Quantum and Solid State Physics: Aakash Jog 2015-16

Quantum and Solid State Physics
Aakash Jog
2015-16
Contents
I
Quantum Physics
1 Lecturer Information
2 Required Reading
3 Additional Reading
4 Waves
4.1 1D Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
2
5 Harmonic Waves
5.1 Complex Representation of Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Interference of Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1 Interference of Waves with a Phase Difference . . . . .
2
4
4
4
6 Youngs Double Slit Experiment (1801)

6.1 YDSE with Classical Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
6
7 The Photoelectric Effect

7.1 Einsteins Explanation of the Photoelectric Effect (1905) . . .
6
8
8 Quantum Particles
9
8.1 de Broglie Wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
8.2 Impact of Observation on the Result of Experiments . . . . . 11
9 Schr
odinger Equation
12
10 Basic Postulates of Quantum Mechanics
13
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11 Properties of (x, t)
13
12 Conservation of Normalization
13
13 Measurements and Operators

13.1 The Collapse of the Wave Function . . . . .
13.2 Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4 Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues of Operators
13.5 Dirac Delta Function . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.6 Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
14
15
16
20
22
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14 Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle

23
14.1 Attempting to Measure both the Position and Momentum of
an Electron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
15 Definite Momentum States
25
16 Definite Position States
26
17 Description of Physical State by Eigenstates
28
18 The Commutator
29
19 Schr
odinger Equation in 1D for Separable Wave Functions
31
20 Stationary States
33
21 Infinite Potential Wells
35
22 Free Particles
43
23 Finite Potential Wells

46
23.1 Even Wave Functions for Finite Potential Wells . . . . . . . . 48
23.2 Odd Wave Functions for Finite Potential Wells . . . . . . . . . 52
24 (x) Potential
54
25 Tunneling
57
25.1 Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
25.2 Double Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
ii
26 Probability Current
62
26.1 Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
26.2 Finite Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
27 Quantum Harmonic Oscillator
66
27.1 Effect of a
on (x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
27.2 Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
28 3D Harmonic Oscillator
75
29 Angular Momentum
79
30 Commutation Relations for 3D Operators

30.1 Angular Momentum Operators in Orthogonal Directions . . .
30.2 Angular Momentum Operators and Square of Angular Momentum Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
on Ylm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.3 Effect of L
z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.4 Ladder of L
79
80
31 Angular Momentum in Spherical Coordinates
83
32 Hamiltonian Operator in 3D
85
33 Central Potentials
85
80
81
82
34 General Form of the Uncertainty Principle

86
34.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
II
Solid State Physics
89
1 Lecturer Information
89
2 Required Reading
89
3 Additional Reading
89
4 Electrons
90
5 Semiconductors
90
5.1 Control Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.2 Chemical Makeup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
iii
6 Types of Materials
94
7 Bohrs Model
94
8 Atomic Bonding
95
8.1 Covalent Bonds in Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9 Basics of Crystal Structure
96
9.1 Simple Cubic Lattice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
9.2 Face Centred Cubic Lattice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
9.3 Body Centred Cubic Lattice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
10 Basics of Crystal Growth
100
10.1 Lattice Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
11 Thermal Motion
102
11.1 Thermal Generation of Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
12 Effective Mass
103
13 Intrinsic Semiconductors
103
13.1 Effect of Energy Band Gap on Intrinsic Carrier Concentration 103
13.2 Thermal Generation and Recombination . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
14 Extrinsic Semiconductors
14.1 N-type Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2 P-type Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3 Thermal Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.4 Dependence of Carrier Concentration on Temperature
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104
. 105
. 105
. 106
. 106
15 Energy Band Model

107
15.1 Splitting of Energy Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
16 Presence of an Electric Field in the Energy Band Model
110
17 Movement of Carriers in Semiconductor Crystals

114
17.1 Drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
17.1.1 Current Density due to Net Drift . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
17.2 Scattering Mechanisms that Influence Electron and Hole Mobility118
17.3 Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
17.3.1 Current Density due to Net Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . 120
17.4 Transport Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
17.5 Einsteins Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
iv
18 Quantum Wells
125
19 Optical Absorption
125
20 Optical Generation of Carriers

126
20.1 Carrier Generation Dependent on Illumination . . . . . . . . . 126
20.2 Minority Carrier Concentration in Illuminated Materials . . . 128
20.3 Conductivity of Illuminated Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
21 Photo-detectors
130
22 Continuity Equations
131
22.1 Uniform Carrier Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
22.2 Non-uniform Illumination, Steady State Injection, Illumination
only at End . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
23 Haynes-Shockley Experiment
139
24 Quasi-neutrality
141
24.1 Carrier Concentration Gradient due to Illumination Only . . . 141
24.2 Carrier Concentration Gradient due to Doping Variation Only 143
24.3 Calculation of Internal Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
List of Figures
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
Intensity of light with only first slit open . . . . . . . . . . .

Intensity of light with only second slit open . . . . . . . . .
Intensity of light with both slits open . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Probability distribution of x for a definite momentum state .
Probability distribution of k for a definite momentum state .
Probability distribution of x for a definite position state . . .
Probability distribution of k for a definite position state . . .
Probability distribution of x, with n = 1, in an infinite square
well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Probability distribution of x, with n = 2, in an infinite square
well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Energy Level Ladder for Quantum Harmonic Oscillator . . .
Classification of Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Classification of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MOS which uses all three types of materials . . . . . . . . .
Types of Atomic Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arrangement of electrons in a silicon atom, in shells according
to Bohrs model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2D model of bonding in silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crystal lattice and lattice constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Simple cubic lattice (SC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Face centred cubic lattice (FCC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Body centred cubic lattice (BCC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Epitaxial layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lattice matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EHP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typical Energy Diagram for Doped Material . . . . . . . . .
Silicon lattice with phosphorus doping . . . . . . . . . . . .
Silicon lattice with boron doping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Carrier concentration and temperature regions . . . . . . . .
Energy Bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Energy Levels in a Single Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Split Energy Levels in two Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Energy Bands in a Crystal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Energy Bands in a Semiconductor Crystal . . . . . . . . . .
Energy Gaps for a Perfect Semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . .
Energy Bands for a Perfect Semiconductor . . . . . . . . . .
vi
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25
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95
96
96
98
99
100
100
101
102
104
105
105
106
107
108
108
109
109
110
111
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
Energy Bands for a Perfect Semiconductor in Presence of an

Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Effect of Temperature on Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Effect of Doping Concentration and Temperature on Mobility
Quantum Wells due to Varying Energy Band Gaps . . . . . .
Carrier Concentration in N-type Material under Different Light
Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Basic Structure of a Photo-detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Actual Structure of a Photo-detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Concentration of Holes Generated due to a Pulse of Light,
without Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Concentration of Holes Generated due to a Pulse of Light, with
Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Expected Excess Carrier Concentration in N-type Sample with
Constant Illumination Through Narrow Slit Only . . . . . . .
Actual Excess Carrier Concentration in N-type Sample with
Constant Illumination Through Narrow Slit Only . . . . . . .
vii
111
119
119
125
128
131
131
140
141
142
143
Part I
Quantum Physics
1
Lecturer Information
Asia Shapira
E-mail: asiasapi@gmail.com
Required Reading
1. Griffiths, D. Introduction to quantum mechanics
Additional Reading
1. Tang: Fundamentals of quantum mechanics, Cambridge press.
2. Miller, Quantum mechanics for scientists and engineers.
Waves
Waves
Mechanical
Electromagnetic
Need medium for propagation Do not need medium for propagation
4.1
1D Wave Equation
Definition 1 (1D wave equation). The equation

2
2
2
=
v
t2
x2
where is a function of x and t, and v is the velocity of the wave, is called a

1D wave equation.
Harmonic Waves
Definition 2 (Harmonic waves). If a wave satisfies the equation

(x, t) = A cos(kx t + )
it is called a harmonic wave.
A is called the amplitude of the wave.
k is called the wave number, or spatial frequency of the wave.
is called the angular frequency of the wave.
Definition 3 (Wavelength). For a harmonic wave, a number , such that
(x) = (x + )
is called the wavelength of the wave.
2
(x)
Definition 4 (Time period). For a harmonic wave, a number T , such that

(t) = (t + T )
is called the time period of the wave.
(t)
T
Theorem 1.
2
k=
where k is the wave number, and is the wavelength.

Proof. If t = 0,
(x) = A cos(kx)
By the definition of wavelength,
(x) = (x + )

A cos(kx) = A cos k(x + )
k = 2
2
k=
Theorem 2.
=
2
T
where is the angular frequency, and T is the time period.

Proof. If x = 0,
(t) = A cos(t)
By the definition of time period,
(t) = (t + T )

A cos(t) = A cos (t + T )
T = 2
2
=
T
5.1
Complex Representation of Waves
Let
e = Aei(kxt+)
Then,
e
= <{}
5.2
Interference of Waves
Theorem 3. Wave equations are linear, i.e. if 1 and 2 are solutions to

the equation, then 1 + 2 is also a solution to the equation.
5.2.1
Interference of Waves with a Phase Difference
Let
1 = A cos(kx t + )
2 = A cos(kx t)
4
Therefore,
3 = 1 + 2
= A cos(kx t + ) + A cos(kx t)

= 2A cos
cos kx + t +
2
2
Therefore, the resultant wave is a wave with amplitude 2A cos
.
2
cos a + cos b =
2 cos

and phase
Youngs Double Slit Experiment (1801)
This experiment provided substantial proof that light behaves like a wave.
Figure 1: Intensity of light with only first slit open

5
a+b
2
cos
ab
2
Figure 2: Intensity of light with only second slit open
Figure 3: Intensity of light with both slits open
6.1
YDSE with Classical Particles
If the double slit experiment is performed with classical particles, instead of

waves, the intensities add up. There is no fringe pattern, as observed in the
experiment with waves.
The Photoelectric Effect
The first experiment in which the photoelectric effect was observed was
performed by Hertz in 1887.
6
Two metallic plates, acting as electrodes were arranged as shown. They were
connected to a voltage source V , as shown.
e
light
V
The results observed were as shown.
1. The relationship between V and the current in the wire was observed to
be as shown.
I
Vs (stopping voltage)
The conclusions were as follows.
(a) If the light intensity is constant, a specific amount of electrons is

emitted. Therefore, the current is constant, and independent of V .
(b) If V >> 0, all electrons emitted reached the other plate, and hence
contributed to the current.
If V < 0, some electrons were unable to reach the other plate, and
hence did not contribute to the current.
(c) Vs is not dependent on the intensity of the light.
As the energy of an electron is conserved,
EKi + EPi = EKf + EPf
7
Therefore, if the electron barely reaches the other plate, i.e. if the voltage
is Vs
EKi + 0 = (e)(Vs )
eVs = EK
Therefore, as Vs is independent of the intensity of light, the kinetic energy
of the emitted electrons is also independent of the intensity of light.
2. The relationship between the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons, and
the frequency of the incident light was observed to be as shown.
EK
metal 1
metal 2
metal 3
The conclusions were as follows.

