.92
120
0.86
150
0.96
180
0.98
210
0.94
240
0.68
270
0.92
300
0.86
330
0.96

Zone detection, %

Fault classification, %

Zone 1 (Inside)

Zone 2 (Backward)

Zone 3 (Forward)

Zone 1 (Inside)

Zone 2 (Backward)

Zone 3 (Forward)

100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00

100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00

100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00

97.30
98.99
60.14
100.00
76.35
97.30
97.30
98.65
59.80
100.00
76.35
96.96

99.32
96.62
68.92
93.92
91.22
99.32
99.32
96.62
68.92
93.92
91.22
99.32

100.00
100.00
74.32
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
75.00
100.00
100.00
100.00

96.62
99.32
100.00
100.00
100.00
94.59
96.62
99.32
100.00
100.00
100.00
94.59

100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
99.32
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
0.94

100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00

95.95
89.53
54.39
92.57
74.66
93.92
95.95
89.53
54.73
92.91
74.66
93.58

95.95
93.24
56.08
72.30
89.86
93.24
95.95
93.24
56.08
72.97
89.86
93.24

100.00
99.32
65.54
98.65
97.97
100.00
100.00
99.32
65.54
98.65
97.97
100.00

Since allowed the best results with this mother wavelet, the frequency band employed corresponds to the node (3, 3) of WP tree

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2012, Vol. 6, Iss. 7, pp. 593 604
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2011.0592

601

& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2012

www.ietdl.org
Table 14 Fault classification function at R1, healthy phase
evaluation

u0 , 8

Fault classification function at R1

Adaptive wavelet

0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330

Table 16 Posterior probabilities obtained with R1-InsideForward classifier

Simulated fault

Daubechies 4

Class

Inside-Forward classifier

CVQPM

Classification, %

CVQPM

Classification, %

1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00

100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00

1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00

100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00

1fg in Zone 1
2fi in Zone 1
2fg in Zone 1
3f in Zone 1
1fg in Zone 3
2fi in Zone 3
2fg in Zone 3
3f in Zone 3

Whereas in order to assess the performance of fault

classication function in relays located at distinct transmission
lines, faults generated in Zones 2 and 3 were evaluated at
relays R2 and R3, respectively, using signals from the healthy
phase. Results from this evaluation are presented in Table 15.
Results from Table 15 show that fault classication using
the adaptive wavelet was completely successful at relay R2
for faults generated on its primary protected line (RI ME).
For faults generated in CE BE line, its correspondent relay
(R3) also perform excellent fault classication. Only some
2fi and 2fg faults were confused between them for
u0 60 and 2408. However this issue does not represent an
important drawback in practical applications.
5.2.1 Healthy phase evaluation. Example: A 1fg fault
is produced with u0 08 and Rf 40 V in ME CE line at
1 km from R1 (ME bus). The following example presents

CVQPM

0.999996819
2 10215
0
0
3.18095 1026
0
0
0

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Table 17 Posterior probabilities obtained with R1-Inside-Back

classifier
Simulated fault

Class

Inside-Back classifier
Posterior probabilities

Since allowed the best results with this mother wavelet, the
frequency band employed corresponds to the node (3, 3) of WP
tree

Posterior probabilities

1fg in Zone 1
2fi in Zone 1
2fg in Zone 1
3f in Zone 1
1fg in Zone 2
2fi in Zone 2
2fg in Zone 2
3f in Zone 2

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

0.057972224
0
0
0
0.942027775
6.24741 10210
0
0

CVQPM

0.11258367

Table 18 Posterior probabilities obtained with R1-fault

classification, healthy phase evaluation
Simulated fault

Class

Fault classification
Posterior
probabilities

1fg
2fi
2fg
3f

1
2
3
4

CVQPM

1
0
0
0

Table 15 Fault classification function at R2 and R3, healthy phase evaluation

u0 , 8

Fault classification function at R2 and R3

Daubechies 4a

Adaptive wavelet
Relay R2

0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330

Relay R3

Relay R2

Relay R3

CVQPM

Classification,%

CVQPM

Classification, %

CVQPM

Classification, %

CVQPM

Classification, %

1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00

100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00

1.00
1.00
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.00

100.00
100.00
99.32
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
99.32
100.00
100.00
100.00