(a) There is a cutoff frequency, i.e. a frequency below which no electrons
are emitted.
(b) The kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is linearly dependent on
the frequency of light.
These conclusions were inconsistent with the accepted notion of light being a
wave.
7.1
Einsteins Explanation of the Photoelectric Effect

(1905)
According to Einsteins explanation, light is a stream of particles, called

photons. Each photon has energy equal to hf , where h is Plancks constant,
and f is the frequency of the light, which is in fact a property of the wave
nature of the light. This theory can explain the conclusions of Hertzs
8
experiment, which could not be explained by classical theories.

According to the explanation, each material has a property called the work
function (W ). The fact that there exists a cutoff voltage is justified due to
this energy barrier. For an electron to be emitted, it needs to be provided
energy to overcome this barrier. The cutoff frequency is such that all energy
in a photon of this frequency to be used to overcome the work function.
Therefore,
hfcutoff = W
Also, as each photon provides all its energy to a single electron, increasing
the intensity of light just increases the number of electrons emitted, but does
not increase the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons.
Quantum Particles
Definition 5 (Momentum of a quantum particle). The momentum of a

quantum particle is defined as
p=
E
c
where E is the energy of the particle.

Theorem 4 (Einstein Equation).
E = mc2 + pc
Definition 6. The reduced Plancks constant is defined as

~=
h
2
where h is Plancks constant.

Theorem 5.
E = ~
p = ~k
9
Proof.
E = hf
=h
2
= ~
E
c
h
=
h
k
=
2
= ~k
p=
8.1
de Broglie Wavelength
According to de Broglies theory, particles have waves associated with them.

Therefore, according to this theory,
h
p
h
=
mv
E
f=
h
=
where m is the mass of the particle and v is its velocity.

Therefore, according to this theory, particles must exhibit wave-like behaviour.
Hence, if the double slit experiment is performed with particles, the pattern
observed must be similar to the fringe pattern observed with waves.
If the double slit experiment is performed with a single electron emitted at
a time, over a long period of time, a fringe-like pattern, made up of dots
corresponding to single electrons, is observed. This is consistent with de
Broglies theory.
Exercise 1.
Find the de Broglie wavelength of an electron moving at 107 ms .
10
Solution 1.
=
=
h
mv
6.63 1034 J s
(9.11 1031 kg) 107 ms

= 7.27 1011 m
= 72pm
Exercise 2.
Find the de Broglie wavelength of a rock of 50 g, thrown with a speed of 40
m
.
s
Solution 2.
h
mv
6.63 1034
=
(50 103 ) (40)
= 3.3 1034 m
8.2
Impact of Observation on the Result of Experiments
If 100% of the electrons are observed to determine which slit they pass through,
the pattern observed is exactly like the pattern observed with classical particles.
If only some electrons are observed, say 70%, then those 70% electrons behave
like classical particles, and the rest behave like a wave. Therefore, the effective
result is a superposition both of these pattern.
Therefore, the outcome of the experiment is affected by the fact that the
particles are being observed.
The reason behind this is that the act of observation involves interacting with
the particles, usually in the form of the particle being hit by photons, which
are necessary for the observer to make the observations.
Classical particles are not affected by this factor on such a large scale, as
their mass is much larger than that of quantum particles.
11
Schr
odinger Equation
Theorem 6 (Schrodinger Equation).

i~
(x, t)
~2 2 (x, t)
=
+ V (x)(x, t)
t
2m x2
Proof. Let the wave be given by

(x, t) = Aei(kxt)
Differentiating with respect to time,
E
~
where EP = V (x) is
the potential energy of
the particle
(x, t)
= i(x, t)
t
E
= i (x, t)
~
!
i p2
=
+ EP (x, t)
~ 2m
!
i p2
=
+ V (x) (x, t)
~ 2m
(1)
Differentiating with respect to x,

(x, t)
= ik(x, t)
x
2 (x, t)
= (ik)(ik)(x, t)
x2
= k 2 (x, t)
p2
= 2 (x, t)
~
2
(x, t)
h2
= p2 (x, t)
2
x
p2
h2 2 (x, t)
=
(x, t)
2m x2
2m
Therefore, solving the above equations simultaneously,
(x, t)
i
~2 2 (x, t)
=
+ V (x) (x, t)
t
~
2m x2
!
(x, t)
~2 2 (x, t)
i~
=
+ V (x) (x, t)
t
2m x2
!
12
(2)
10
Basic Postulates of Quantum Mechanics
1. (x, t) describes the configuration of the system.

2. The probability of finding the particle between x and x + dx at time t is

(x, t)2
= (x, t) (x, t)
where is the complex conjugate of of ,

3. If 1 (x, t) and 2 (x, t) are solutions to the Schrodinger equation, then
1 (x, t) + 2 (x, t) is also a solution to the Schrodinger equation.
11
Properties of (x, t)
1.

(x, t)2 dx
=1

(x, t)2
is the probability of the particle being in the neighbourhood of

x. Therefore, the equation is obvious, as the probability of the particle
being in the entire universe must be 1.
2. (x, t) is a single valued function.
This is obvious, as the probability of the particle existing at a point in
space must have exactly one value.

12
Conservation of Normalization
Definition 7. If

(x, t)2 dx
=1
Then the equation is said to be normalized.

Theorem 7. The Schrodinger equation conserves normalization, i.e.,
d
dt

(x, t)2 dx
=0
13
Proof.
d
dt

(x, t)2 dx
(x, t) (x, t) dx
t

+
t
t
From the Schrodinger Equation,

i~ 2
i
=
V
2
t
2m x
~

i~ 2
i
=
+ V dx
2
t
2m x
~
Therefore,
!

d
i~ 2
i~ 2
(x, t)2 dx =

dx
dt
2m x2
2m x2

i~

dx
2m x
x
x

x
x
i~
=
2m
Therefore,
d
dt
i~
2m

(x, t)2 dx
=0
x
x
=0
Therefore, the normalization is conserved if the wave function tapers off at

infinity.
13
13.1
Measurements and Operators

The Collapse of the Wave Function
Consider a probability distribution of finding a particle at x, given by the

wave function (x, t). The position of the particle is actually measured, and
14
hence found to be at some position x = A, at time t. Therefore, after a small

time interval dt after t, it can be predicted with certainty that the particle
is around x = A. Hence, the original wave function is no longer valid, and
there is a new wave function which describes the particle. This phenomenon
is called the collapse of the wave function.
13.2
Momentum
Definition 8 (Observable). A physical parameter which describes a particle,

such as position, momentum, energy, velocity, etc., is called an observable.
Definition 9 (Expected value). The average value of an observable, measured
with N particles, with the same wave function (x, t), is called the expected
value of the observable. It is denoted as hi, where is the observable.
Theorem 8 (Ehrenfests Theorem). Expected values obey classical laws, i.e,
for example,
d
hxi
dt
d
hpi = m hxi
dt
hvi =
Theorem 9.
hxi =
x dx
Proof. By definition,
hxi =
x (x, t)2 dx

x(x, t) (x, t) dx
x dx
15
Theorem 10.
hpi =
dx
i~
x
Proof. By Ehrenfests Theorem,

d
hxi
dt

d
=m
x (x, t)2 dx
dt
hpi = m
=m
i~
=m
2m
( ) dx
t
+
dx
x
t
t
!
!
:0

i~
x

2 x
x
=
=
i~
2
x
x
dx
dx
x
x
!
i~
2
2

dx
x
= i~

dx
x
(i~)
dx
x
13.3
Operators
Definition 10 (Operator). A function which acts on a function is called an

operator. There exists an operator associated with every observable.
16
Theorem 11. Every operator can be written as a function of x, p, Q (

x, p).
In general,
hQi =
dx
Q
where
x = x
p = i~
Theorem 12.
1
Ek = mv 2
2
p2
=
2m
Therefore,
p2
Ek =
2m
Therefore,
hEk i =
p2
dx
2m
!
1
=
2m
~2

2
dx
x2
Exercise 3.
A particle with mass m has wave function

(x, t) = Ae
mx2
+it
~
where a and A are constants.

1. Find A.
2. Find V (x) which gives (x, t) as a solution of the Schrodinger Equation.
17
3. Find the expected values of

(a) x.
(b) x2 .
(c) p.
(d) p2 .
Solution 3.
1.
1=

(x, t)2 dx
(x, t) (x, t) dx
Ae
As the function is
even, the integral from
to is twice that
of the integral from 0
to .
= A2
mx2
+it
~
e2a
mx2
~
= 2A2
e2a
mx2
~
Ae
mx2
it
~
dx
dx
2
ebx
dx =
1
2
2
b
1
= 2A2
2
2
=A
~
2am
~
2am
!1
!1
2
Therefore,
A=
2am
~
!1
4
18
dx
2.

(x, t) = Ae
=
2am
~
mx2
+it
~
!1

mx2
+it
h
Therefore,
= (ia)(x, t)
t
am
=
2m(x, t)
x
~

2
2am
x(x,
t)
x2
~
x

am 2
2am
2x (x, t)
(x, t)
=
~
~
Therefore, substituting in the Schrodinger Equation,
~2 2
i~
=
+ V (x)
t
2m x2

am 2
a~ = a~
2x + V (x)
~
2
2
V (x) = 2a mx
!
3. (a)
hxi =
x dx
x (x, t)2 dx

2 2a
xA e
mx2
~
dx
Therefore, as this function is odd, its integral over a symmetric interval

is zero.
Therefore,
hxi = 0
19
(b)
As
x2 ebx dx =
1
2b
2 2a
xAe
mx2
~
dx
p
b
~
4am
(c)
hpi =
dx
i~
x
=m
=0
dhxi
dt
(d)
D
p2 =
(~2 )
= ~2
= ~
2
dx
x2
2am
x

~
2 2a mx
~
Ae
!2
2am
dx
~
2am
x
~
!2
2am
dx
~
= am~
13.4
Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues of Operators
be an operator. The
Definition 11 (Eigenvalues and eigenfunctions). Let O
scalar n such that
n ) = n f n
O(f
is called the eigenvalue corresponding to the eigenfunction fn .
Definition 12. If the wave function of of a particle is given by
(x) = Aeikx
the particle is said to be in a state with definite momentum.
20
Exercise 4.
Find the eigenvalue of the momentum operator for a particle with definite
momentum.
Solution 4.
p(x) = (x)
d(x)
i~
= (x)
dx
(x) = Ae ~ x
As
(x) = Aeikx
Therefore,
=k
~
= ~k
=p
Therefore,
p(x) = (x)
= p(x)
Therefore, the eigenvalue of p is p.
Definition 13 (Dirac delta function). The Dirac delta function is defined to
be
(x a) =
;
;
x=a
x 6= a
Theorem 13.
(x a) dx = 1
Theorem 14.
1
(x a) =
2
eip(xa) dp
21
Theorem 15.
f (a) =
(x a)f (x) dx
13.5
Dirac Delta Function
Theorem 16. The Dirac delta function is even, i.e.

(x) = (x)
13.6
Fourier Transform
Definition 14 (Fourier transform). The Fourier transform of f (x) is defined

as
1
F (k) =
2
1
f (k) =
2
f (x)eikx dx
F (x)eikx dx
Exercise 5.
Find the Fourier transform of f (x) = 1.
Solution 5.
1
F (k) =
2
As (x a) =
1
2
eip(xa) dp.
As (x) is even.
f (x)eikx dx
1
=
eikx dx
2
= 2(k)
= 2(k)
22
Exercise 6.
Find the Fourier transform of f (x) = eiax .
Solution 6.
1
F (k) =
2
1
=
2
f (x)eikx dx
eiak eikx dx
1
ei(ka)x dx
=
2

= 2 (k a)
= 2(k a)
14
As (x a) =
1
2
Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle states that

~
2
where
x =
hx2 i hxi2
is the standard deviation of the position of the particle, and

p =
eip(xa) dp.
As (x) is even.
Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle
x p
hp2 i hpi2
is the standard deviation of the momentum of the particle.

23
14.1
Attempting to Measure both the Position and

Momentum of an Electron
Consider a screen with a single slit kept in the path of a beam of electrons as
shown.
Let the momentum of the electrons be a known value p0 .
Let the thickness of the slit be dy.
Consider the electrons which pass through the slit.
As the thickness of the slit is dy, the uncertainty in the position of the
electrons, which pass through the slit, is dy.
As the probability wave of the electron passes through the slit, it diffracts.
Hence, some of the electrons which pass through the slit continue on the
original trajectory, and some of them change their trajectory and also move in
the y-axis. Hence, there is an uncertainty in the momentum of the electrons.
Let the angle that a particular electron deviates with be . Therefore, the
uncertainty in the momentum of the electron is p0 sin .
Therefore,
x p = p0 sin dy
= p0 dy
dy
= p0
h
= p0
p0
=h
~
24
15
Definite Momentum States

e
dk is the probability of the momentum of a particle
Theorem 17. (k)
being between k~ and (k + dk)~).
Consider the wave function

(x) = Aeikx
Therefore, using Fourier transformation,
e
(k)
= A 2(k + k1 )
Therefore,

(x)2

2
e

(k)
= A2
= (k + k1 )
Therefore, the probability distributions are as shown in Figure 4, and Figure

5.

(x)2
A2
x
Figure 4: Probability distribution of x for a definite momentum state

2
e

(k)
k1
Figure 5: Probability distribution of k for a definite momentum state

Hence, x is high, and p is low.
25
16
Definite Position States
Consider the wave function

(x) = (x x1 )
Therefore, using Fourier transformation,
eikx1
e
(k)
=
2
Therefore,

(x)

e

(k)
= (x x1 )
1
=
2
Therefore, the probability distributions are as shown in Figure 6, and Figure

7.

(x)2
x1
Figure 6: Probability distribution of x for a definite position state

2
e

(k)
x
Figure 7: Probability distribution of k for a definite position state
Hence, x is low, and p is high.
26
Theorem 18. The eigenstates or eigenfunctions of the momentum operator

form a basis. Therefore, if
a = aa
A
for discrete variables,
(x) =
ca a (x)
for continuous variables,
(x) =
ca a (x) da
Proof.
1
(x) =
2
ikx
e
(x)e
dk
Therefore, any value of (x) can be written in terms of the corresponding

e
(k)
and eikx . Hence, the eigenstates of the momentum operator form a
basis.
Theorem 19. If
a = aa
A
then, for discrete variables,
(x) =
ca a (x)
then, for continuous variables,
(x) =
ca a (x) da
Then, the probability of the observable A having value a is

P (A = a) = |ca |2
27
17
Description of Physical State by Eigenstates
Let the particle be in a state of definite momentum.

Therefore,
(x) = Aeik1 x
Therefore, the total probability over the entire space is
2
|| dx =
Aeik1 x A eik2 x dx
|A|2 dx
Therefore, as this integral cannot be finite, irrespective of A, this state does

not represent a physical state.
Let
n = Aeikn x
m = Aeikm x
be eigenfunctions of p.
Therefore, as they are eigenfunctions, they are orthonormal to each other.
Therefore,
n m dx = |A|2
ei(km kn )x dx
= |A| 2(km kn )
As the eigenfunctions are orthonormal, and not just orthogonal to each other,
the coefficient of the delta function must be 1. Therefore,
1 = |A|2 2
1
|A|2 =
2
1
|A| =
2
Hence, a single eigenstate cannot describe the physical state of the particle,
but if more that one eigenstates are known, then together they can describe
the physical state of the particle
28
18
The Commutator
Definition 15 (Commutator). The commutation of two functions A and B

is defined to be
h
B
= AB
B
A
A,
i
B
f (x) = A B
f (x) B
A f (x)
A,
h
The operator which gives the commutation of two functions is called the
commutator.
Theorem 20. If
B
=0
A,
have some eigenfunctions in common.

then A and B
and let a be an eigenfunction of A.
Proof. Let a be an eigenvalue of A,

Therefore,
a = aa
A
on the LHS, as the commutation is zero,
Therefore, applying B
A
a = AB
a
B
on the RHS,
Therefore, applying B
a = aB
a
Ba
Therefore,
a = a B
a
A B

This equation is of the form

= a
A
a is also an eigenfunction of A with eigenvalue a.
Therefore, B
Hence, assuming there is no degeneracy in eigenvalues, i.e. every eigenvalue
cannot change a , except by a
has a single corresponding eigenfunction, B
constant.
Therefore,
a = ba
B
corresponding to the eigenvalue b.
Therefore, a is an eigenfunction of B
Hence there is a common eigenfunction for A and B.

29
Exercise 7.
Find the commutation of x and p.
Solution 7.
[
x, p] f (x) = xpf (x) pxf (x)

d
d
= (x) i~
f (x) + i~
xf (x)
dx
dx
0
= i~xf (x) + i~f (x) + i~xf 0 (x)
= i~f (x)
!
Therefore,
[
x, p] = i~I
where I is the identity operator.
Exercise 8.
Can a wave function be an eigenfunction of both x and p?
Solution 8.
xf (x) = xf (x)
f (x)
pf (x) = i~
x
= ~kf (x)
Therefore, as the two equations cannot be solved simultaneously, the two
operators cannot have a common eigenfunction.
Exercise 9.
Can any wave function be written as a superposition of momentum eigenstates?
Solution 9.
Therefore, as
1
f (x) =
2
F (k)eikx dk
every f (x) can be written in terms of eikx .

Hence, any wave function can be written as a superposition of momentum
eigenstates.
30
Exercise 10.
It is impossible to demonstrate the wave-like behaviour of macroscopic objects
as is too small. True of false?
Solution 10.
h
p
Therefore, as the p for macroscopic objects is very large, the is very small.
Hence, the statement is true.
Exercise 11.
If
hxi = 0
then p is infinite.
True of false?
Solution 11.
The standard deviation of the position, x , is not known, and cannot be
calculated using the given data. Therefore, as nothing is known about x ,
nothing can be said about p . Hence, the statement is false.
19
Schr
odinger Equation in 1D for Separable
Wave Functions
Let the wave function (x, t) be separable, i.e. let is be expressible in the
form
(x, t) = (x)(t)
31
Let the potential V be independent of time, i.e. let it be a function of x only.

Therefore, the Schrodinger equation is
~2 2
=
+V
t
2m x2
!
~2 2
=
+ V (x)
2m x2
!
!

~2 2
=
i~
+ V (x) (x)(t)
2
t
2m x

~2 00
(x)(t) + V (x)(x)(t)
i~ (x)0 (t) =
2m
0 (t)
~2 00 (x)
i~
=
+ V (x)
(t)
2m (x)
i~
For both sides of the equation to be satisfied, they need to be constant.

Let this constant be E.
Therefore,
E
0 (t)
=
(t)
i~
E
~
iEt
(t) = c1 e ~
= i
The RHS of the equation is

~2 00
(x) + V (x)(x) = E(x)
2m
Definition 16. The operator
2
2
= ~ d + V (x)
H
2m dx2
is called the Hamiltonian or the energy operator.
Therefore,
H(x)
= E(x)
corresponding to (x).
Therefore, the E is the eigenvalue of H
Therefore,
(x, t) = (x)(t)
=
cn n (x)e
iEn t
~
with eigenvalue En .
Therefore, n (x) is an eigenfunction of H
32
Theorem 21.
2
= p + V (
H
x)
2m
20
Stationary States
Definition 17. A state with definite energy, (x)e

state.
iEt
~
, is called a stationary
Theorem 22. Any state can be expressed as a superposition of stationary

states.
(x, t) = (x)(t)
=
cn n (x)e
iEn t
~
Theorem 23. For a particle in a stationary state, the probability of finding

the particle at some x is independent of time.
Theorem 24. For a particle in a stationary state, the expected value of x is
independent of time.
Theorem 25. For a particle in a stationary state, the expected value of p is
independent of time.
Theorem 26. For a particle in a stationary state, the expected value of any
operator Q is independent of time.
Theorem 27. A definite state is a state of definite energy.
Definition 18 (Kronecker delta function). The Kronecker delta function is
defined as
ij =
1
0
;
;
i=j
i 6= j
Theorem 28. The coefficients in
(x) =
cm m (x)
m=1
are given by
cm =
m (x)(x) dx
33
Proof.
m (x)(x) dx =
=
=
As m (x) and n (x)

are eigenfunctions of
the Hamiltonian
operator, their
product is either 0 or 1
depending on the
combination of m and
n. If m = n, then the
product is 1, otherwise
the product is 0.
Therefore, the product
can be expressed as
the Kronecker delta
function.
m (x)
cn n (x) dx
n=1
cn m (x)n (x) dx
n=1
cn nm
n=1
= cm
Theorem 29. For a general state
(x) =
cn n (x)
n=1
the expected value of the Hamiltonian operator is
hHi =
P (E = En )En
n=1
34
Proof.
hHi =
(x)H(x)
dx
cn n (x) H
n=1
cn n (x)
n=1
=
=
=
X
X
cm m (x) dx
m=1
cm Em m (x) dx
m=1
cn cm E m
n=1 m=1
n (x)m (x) dx
cn cn En nm
n=1 m=1
X
cn cn En
n=1
X
|cn |2 En
n=1
P (E = En )En
n=1
21
Infinite Potential Wells
Consider an infinite square well, from x = 0 to x = a, with the potential

given by
;
V (x) = 0 ;
x<0
0<x<a
a<x
Consider a particle with mass m, under this potential.