1.00
1.00
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.00

100.00
100.00
98.65
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
98.65
100.00
100.00
100.00

1.00
1.00
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.00

100.00
100.00
99.32
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
99.32
100.00
100.00
100.00

Since allowed the best results with this mother wavelet, the frequency band employed corresponds to the node (3, 3) of WP tree

602

& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2012

IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2012, Vol. 6, Iss. 7, pp. 593 604
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2011.0592

www.ietdl.org

Fig. 5 Operation zones of the proposed protection scheme for relay R1

the performance of relay R1 when it evaluates the current

signal measured at one of the two healthy phases. Tables 16
and 17 show posterior probabilities given by InsideForward and Inside-Back classiers, respectively.
In this case, the Inside-Forward classier associates the
evaluated signal with a 1fg fault inside the protected line
and then it sets its output in 1-logic. On the other hand, the
Inside-Back classier concludes that the analysed signal
corresponds to a 1fg fault located backward the protected
line and then it sets its output in 0-logic. Therefore in
accordance to the directional-zone function, the faulted
zone was correctly dened with a combination (1, 0) which
corresponds to faults in Zone 1. As consequence, the
directional-zone function enables circuit breaker tripping.
The nal tripping instruction is given by fault classication
function. Table 18 shows fault-type classication from the
posterior probabilities of fault classication function of R1.
5.3

Faults of special interest

Close-in faults and faults with u0 near or at zero crossing are

generally problematic for previously proposed protection
schemes, in particular for travelling wave-based protection.
In order to validate the present protection scheme
performance under such faults, 288 faults of different types
located at 1 km from relay location (generated with
different u0 and Rf ) were evaluated. Results obtained
demonstrate that the proposed protection scheme achieves
100% successful zone detection and fault-type identication
for these particular faults in both cases, faulted and healthy
supervised phase.
Faults analysed in previous demonstrative examples were
precisely produced at 1 km from relay location and with
u0 08.
5.4

Remote backup protection

Results in the previous sections show the outstanding

performance of the proposed protection scheme,
indifferently if relay monitors healthy or faulted phase.
Directional-zone function is able to perfectly distinguish the
faulted zone and fault classication function can identify
the fault type on transmission lines. Thus, relay R1 can
perform remote backup protection in the case that R3 fails
to operate under faults in its protected line CE BE. Then,
relay R1 can emit a trip instruction to its associated circuit
breaker with an intentional delay time in accordance to the
backup protection criterion.
Fig. 5 illustrates the protection zones dened for R1.

Conclusions

This work presents a transmission line protection scheme

combining two protection functions: directional-zone
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2012, Vol. 6, Iss. 7, pp. 593 604
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2011.0592

function and fault classication function. For performing

both functions an adaptive wavelet and Bayesian rulesbased linear classiers were used. The present work
highlights that adaptive wavelets, specically designed for
relaying purposes, present superior capabilities for
transmission line protection than predened mother
wavelets such as Daubechies 4. Results demonstrate that
directional-zone function can successfully dene whether
the fault is backward, inside or forward the primary
protected line. Therefore the methodology is able to provide
primary protection to total line length and also remote
backup protection for the forward transmission line, without
requiring information exchange with remote relays. On the
other hand, fault classication function can successfully
distinguish faults of different type regardless of fault
resistance values. Additionally, by using data windows of
roughly 2 ms, the presented protection scheme presents
swifter operation capabilities whereby it can be applied in
EHV/UHV networks. Thus, this scheme shows improved
primary and backup protection in terms of reliability,
selectivity and speed.
Unlike conventional protection schemes, the proposed
methodology uses current measurements of only one phase
of the three-phase systems which can reduce cost associated
to protection equipment.
Although the proposed adaptive wavelet was specically
designed for fault classication in a particular transmission
line, it demonstrates to be highly versatile for other
transmission line protection applications, such as fault
classication and zone selection of faults from different
transmission lines.

Acknowledgment

The authors acknowledge the German Academic Exchange

Service (DAAD) for their nancial support.

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IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2012, Vol. 6, Iss. 7, pp. 593 604
doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2011.0592