Therefore,
H(x)
= E(x)
35
Therefore,
~2 d2 (x)
+ V (x)(x) = E(x)
2m dx2
For x < 0,
V (x) =
Therefore,
(x) = 0
For a < x,
V (x) =
Therefore,
(x) = 0
For 0 < x < a,
V (x) = 0
Therefore,
~2 d2 (x)
= E(x)
2m dx2
d2 (x)
2mE
= 2 (x)
2
dx
~
Let
s
k=
2mE
~2
Therefore, for 0 < x < a,

(x) = A sin(kx) + B cos(kx)
Therefore, at the boundaries,
(x = 0) = 0
(x = a) = 0
36
Therefore, for (0) = 0,

A sin(0) + B cos(0) = 0
B=0
Therefore, for (a) = 0,
A sin(ka) = 0
sin ka = 0
If A is zero, the wave

function will not be
normalizable.
Therefore, A cannot
be zero. Hence,
sin(ka) has to be zero.
Therefore, for n N,
ka = n
Therefore,
kn =
n
a
Therefore,
s
k=
2mE
~2
2mE
~2
2 2 2
n~
E=
2ma2
=
a
Therefore,
n (x) = A sin(kn x)

n
= A sin
x
a
Therefore, normalizing the wave function,
s
A=
2
a
Therefore,
s
n (x) =
2
n
sin
x
a
a

37
Therefore,
(x) =
cn n (x)
n=1
cn
n=1
2
n
sin
x
a
a

Therefore, the probability distribution of x is as shown in Figure 8 and Figure

9.
n=1
jA(x)j2
A2
Figure 8: Probability distribution of x, with n = 1, in an infinite square well

Therefore, as these states are stationary
(x, t) =
X
n=1
cn
iEn t
n
2
sin
x e ~
a
a
38
n=2
jA(x)j2
A2
Figure 9: Probability distribution of x, with n = 2, in an infinite square well

Exercise 12.
The wave function of a particle of mass m in an infinite square well from
x = 0 to x = a, at time t = 0 is given by
(x, 0) = Ax(a x)
for 0 < x < a.
1. Find the general wave function (x, t).
2. What is the probability of measuring the following energies at time
t = 0?
(a) E1 =
2 ~2
2ma2
(b) E2 =
4 2 ~2
2ma2
(c) E3 =
9 2 ~2
2ma2
39
Solution 12.
1.
a
1 = A2 x2 (a x)2 dx
0
Therefore, solving,
s
A=
30
a5
Therefore,
Ax(a x) =
cn
n=1
2
n
sin
x
a
a

Therefore,
a s
cn =
0
2
n
sin
x Ax(a x) dx
a
a
2
Aa
a
a
0
n
sin
x dx
a

2
A
a
a
sin
Therefore,
cn =
;
;
8 15
n3 3
n is even
n is odd
Therefore,
s
(x, t) =
X
n=1,3,5,...

2 8 15
n
iE~n t
sin
x
e
a n3 3
a
where
En =
n2 2 ~2
2ma2
2. (a)
P (E = E1 ) = |c1 |2

8 15
= 3
= 0.9986
40
n
x x2 dx
a

(b)
P (E = E2 ) = |c2 |2
=0
For even n, cn is zero.
(c)
P (E = E3 ) = |c3 |2

8 15
=
27 3
= 0.0014
Exercise 13.
A particle with mass m in an infinite square wall, has initial wave function
(x, 0) = A 1 (x) + 2 (x)
1. Find A.
2. Find the general wave function (x, t).
3. What is the probability of measuring the following energies at time
t = 0?
(a) E1 =
2 ~2
2ma2
(b) E2 =
4 2 ~2
2ma2
4. Find the wave function if the energy is measured to be E1 .

5. Find the expectation value of x.
Solution 13.
1. As the square of the coefficients represents the probability of a particular
value,
1=
|cn |2
n=1
2
= 2A
1
=A
2
41
2.

(x, t) = A 1 (x)e
iE1 t
~
+ 2 (x)e
iE2 t
~
iE1 t
1
2
=
sin
x e ~ +
a
a
2
iE2 t
2
2
sin
x e ~
a
a
where
2 ~2
2ma2
4 2 ~2
E2 =
2ma2
E1 =
3. (a)
P (E = E1 ) = |c1 |2

2
1
iE1 t

e ~
2

1
2
=
(b)
P (E = E2 ) = |c2 |2
2

1
iE t

~2
e

2
1
2
4. If E is measured to be E1 , then the wave function collapsed to

(x) = 1 (x)e
iE1 t
~
5. At time t,
a
hxit =
x (x, t)2 dx

a

iE t
iE t
iE1 t
iE2 t
~1
~2
2
~
~
=A
x 1 (x)e
+ 2 (x)e
1 (x)e
+ 2 (x)e
dx
0
6= hxit=0
42
22
Free Particles
For a free particle,

V (x) = 0
Therefore,
H(x)
= E(x)
2
2
~ d (x)
= E(x)
2m dx2
d2 (x)
2Em(x)
=
2
dx
~2
2
= k (x)
where
s
k=
2mE
~2
Therefore,
(x) = Aeikx
However, this wave function is not normalizable. Hence, a free particle cannot
exist in a stationary state.
The general solution to the time-dependent Schrodinger equation is a
linear combination of separable solutions, i.e.
1
(x, t) =
2
(k)e
i kx ~k
t
2m
dk
This function can be normalized, but it carries a multiple ks, and hence
multiple energies and speeds.
Definition 19 (Wave packet). A solution of the form
1
(x, t) =
2
(k)e
i kx ~k
t
2m
is called a wave packet.

43
dk
Therefore, for t = 0,
1
(x, 0) =
2
(k)eikx dk
Therefore,
1
(k) =
2
(x, 0)eikx dx
Exercise 14.
A free particle, initially localized as
(x, 0) =
A
0
;
;
x (a, a)
x
/ (a, a)
where A and a are real and positive.

Find (x, t).
Solution 14.
1=

(x, 0)2 dx
A2 dx
= 2aA2
Therefore,
1
A=
2a
44
Therefore, taking the inverse Fourier transform,

1
e
(k)
=
2
(x, 0)eikx dx
1
1
=
2 2a
1
1
=
2 2a
a
eikx dx
a
a
eikx dx
a
=
=
=
=
1 ikx
1

e

4a ik
a

1
1 ika
e
eika
4a ik
1 1 eika eika
a k
2i
1
sin(ka)
k a
Therefore,
1
(x, t) =
2
ikx
e
(k)e
e
1
=
2 2 a
iEt
~
dx
sin(ka) ikx ik2 ~ t

e e 2m dk
k
If a is very small,
sin(ka)
k a
ka
=
k a
r
a
=
e
(k)
=
45
If a is very large,
sin(ka)
k a
r
a sin(ka)
=
r ka
a
=
sinc(ka)
e
(k)
=
23
Finite Potential Wells
which satisfies
Definition 20 (Bound state). An eigenfunction of H,
lim (x) = 0
lim (x) = 0
is called a bound state.

which satisfies
Definition 21 (Scattering state). An eigenfunction of H,
lim (x) 6= 0
lim (x) 6= 0
is called a scattering state.

Theorem 30. A particle in a finite or infinite well is in a bound state.
Theorem 31. A free particle is in a scattering state.
Consider a finite square well such that
V (x) =
;
;
x (a, a)
x
/ (a, a)
Consider a particle with energy V0 < E < 0.

For x < a,
V =0
Therefore,
2mE
d2 (x)
= 2 (x)
2
dx
~
46
Let
s
k=
2mE
~2
Therefore if E < 0, k is real.

Therefore,
d2 (x)
= k 2 (x)
dx2
Therefore,
(x) = Aekx + Bekx
For the wave function to be normalizable, lim (x) must be zero.
x
Therefore,
0 = lim (x)
x
= lim Aekx + Bekx

x
Therefore B must be zero.

Therefore,
(x) = Aekx
Similarly, for x > a,
(x) = Cekx
where
s
k=
2mE
~2
For a < x < a,

d2
2m
=
E V (x) (x)
2
dx
~
2m
=
(E + V0 )(x)
~
Let
s
2m(E + V0 )
~2
47
Therefore,
d2 (x)
= 2 (x)
dx2
Therefore,
(x) = D cos(x) + F sin(x)
Therefore,
kx
Ae
;
(x) = D cos(x) + F sin(x) ;
Cekx
;
x < a
a < x < a
a<x
where
s
k=
2mE
~2
2m(E + V0 )
~2
are
Theorem 32. If V (x) is an even function, then the eigenfunctions of H
either odd or even.
23.1
Even Wave Functions for Finite Potential Wells
If (x) is even,
kx
Ae
;
(x) = D cos(x) ;
Cekx
;
x < a
a < x < a
a<x
As (x)2 represents probability, (x) must always be continuous.

As the well is finite, the jump in the expression of V (x) is also finite. Hence,
0 (x) must always be continuous.
Therefore, as (x) is always continuous,

Aeka = D cos(a)
48
Therefore, as 0 (x) is always continuous,

kAeka = D cos(a)
Similarly, for x = a,
Ceka = D cos(a)
kCeka = D sin(a)
Therefore,
A=C
Therefore,
k = tan(a)
where
s
2mE
~2
2m(E + V0 )
~2
k=
=
Let
z = a
y = ka
Therefore,
k = tan(a)
ka = a tan(a)
y = z tan(z)
Also,
2mV0
~2

z 2 + y 2 = a2 2 + z 2
2 + k2 =
2mV0 a2
~2
49
Let
R0 2 =
2mV0 a2
~2
Therefore,
z 2 + y 2 = R0 2
As a, k, and B are real and positive, z and y also must be real and positive.
Therefore,
y = ztanz
y 2 + z 2 = R0 2
2:
3:
4:
5:
6:
As the two graphs must intersect at least once, the equation has at least
one solution.
If R0 < , the graphs intersect exactly once. Hence, if R0 < , there exists a
single solution.
If R0 , there are infinitely many solutions, z = n
, where n is odd.
2
Hence,
n
zn =
2
n
n =
2a
50
Exercise 15.
The potential is given by
V (x) = 0
V0
;
;
;
x<0
0<x<L
L<x
Solve for the bound states for E < V0 .

Solution 15.
For x < 0,
(x) = 0
For 0 < x < L,
(x) = A sin(kx) + B cos(kx)
where
s
k=
2mE
~2
For x > L,
(x) = Cex
where
s
2m(V0 E)
~2
For to be continuous at x = L, and and 0 to be continuous at x = 0,

B=0
A sin(kL) = CeL
kA cos(kL) = CeL
Therefore,
k cot(kL) =
kL cot(kL) = L
51
Let
z = kL
y = L
Therefore,
z cot(z) = y
Also,
2mV0
~2
2mV0 L2
2 L2 + k 2 L2 =
~2
2mV0 L2
y2 + z2 =
~2
2 + k 2 =
23.2
Odd Wave Functions for Finite Potential Wells
If (x) is odd,
kx
Ae
;
(x) = F sin(x) ;
Cekx
;
x < a
a < x < a
a<x
As (x)2 represents probability, (x) must always be continuous.

As the well is finite, the jump in the expression of V (x) is also finite. Hence,
0 (x) must always be continuous.
Therefore, as (x) is always continuous,

Aeka = F sin(a)
Therefore, as 0 (x) is always continuous,
kAeka = F cos(a)
Similarly, for x = a,
Ceka = F sin(a)
kCeka = F cos(a)
52
Therefore,
A = C
Therefore,
k = cot(a)
where
s
2mE
~2
2m(E + V0 )
~2
k=
=
Let
z = a
y = ka
Therefore,
k = cot(a)
ka = a cot(a)
y = z cot(z)
Also,
2mV0
~2

z 2 + y 2 = a2 2 + z 2
2 + k2 =
2mV0 a2
~2
Let
R0 2 =
2mV0 a2
~2
Therefore,
z 2 + y 2 = R0 2
As a, k, and B are real and positive, z and y also must be real and positive.
Therefore,
53
y = !zcotz
y 2 + z 2 = R0 2
2:
3:
4:
5:
6:
If R0 < 2 , the two graphs do not intersect. Therefore, there is no solution.

If R0 , there are infinitely many solution, z = n, where n is positive.
zn = n
n
n =
a
24
(x) Potential
Consider a potential
V (x) = V0 (x)
Therefore, for x < 0,

d2
2m
= 2 E V (x)
2
dx
~
2mE
= 2
~
54
Let
s
k=
2mE
~2
Therefore, for E < 0, k is real.

Therefore,
d2
= k2
dx2
Therefore,
(x) = Aekx + Bekx
If x , as the function is normalizable, = 0.
Therefore,
B=0
Similarly, for x > 0,
(x) = Cekx + Dekx
If x , as the function is normalizable, = 0.
Therefore,
C=0
Therefore,
Aekx
(x) =
kx
Ce
;
;
x<0
x>0
Therefore, as (x) represents probability, it is continuous at x = 0.

Therefore,
A=C
Therefore,
(x) =
Aekx
Aekx
;
;
x<0
x>0
55
Therefore,
0 (x) =
Akekx
Akekx
;
;
x<0
x>0
By the time independent Schrodinger equation,

00 (x) =

2m
E
+
V
(x)
0
~2
Therefore,
(x) dx =
00

2m
E + V0 (x) (x) dx
2
~
2m
0 () 0 () = 2
~
2m
E(x) dx 2
~
V0 (x)(x) dx
2m
2m
E(0) 2 2 V0 (0)
2
~
~
2m
= 2 V0 (0)
~
2m
kA kA = 2 V0 A
~
mV0
k= 2
~
=
Therefore,
s
2mE
~2
k 2 ~2
E=
2m
mV0 2
=
2~2
k=
Normalizing,
A=
k
s
mV0
~2
56
25
Tunneling
V (x) =
V0
;
;
x<0
x>0
Therefore, for x < 0,
Let

d2 (x)
2m
= 2 E V (x) (x)
2
dx
~
2m
= 2 E(x)
~
k1 =
Therefore,
2mE
~2
00 = k1 2
Therefore, for x > 0,
Let

2m
d2 (x)
=
V
(x)
(x)
dx2
~2
2m
= 2 (E V0 )(x)
~
k2 =
Therefore,
2m(E V0 )
~2
00 = k2 2
Therefore,
(x) =
Aeik1 x
+ Beik1 x
Cek2 x + Dek2 x
;
;
x<0
x>0
For the function to be normalizable, for x , = 0.

Therefore,
C=0
Therefore,
(x) =
Aeik1 x
+ Beik1 x
Dek2 x
;
;
x<0
x>0
57
25.1
Barrier
V (x) = V0 (x)
Consider a single particle approaching the barrier from the left.
Therefore, solving the time independent Schrodinger equation,
(x) =
Aeikx
+ Beikx
Ceikx + Deikx
;
;
x<0
0<x
where
s
k=
2mE
~2
Therefore, Aeikx represents the incident wave, Beikx represents the reflected
wave, and Ceikx represents the transmitted wave.
As a single particle approaches the barrier from the left, the wave represented
by Deikx does not exist. Hence,
D=0
Therefore,
Aeikx
(x) =
+ Beikx
Ceikx
;
;
x<0
0<x
As (x) is continuous at x = 0,
A+B =C
Therefore, solving,
0 (x) =

ik Aeikx
Beikx
ikCeikx
x<0
0<x
As the barrier is a Dirac Delta function,

0 () 0 () =
2mv0
(0)
~2
58
Therefore,
(ikC) (ikA ikB) =
2mv0
(0)
~2
Let
=
mv0
~2 k
Therefore,
i
B
=
A
1 + i
1
C
=
A
1 + i
Similarly, if
V (x) = V0 (x)
then,
0 () 0 () =
2mv0
(0)
~2
Therefore,
(ikC) (ikA ikB) =
2mv0
(0)
~2
Let
=
mv0
~2 k
Therefore,
B
i
=
A
1 + i
C
1
=
A
1 i
25.2
Double Barrier
V (x) = (x + a) + (x a)
59
Therefore,
(x) =
kx
Ae
Be
kx
+ Ce
kx
Dekx
;
;
;
x < a
a < x < a
a<x
where
s
k=
2mE
~2
Therefore,
(a + ) = (a )
(a + ) = (a )
2m
0 (a + ) 0 (a ) = 2 (a)
~
2m
0
0
(a + ) (a ) = 2 (a)
~
As V (x) is even, the wave function (x) can be split into odd and even parts,
i.e. even (x) and odd (x)
Therefore, for even (x),
A=D
B=C
Therefore,
Aekx
even (x) = B e
kx
+e
kx
Aekx
;
;
x < a
a < x < a
a<x
Therefore,
(x) =
0
kAekx
kx
kB e
kx
kAekx
;
;
x < a
a < x < a
a<x
60
Therefore,
(a + ) = (a )

Aeka = B eka + eka

2m
0 (a + ) 0 (a ) = 2 (a)
~

2m
kB eka eka kAeka = 2 Aeka
~
Therefore, solving,
A = B e2ka + 1

B e
2ka
2m
1
1 =A
~2 k

Let
z = 2ka
~2
c=
2am
Therefore,
~2 k
1
m
= cz 1
e2ka =
ez
Therefore, this equation has exactly one solution.

61
A(x)
-a
Therefore, for odd (x),

A = D
B = C
Therefore,
Aekx
odd (x) = B ekx ekx
Aekx
26
;
;
x < a
a < x < a
a<x
Probability Current
Definition 22 (Probability current). The rate at which the probability

distribution passes through the position x is defined to be the probability
current. It is denoted as
i~

J(x, t) =

2m
x
x
62
26.1
Barrier
V (x) = V0 (x)
Therefore, the wave function is
(x) =
Aeikx
+ Beikx
ikx
Ce
;
;
x<0
x>0
Let the incident, reflected, and transmitted wave functions be

I = Aeikx
R = Beikx
T = Ceikx
Therefore,
I (x) = Aeikx
I (x, t) = Aeikx e
iEt
~
I (x, t) = A eikx e
iEt
~
Therefore,
iEt
I
= ikAeikx e ~
x
iEt
I
= ikA eikx e ~
x
Therefore, the probability current for the incident wave is

i~

2m
x
x
!
i~
I
I
I
I
2m
x
x

i~
ik|A|2 ik|A|2
2m
~|A|2 k
m
!
J(x, t) =
JI (x, t) =
=
=
63
Similarly, the probability current for the reflected wave is
i~

J(x, t) =

2m
x
x
!
i~
R
R
JR (x, t) =
R
R
2m
x
x

i~
=
ik|B|2 + ik|B|2
2m
~|B|2 k
=
m
!
Similarly, the probability current for the incident wave is

i~

2m
x
x
!
i~
T
T
T
T
2m
x
x

i~
ik|C|2 ik|C|2
2m
~|C|2 k
m
!
J(x, t) =
JT (x, t) =
=
=
Let the transmission and reflection coefficients be T and R respectively.

Therefore, substituting the boundary conditions,
|JT |
|JI |
|C|2
=
|A|2
1
=
2
0
1 + mV
2~2 E
|JR |
R=
|JI |
|B|2
=
|A|2
1
=
2~2 E
1 + mV
2
0
T =
Therefore,
T +R=1
64
This is consistent with the expectations, as the total energy must be conserved.
The fact that T =
6 0 shows that even though the barrier exists, the particle
does not bounce back, but instead tunnels through the barrier. A classical
particle would not exhibit such a behaviour.
26.2
Finite Barrier
V (x) = V0
;
;
;
x<0
0<x<L
L<x
Therefore, this potential can be considered to be

V (x) = V1 (x) V2 (x)
where
V1 (x) =
V2 (x) =
V0
0
V0
;
;
x<0
x>0
;
;
x<L
x>L
Consider a single particle approaching the barrier from the left, Hence, due
to tunnelling, a quantum particle can go through this barrier, and the wave
function is
ik1 x
Ae
+ Beik1 x
(x) = Cek2 x + Dek2 x
F eik1 x + Geik1 x
;
;
;
x<0
0<x<L
L<x
where
s
k1 =
2mE
~2
k2 =
2m(E V0 )
~2
65
Therefore, solving as for the barrier,

|JT |
|JI |
|F |2
=
|A|2
T =
4k1 2 k2 2

k1 2 + k2 2 sinh2 (k2 L) + 4k1 2 k2 2

|JR |
|JI |
|B|2
=
|A|2
R=
=
27
k1 2 + k2 2 sinh2 (k2 L)

k1 2 + k2 2 sinh2 (k2 L) + 4k1 2 k2 2

Quantum Harmonic Oscillator
1
V (x) = m 2 x2
2
Therefore,
2
= p + 1 m 2 x2
H
2m 2
and
H(x)
= E(x)
Therefore,
[
p, x
] is the
commutation of p and
x
.
(m
x + i
p) (m
x i
p) = (m
x)2 im
xp + im px + p2
= (m
x)2 + im [
p, x] + p2
= (m
x)2 + im(i~) + p2
= (m
x)2 + m~ + p2
p2 + (m
x)2 = (m
x + i
p) (m
x i
p) m~
66
Therefore,

= 1 p + m2 2 x2
H
2m

1
=
p + (m
x)2
2m

1
=
(m
x + i
p) (m
x i
p) m~
2m
!
1
1
1
= ~
(m
x + i
p)
(m
x i
p)
2
2m~
2m~
Definition 23 (Lowering and Raising Operators). The raising operator a

+
and the lowering operator a
are defined as
1
(m
x i
p)
2m~
1
a
=
(m
x + i
p)
2m~
a
+ =
Therefore,
1
= ~ a
H
a
+
2
The commutation of a
and a
+ is
1
2m~
1
=
2m~
1
=
2m~
1
=
2m~
1
=
2m~
1
=
2m~
1
=
2m~
=1
[
a , a
+ ] =
[m
x + i
p, m
x i
p]
(m
x + i
p) (m
x i
p) (m
x i
p) (m
x + i
p)
(m
x)2 + p2 + m~ (m
x)2 p2 (im
xp im px)
(m
x)2 + p2 + m~ (m
x)2 p2 im [
x, p]
(m
x)2 + p2 + m~ (m
x)2 p2 im(i~)
(m
x)2 + p2 + m~ (m
x)2 p2 + m~
(m~ + m~)
Therefore,
[
a , a
+ ] = 1
[
a+ , a
] = 1
67
and a
The commutation of H
+ is
1
a
H,
+ = ~ a
a
+
,a
+
2
1
1
= ~ a
a
+
a+ ~a+ a
a
+
2
2
!
1
1
+ a
+ a
a
+ + a
+
= ~ a
a
+ a
+ a
2
2
= ~ [
a , a
+ ] a
+
= ~
a+
!
Similarly,
a
H,
= ~
a
27.1
Effect of a
on (x)
corresponding to the eigenfunction (x).

Let E be an eigenvalue of H
Therefore,
H(x)
= E(x)
Therefore,
(x)
H
a+ (x) = ~
a+ + a
+ H

= ~
a+ (x) + E
a+ (x)
= (E + ~)
a+ (x)
with eigenvalue (E + ~).
Therefore, a
+ (x) is also an eigenfunction of H
Similarly, a
(x) is also an eigenfunction of H with eigenvalue (E ~).
Hence, as the difference between any two consecutive eigenvalues of H is ~,
all eigenvalues are evenly spaced. Therefore, the energy levels form a ladder
as in Figure 10. Hence, the raising operator can be used in order to go up the
ladder, and the lowering operator to go down the ladder. As the potential
V (x) has a minimum value, the ladder is not infinite at its lower end, but is
limited from below.
Let the lowest possible eigenfunction be 0 . As it is not possible to go lower
than this state, the eigenfunction obtained after using the lowering operator
68
E + (3~)
E + (2~)
E + (1~)
E + (0~)
E + (1~)
E + (2~)
E + (3~)
Figure 10: Energy Level Ladder for Quantum Harmonic Oscillator
on 0 must be non-normalizable. Therefore, as (x) 0 is non-normalizable,
let
a
0 = 0
Therefore,
1
0=
(m
x + i
p ) 0
2m~
!
= m
x + i(i~)
0
x
!
= m
x+~
0
x
Therefore, solving,
0 (x) =
m
~
1
e 2~ x
Therefore, the lowest eigenfunction is a Gaussian function.

All other eigenfunctions can be obtained by applying a
+ repeatedly on 0 .
69
corresponding to 0 be E0 . Therefore,
Let the eigenvalue of H
0
E0 0 = H
1
0
= ~ a
+ a
+
2
*0 1
= ~
a+
a

0 + ~0
2
1
= 0 + ~0
2
1
= ~0
2
!
Therefore,
1
E0 = ~
2
Therefore,
1
En = ~
+n
2
Let the state obtained after using the raising or lowering operator be
a
+ n = cn n+1
a
n = dn n1
Let
f (x) = a
+ n
g(x) = n
Therefore, the identity
a
f (x) g(x) dx
f (x) a
g(x) dx =
70
implies
(
a a
+ n ) n dx
(
a+ n ) (
a+ n ) dx =

1
H
+ n n dx
=
~ 2
(n + 1)n n dx
= (n + 1)
= (n + 1)(1)
(cn n+1 ) (cn n+1 ) dx = n + 1
|cn |
n+1 n+1 dx = n + 1
For n+1 to be normalized,
n+1 n+1 dx = 1
Therefore,
|cn |2 = n + 1
Therefore,
cn =
n+1
Similarly,
dn =
1 1
n+ +
n n dx
2 2
n
71
n n dx
As n is normalized,
n n dx = 1
Therefore,
a
+ n = n + 1n+1
a
n = nn1
Therefore,
1
a
+ n
n+1 =
n+1
!
1
1
=
+ n1
a
+ a
n
n1
1
1
a
=
+ a
+ n1
n1 n
1
1
=
(
a+ )2 n1
n n1
..
.
1
= (
a+ )n 0
n!
Therefore, solving,
m
n (x) =
h

1
4
mx2
1
e 2~ Hn
2n n!
m
x
~
where Hi are the Hermite polynomials, which are given by

Hn (x) = (1)n ex
dn x2
e
dxn
Therefore,
H0
H1
H2
H3
H4
27.2
..
.
=1
= 2x
= 4x2 2
= 8x3 12x
= 16x4 48x2 + 12
Potential Energy
Let the potential energy for the harmonic oscillator be V .

Therefore, the expectation value of V for the nth state of the harmonic
72
oscillator is
1
hV i =
m 2 x2
2
1
2
= m
n x2 n dx
2
*
Also,
s
x =
~
(
a+ + a
)
2m
Therefore, substituting and solving,

~
1
hV i =
n+
2
2
En
=
2
Exercise 16.
Consider a quantum harmonic oscillator with
1
V (x) = m 2 x2
2
Assume

1
(x, 0) = 0 (x) + i1 (x)
2
1. At t = 0, what is the probability of measuring the energy to be 32 ~?

2. At t = 0, what is the probability of measuring the energy to be
11
~?
2
3. At t = 0, the energy is measured and found to be the maximum possible

value. What is the state of the system after measurement?
Solution 16.
1.
1
En = ~ n +
2
73
Therefore, if
3
E = ~
2
then n = 1.
Therefore, the probability of measuring the given energy is the probability
of n being 1.
Therefore,
3
P E = ~ = |c2 |2
2
!

i 2

2
1
2
=
2.
1
En = ~ n +
2
Therefore, if
E=
11
~
2
then n = 5.
As the wave function at t = 0 is a combination of 0 and 1 only, the
probability of n being 5, and hence the probability of measuring the given
energy is 0.
3. As the energy is measured to be the maximum possible, i.e. E1 , the wave
function collapses to 1 (x).
Exercise 17.
Consider a quantum particle of mass m in the potential
V (x) = 1
2
2 2
m x
;
;
x<0
x>0
Find the allowed energies of the particles.
74
Solution 17.
If x < 0, V (x) = .
Therefore,
(x) = 0
If x > 0, the wave function is that for a quantum harmonic oscillator.
Therefore,
m
(x) =
~

1
mx2
1
e 2~ Hn
2n n!
m
x
~
Therefore,
(x) =
x<0
0 :
q

1
2
m 4 1
m
mx
e 2~ Hn
x
~
~
2n n!
x>0
For to be continuous,
(0) = 0
Therefore, solving, the boundary conditions are satisfied by odd n only.
Therefore,
1
En = ~w n +
2
Therefore, the spacing between the energy levels is 2~
28
3D Harmonic Oscillator
The Hamiltonian operator in 3D is

2
=~
H
2m
2
2
2
+
+
x2 y 2 z 2

1
+ m 2 x2 + y 2 + z 2
2
corresponding to (x, y, z).

Let E be the eigenvalue of H
Therefore,
H(x,
y, z) = E(x, y, z)
75
1D Schrodinger Equation
3D Schrodinger Equation
(x, t)
||2 dx = 1
(x, y, z, t)
||2 dx dy dz = 1
2
= px + V (x)
H
2m
!
i~ 2
2
2
H=
+
+
+ V (x, y, z)
m x2 y 2 z 2
(x, t) = (x)(t)
iEt
(t) = e ~
P
iEt
(x, t) = cn n (x)e ~
2
2
2
= px + py + pz + V (x, y, z)
H
2m 2 !
i~
=
H
+ V (x, y, z)
m x2
(x, y, z, t) = (x, y, z)(t)
iEt
(t) = e ~
P
iEt
(x, y, z, t) = cn n (x, y, z)e ~
Table 1: Comparison of 1D and 3D Schrodinger Equations

Separating the variables, let
(x, y, z) = x (x)y (y)z (z)
Therefore,
~ 2
1
+ m 2 x2 x (x) = En x (x)
2
2m x
2
!
~ 2
1
2 2
+ m y y (y) = Em y (y)
2m y 2 2
!
1
~ 2
2 2
+ m z z (z) = El z (z)
2m z 2 2
!
Therefore,
E = En + Em + El
3
= ~ + ~(n + m + l)
2
Exercise 18.
Consider a single particle in a 3D infinite well of side a, which is equivalent
to a single particle in a box of side a, cornered at (0, 0, 0). The potential is
given by
V (x, y, z) =
;
;
inside the box

outside the box
76
Find the wave function of the particle.

Solution 18.
As the potential outside the box is infinite, for any point outside the box,
(x) = 0
For a point inside the box,
2
=~
H
2m
2
2
2
+
+
x2 y 2 z 2
corresponding to (x, y, z). Therefore,

Let E be the eigenvalue of H
H(x,
y, z) = E(x, y, z)
Therefore, separating the variables,
(x, y, z) = x (x)y (y)z (z)
Therefore,
H(x,
y, z) = E(x, y, z)
x (x)y (y)z (z) = Ex (x)y (y)z (z)
H

~2 00
x y z + x y 00 z + x y z 00 = Ex y z
2m
2mE
x 00 y 00 z 00
+
+
= 2
x
y
z
~
Let
kx =
v
u
u x 00
t
ky =
v
u
u y 00
t
kz =
v
u
u z 00
t
x
y
z
k=
2mE
~2
77
Therefore,
kx 2 + ky 2 + kz 2 = k 2
Therefore,
x (x) = A sin(kx x) + B cos(kx x)
y (y) = C sin(ky y) + D cos(ky y)
z (z) = F sin(kz z) + G cos(kz z)
Therefore, as is continuous at (0, 0, 0), solving,
B=0
D=0
G=0
kx a = nx
ky a = ny
kz a = nz
Therefore,
x (x) = A sin(kx x)
y (y) = C sin(ky y)
z (z) = F sin(kz z)
Therefore,
nx
ny
nz
(x, y, z) = N sin
x + sin
y + sin
z
a
a
a

Therefore, normalizing,
||2 dx dy dz = 1
Therefore, solving,
s 3
N =
2
a
78
Therefore,
E=
=
k 2 ~2
2m

kx 2 + ky 2 + kz 2 ~2

nx
a
2
2m
+

ny 2
a
nz
a
2
~2
2m
Therefore, there is degeneracy in the energies, i.e., for different combinations

of nx , ny , nz , there exist different wave functions with same energy.
29
Angular Momentum
Definition 24 (Angular momentum operators). The angular momentum

operators in the x, y, z directions are defined as
x = ypz zpy
L
y = zpx xpz
L
z = xpy ypx
L
where x, y, z are the position operators in the x, y, z directions respectively, and px , py , pz are the momentum operators in the x, y, z directions
respectively.
30
Commutation Relations for 3D Operators
Theorem 33.
i, j = i~ij
h
h
pi , pj = 0
i, pi = 0
where i, j can be x, y, z.
79
30.1
Angular Momentum Operators in Orthogonal Directions

x, L
y = ypz zpy (
L
z px xpx ) (
z px xpz ) ypz zpy
ypz zpx ypz xpz zpy zpx + zpy xpz
| {z }
1
| {z }
2
| {z }
3
| {z }
4
zpx ypz + zpx zpy + xpz ypz xpz zpy

| {z }
5
| {z }
6
| {z }
7
| {z }
8
Therefore, term 2 is
ypz xpz = yxpz pz
= xypz px
= xpz ypz
[
x, pz ] = 0
[
y, x
] = 0
[
y , pz ] = 0
Therefore, term 2 is equal to term 7.

similarly, solving,
x, L
y = i~L
z
L
y, L
z = i~L
x
L
z, L
x = i~L
y
L
30.2
Angular Momentum Operators and Square of Angular Momentum Operator

2, L
x = L
2x + L
2 + L
2, L
x
L
y
z
3 + L
yL
yL
x + L
zL
zL
x L
3 L
xL
yL
y L
xL
zL
z
=L
x
x
Therefore,
y L
x = L
y , L
x +
L
xL
y = i~L
z + L
xL
y
L
yL
yL
x = i~L
yL
z + L
yL
xL
y
L
yL
z i~L
zL
y + L
xL
yL
y
= i~L
Similarly,
zL
zL
x = i~L
zL
y + i~L
yL
z + L
xL
zL
z
L
80
Therefore, substituting and solving,

h
i
2, L
x = 0
L
Similarly,
h
i
2, L
y = 0
L
2, L
z = 0
L
Therefore, as the commutation relations are zeros, the operators have common
eigenfunctions.
z.
Let Ylm be an eigenfunction of the momentum operator L
Therefore,
z Ylm = m~Ylm
L
2 Ylm = l(l + 1)~2 Ylm
L
where m and l are real constants.
Let
+ = L
x + iL
y
L
= L
x iL
y
L
be two operators.
+ and L
are
Therefore, the commutation relations on L
h
i
z, L
= ~L
+
L
z, L
= ~L
30.3
2, L
+ = 0
L
2, L
= 0
L
on Ylm
Effect of L
zL
+ Ylm = ~L
+ + L
+L
z Ylm
L

z L
+ = L
z , L
+ +
L
+L
z = ~L
+ + L
+L
z
L
z Ylm
L
= m~ + Ylm
+ Ylm
= ~(m + 1)L
+ Ylm is also an eigenfunction of L
z , with eigenvalue ~(m + 1).
Therefore, L
Similarly,
2L
+ Ylm = L
+L
2 Ylm
L
+ Ylm
= ~2 l(l + 1)L
+ Ylm is also an eigenfunction of L
2 , but with the same eigenvalue,
Therefore, L
~2 l(l + 1).
81
30.4
z
Ladder of L
z are separated by ~. Therefore, the eigenvalues form a

The eigenvalues of L
ladder similar to that of the quantum harmonic oscillator, in Figure 10.
As Lz is a component of the angular momentum, its magnitude must be less
than or equal to that of the total angular momentum. Hence, this ladder is
bounded both at the top and the bottom. Therefore, for the maximum value
of m,
+ Ylm = 0
L
Therefore,
L
+ Ylm
0=L

x iL
y L
x + iL
y Ylm
= L
2x + iL
xL
y iL
yL
x + L
2y Ylm
= L

x, L
y
2x + L
2y + i L
= L
h
i
Ylm
2 + L
2 ~L
z Ylm
= L
x
y

2 L
2 ~L
z Ylm
= L
z

= ~2 l(l + 1) ~2 m2 ~2 m Ylm

= ~2 l(l + 1) ~2 m(m + 1) Ylm

Therefore,
~l(l + 1) ~m(m + 1) = 0
mmax = l
Therefore, each li has a ladder, with first step li ~, last step li ~, and step ~
corresponding to it.
Let the number of steps in each ladder be N . Therefore,
N = 2l + 1
Therefore, l can be expressed as
N 1
2
where N N.
Therefore, the ladder corresponding to l = 0 has one step, with m = 0, the
ladder corresponding to l = 12 has two steps, with m = 21 and m = 12 , and
so on.
l=
82
31
Angular Momentum in Spherical Coordinates
In spherical coordinates,
x = r sin cos
y = r sin sin
z = r cos
where [0, ], [0, 2), r > 0.
Therefore,
r=
x2 + y 2 + z 2
z
2
= cos
x + y2 + z2

y
= tan1
x
Therefore,
x = ~
L
i
y = ~
L
i
z = ~
L
i
cos
sin
tan
!
sin
cos
tan
2 = ~2 1 sin
L
sin
= ~ei
L
i cot
1
2
+
sin2 2
Normalizing in spherical coordinates,
|Ylm |2 r2 sin dr d d = 1
As Ylm is independent of r,
|Ylm |2 sin d d = 1
83
z,
Therefore, as Ylm is the eigenfunction of L
z Ylm (, ) = m~Ylm (, )
L
Therefore,
~
Ylm (, ) = m~Ylm (, )
i
Ylm (, ) = imYlm (, )
Therefore, solving,
Ylm (, ) = Nlm eim flm ()
2 Ylm (, ) = ~l(l + 1)Ylm (, )
L
where Nlm is the constant of normalization.
For Yll , the eigenfunction corresponding to the highest step in the ladder,
+ Yll
0=L

+ Nll eil fll ()
=L
fll ()
+ i cot Nll leil fll ()
!
fll ()
l cot fll ()
= ~e
Nll e
il
= ~ei(l+1) Nll
=
fll ()
l cot fll ()
Therefore, solving,
fll () (sin )l
Yll (, ) = Nll eil (sin )l
on Yll ,
Therefore, applying L
Ylm (, ) =
v
u
u (2l + 1)
t
l |m| ! im

e flm (cos )
4 l + |m| !
where
=
(1)m
1
;
;
m0
m0
and flm is the associated Legendre function.

84
32
Hamiltonian Operator in 3D
In 3D,
2
2
2
2
=~
H
+
+
2m x2 y 2 z 2
~2 2
+ V (x, y, z)
=
2m
+ V (x, y, z)
where m is the mass of the particle, and
1 2
f
1
1
2 f =
sin
(rf ) + 2
2
r r
r
sin
33
1 2f
+
sin2 2
2
L
1 2
(rf
)
r r2
r2 ~2
Central Potentials
Definition 25. A potential V , such that

V (r, , ) = V (r)
is called a central potential.
Therefore, for a central potential, the Hamiltonian operator is
2
= ~ 2 + V (r)
H
2m
where m is the mass of the particle.

Therefore,
L
z = 0
H,
L
2 = 0
H,
i
As Ylm is a basis, any function f (, ) can be expressed as

f (, ) =
X
l
X
clm Ylm (, )
l=0 m=l
As for quantum harmonic oscillators,

+ Ylm = Alm Yl(m+1)
L
85
Similarly,
Ylm = Blm Yl(m+1)
L
Let
+ Ylm
f (, ) = L
g(, ) = Ylm
Therefore, the identity

f (, ) L g(, ) sin d d =
L f (, ) g(, ) sin d d
implies

+ Ylm
L

+ Ylm sin d d =
L
|Alm |2 Yl(m+1) Yl(m+1) sin d d
= |Alm |2
Therefore,

L
+ Ylm
L
Ylm sin d d =
=
=

x iL
y
L

x + iL
y Ylm
L

2 L
2 hL
z Ylm
L
z

Ylm sin d d
Ylm sin d d
~2 l(l + 1) ~2 m2 ~2 m Ylm Ylm sin d d

= ~2 l(l + 1) m(m + 1) 1
Therefore,
|Alm |2 = ~2 l(l + 1) m(m + 1)
Therefore,
q
Alm = ~ l(l + 1) m(m + 1)

q
Blm = ~ l(l + 1) m(m 1)
34
General Form of the Uncertainty Principle
Theorem 34 (General Form of the Uncertainty Principle).

2
A B

!2
1 h i
A, B
2i
86
34.1
++
+ = L
x + iL
y
L
= L
x iL
y
L
Therefore,
x = L+ + L
L
2
y = L+ L
L
2
z and L
2.
Let Ylm be an eigenfunction of L
Therefore,
D E
x Ylm sin d d
Lx =
Ylm L
+ + L
L
Ylm sin d d
=
Ylm
2
Alm
Blm
Ylm Yl(m+1) sin d d +

Ylm Yl(m1) sin d d
=
2
2
Therefore, as Ylm , Yl(m+1) , and Yl(m1) are mutually orthogonal, their products are zero. Therefore,
x = 0 + 0
L
=0
Similarly,
x = 0 0
L
=0
Also,
L L+ = L2 Lz 2 ~Lz
L+ L = L2 Lz 2 + ~Lz
87
Therefore,
x = L+ + L
L
2

1
2
+L
+ L
L
+
x =
2 + L
2+ + L
L
L
4
Therefore,
L
+ Ylm = ~2 l(l + 1) m(m + 1) Ylm
L
+L
Ylm = ~2 l(l + 1) m(m 1) Ylm
L
Therefore,
E

1
2
+L
+ L
L
+ Ylm sin d d
Lx =
Ylm L
4

~2
2l(l + 1) 2m2
=
4

~2
=
l(l + 1) m2
2
Similarly,
2
D E

2y = ~ l(l + 1) m2
L
2
Therefore,
~ q
l(l + 1) m2
Lx =
2
~ q
Ly = l(l + 1) m2
2
Therefore,

h2
Lx Ly =
l(l + 1) m2
2
Therefore, by the General Form of the Uncertainty Principle,
1
Lx Ly hi~Lz i
2i
1
i~ ~m
2i
Therefore,
D
hLz i = i~m
Therefore,
Lx Ly
~2
m
2
88
Part II
Solid State Physics

1
Lecturer Information
Tammy Ben-Yaacov
E-mail: tammybenyaacov@gmail.com
Required Reading
1. Streetman, B. Solid State Electronic Devices
Additional Reading
1. Kittel, Introduction to solid state physics, John Wiley & Sons.
2. Pierret. Advanced semiconductor Fundamentals, Prentice Hall.
3. Ashcroft, Solid State Physics, Harcourt college publishers.
89
Electrons
Definition 26 (Particle nature of electrons). An electron behaves as a

negatively charged charge carrying particle.
The magnitude of the charge on it is
q = 1.602 1019 C
Its mass is
m0 = 9.11 1031 kg
Definition 27 (Wave nature of electrons). Electrons exhibit wave-like properties, in addition to particle-like properties.
The energy transmitted by a wave is
E = h
hc
=
where

h = Plancks constant 6.626 1034
= frequency
c = speed of light
= wavelength
Semiconductors
Law 1 (Ohms Law). The voltage across two points on a conductor is directly proportional to the current through the conductor. The constant of
proportionality is called the resistance of the conductor.
V
=R
I
Law 2 (Microscopic Ohms Law).
J = E
where J is the current density, is the conductivity, E is the electric field

in the resistor.
90
Definition 28 (Resistivity). If
R=
L
A
where R is the resistance of the resistor, L is the length of the resistor, and
A is the cross-sectional area of the resistor, then is called the resistivity of
the resistor.
= 1 is called the conductivity of the resistor.
They are constant for a particular material.
Conductors
Semiconductors
10
10
5.1
Insulators
Control Factors
The major factors which affect the conductivity of a material are

1. Temperature
2. Chemical composition
(a) Atomic bonding
(b) Crystal structure
(c) Charge carriers in the crystal
3. Optical effects
4. Doping
5.2
II
Chemical Makeup
III
IV
VI
Al
Si
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Cd
In
Silicon is usually used as a semiconductor, as it

91
1. is easily available, hence economical

2. performs better at higher temperatures
3. can be converted to silica on heating
Semiconductors
Elemental
Compound
Binary Compound SCs Ternary Compound SCs

III-V
II-VI
GaAs, InP, GaN
ZnO
AlGaAs, InGaN
Figure 11: Classification of Semiconductors

Exercise 19.
A sample of Germanium has resistivity = 0.46W m. The dimensions of the
sample are
l = 50m
h = 0.2m
w = 1m
Find the resistance of the sample and the conductivity of the material.
Solution 19.
= 0.46 m
= 46 cm
Therefore,
=
1
46 cm
1
= 0.022
cm
=
92
Therefore,
l = 50 m
= 50 104 c m
Therefore,
l
A
= 11500 104 W
R=
Exercise 20.
A sample of Germanium has resistivity . The dimensions of the sample are
as shown.
B
C
W
L
Find the relationship between R and .
Solution 20.
Consider a slice with height h, width w, and thickness dx. Therefore, the
cross-sectional area of the elemental slice is
dA = wh
!
BC
=w
x+C
L
!
Bx C(L x)
=w
L
Therefore,
dR =
=
dx
wh
L dx

w Bx C(L x)
93
Types of Materials
Atoms tend to arrange themselves in such a way that the resultant energy is
minimized.
Materials
Amorphous
Polycrystalline
No well-defined structure
Crystalline
Many small regions, Long range 3D order of

each having well orga- atoms, with repeating
nized atomic structure unit cells, throughout
the entire solid
Figure 12: Classification of Materials

Semiconductor devices can use all of these types of materials.
poly Si (polycrystalline)
SiO2 (amorphous)
Si substrate (crystalline)
Figure 13: MOS which uses all three types of materials
Bohrs Model
According to Bohrs model of the atom, electrons can have discrete energy
levels only. The electrons in an atom are arranged in the order of filling
94
electronic shells, given by the Aufbau Principle.

The energy of a free electron is called Evac . This is used as a reference energy.
Atomic Bonding
Bonding
Metallic bonding
Ionic bonding
Covalent bonding
sharing of electrons
with nearest neighbours
Figure 14: Types of Atomic Bonds
8.1
Covalent Bonds in Silicon
Figure 15: Arrangement of electrons in a silicon atom, in shells according to

Bohrs model
In a silicon crystal, the silicon atoms are packed tightly and periodically,
i.e. in a repeating pattern. The atomic density for silicon is approximately
1023 atoms per cm3 .
This arrangement of silicon atoms in crystalline form acts as a conductor only
95
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Figure 16: 2D model of bonding in silicon

at certain temperatures. At low temperatures, i.e. around 0 K, the electrons
are tightly bound, and hence the crystal behaves as an insulator. However,
at higher temperatures, the additional thermal energy may be sufficient to
break bonds, and hence produce free electrons.
This property of silicon and other semiconductors makes it possible to control
their conductivity.
Basics of Crystal Structure
Definition 29 (Crystal lattice). The periodic arrangement of atoms in a

crystal is called crystal lattice.
Definition 30 (Lattice constant). The distance between two adjacent atoms
in a crystal lattice is called the lattice constant.
It is denoted by a.
It is determined by the attractive and repulsive forces acting on the atoms.
The lattice constant corresponds to the lowest energy in the crystal.
a
Figure 17: Crystal lattice and lattice constant
96
Definition 31 (Unit cell). A volume which is repeated throughout the

crystal is called the unit cell. It is used to represent the entire crystal lattice.
Definition 32. The atomic packing factor defined to be

APF =
9.1
volume filled by atoms

total volume of unit cell
Simple Cubic Lattice
The number of atoms per unit cell are

1
atoms per unit cell =
8
|{z}
atoms per corner
8
|{z}
number of corners
=1
The atomic packing factor is
volume of 1 atom
4 3
r
3
APF =
=
6
volume of 1 atom
number of atoms
z }| {
z}|{
a
|{z}
volume of unit cell
}| {
3
4
a
3
2
number of atoms
a
|{z}
volume of unit cell
97
z}|{
Figure 18: Simple cubic lattice (SC)
9.2
Face Centred Cubic Lattice

1
8
|{z}
atoms per corner
1
2
|{z}
8
|{z}
number of corners
6
|{z}
atoms per face
number of faces
=4
The atomic packing factor is
volume of 1 atom
volume of 1 atom
4 3
r
3
APF =
=
3 2
number of atoms
z }| {
z}|{
a3
|{z}
volume of unit cell
}|
4
a

3
2 2
number of atoms
{
!3
a
|{z}
volume of unit cell
98
z}|{
Figure 19: Face centred cubic lattice (FCC)
9.3
Body Centred Cubic Lattice

1
8
|{z}
atoms per corner
=2
99
8
|{z}
number of corners
1
|{z}
atom at centre
Figure 20: Body centred cubic lattice (BCC)
10
Basics of Crystal Growth
Definition 33. Epitaxy is the growth of layers, called epitaxial layers, on

top of a thicker substrate layer.
Homoepitaxy is growing an epitaxial layer of the same material as the substrate. Heteroepitaxy is growing an epitaxial layer of a material different
from the substrate.
epitaxial layers
Layer 2
Layer 1
substrate (wafer)
Figure 21: Epitaxial layers

Due to different properties of the materials which make up the substrate
100
and epitaxial layers, there are certain constraints on the possible combinations.
These factors include
1. lattice constants
2. crystal structure
10.1
Lattice Matching
If there is a difference between the lattice constants of the materials of two

adjacent layers, there is a stress or strain generated, due to the interaction of
the different lattices.
To minimize this stress, a technique called lattice matching is used.
Suppose the lattice constants of AlAs, InAs, and GaAs are as shown in
the graph.
Egap
AlAs
Alx Ga1x As
Inx Al1x As
GaAs
Inx Ga1x As
InAs
lattice constant
A
Figure 22: Lattice matching

If the substrate used is GaAs, and the epitaxial layer is made of InAlAs,
then the composition of the epitaxial layer of InAlAs can be determined
graphically.
The straight line connecting the points representing AlAs and InAs represents all possible values of Inx Al1x As, with x varying from 0 to 1, with 0
101
corresponding to AlAs, and 1 corresponding to InAs.

Therefore, the ideal material for the epitaxial layer, is the composition of
Inx Al1x As with lattice constant equal to that of GaAs.
11
Thermal Motion
Definition 34 (Ionization energy). The energy needed to break a bond and

free an electron is called the binding energy, or the ionization energy.
Definition 35 (Thermal motion). The motion of electrons due to the thermal
energy provided, is called thermal motion. This motion is random in nature,
with all electrons moving around, rotating, and interacting, i.e. colliding with
other electrons.
Theorem 35. From statistical mechanics, which models the motion of free
electrons, the thermal energy of an electron is
3
Ethermal = kT
2
where k is Boltzmanns constant, and T is the temperature in kelvin.
Hence, the average velocity of an electron is
s
v=
11.1
3kT
m
Thermal Generation of Carriers
Definition 36 (EHP). A pair of a free electron, and a positive charge called

a hole is called an electron-hole pair, or an EHP. Both the electron and the
hole are mobile, and can contribute to conduction.
mobile electron
EC
Egap
mobile hole
Figure 23: EHP

102
EV
12
Effective Mass
Definition 37 (Effective mass). To account for influences of the crystal

lattice, altered values of particle masses are used.
These values are called effective masses of particles. They indicate how an
electron will accelerate in the presence of an external force.
For silicon, the effective masses of electrons and holes are
mn = 0.25m0
mp = 0.5m0
where m0 is the real mass of an electron.
13
Intrinsic Semiconductors
Definition 38 (Intrinsic carrier concentration). The concentration of electrons, which is equal to the concentration of holes, in a material is called the
intrinsic carrier concentration. It is denoted by ni .
Therefore,
n = p = ni
13.1
Effect of Energy Band Gap on Intrinsic Carrier

Concentration
If the energy band gap increases, electrons need more energy to go from the
valence band to the conduction band. Therefore, at a specific temperature,
the intrinsic carrier concentration decreases as the energy band gap increases.
13.2
Thermal Generation and Recombination
Definition 39 (Generation of an EHP). The process of creation of an EHP,

which occurs due to an electron transitioning to the ionization band is called
generation of an EHP. The rate of generation of EHPs is denoted by G.
Definition 40 (Recombination). The process of destruction of an EHP,
which occurs when an electron transitions back to an empty state, is called
recombination. The rate of recombination of EHPs is denoted by R.
103
For a steady state concentration to be maintained at a given temperature,

the recombination of EHPs must take place at the same rate at which they
are generated, i.e.,
R=G
Therefore,
G = i np
= i ni 2
=R
where i is the recombination coefficient.
At thermal equilibrium,
np = ni 2
14
Extrinsic Semiconductors
Definition 41 (Doping). The process of introducing atoms into the crystals

of a semiconducting material is called doping.
The newly introduced materials are called dopants or impurities.
The dopant atoms either donate or accept electrons, and hence increase the
conductivity, as compared to the intrinsic conductivity.
Definition 42 (Dopant concentration). Dopant concentration is defined as
the number of donors or acceptors per unit volume.
Typically the values range from 1012 to 1019 donors or acceptors per cm3 .
Econduction
Edonor
Egap
Eacceptor
Evalence
Figure 24: Typical Energy Diagram for Doped Material
104
Si
Si
Si
Si
Figure 25: Silicon lattice with phosphorus doping
14.1
N-type Material
Consider a silicon lattice doped with phosphorus atoms.

Four of the five valence electrons of the phosphorus atoms form covalent
bonds with the adjacent silicon atoms. The extra electron, which is loosely
bound, is donated to the lattice, and hence is available for conduction.
Such a material is called a N-type material.
14.2
P-type Material
Si
Si
Si
Si
Figure 26: Silicon lattice with boron doping
Consider a silicon lattice doped with boron atoms.

The three valence electrons of the boron atoms form covalent bonds with the
adjacent silicon atoms. Therefore, there is one missing electron, as compared
to the original lattice. Hence, there is a hole per acceptor atom in the lattice,
which is available for conduction.
Such a material is called a P-type material.
105
14.3
Thermal Equilibrium
Type of Material
Majority Carriers
Minority Carriers
N-type (Nd >> ni , p)
Electrons
n = Nd
Holes
2
p = nni
P-type (Na >> ni , n)
Holes
p = Na
Electrons
2
n = npi
Table 2: Concentration of charge carriers in N-type and P-type materials
14.4
Dependence of Carrier Concentration on Temperature
log n ( cm1 3 )
Nd
1
T
intrinsic
extrinsic
( K1 )
ionization
Figure 27: Carrier concentration and temperature regions

At very low temperatures, i.e. close to absolute zero, the number of free
electrons are almost zero. As the temperature increases, donor atoms start
106
ionizing, and hence the number of free electrons increases. This range of
temperature, up to the temperature at which all donor atoms are ionized is
called the ionization region.
After the temperature at which all donor atoms are ionized, up to the
temperature at which the in the host atoms start ionizing and generating
EHPs, is called the extrinsic region. In this region, the number of free electrons
is equal to the number of electrons donated by the dopant atoms, i.e. n = Nd .
After the temperature at which the host atoms start ionizing, the number
of electrons is equal to the sum of the number of electrons donated by the
dopant atoms, and the number of thermally generated EHPs. This region is
called the intrinsic region.
15
Energy Band Model
Conduction Band
EC
Egap
Valence Band
EV
Figure 28: Energy Bands
Definition 43. The energy of a free electron is called Evacuum .

Definition 44. The energy level of the nth shell in an atom is denoted by
En .
15.1
Splitting of Energy Levels
The energy levels of electrons in an atom can be represented as

107
Evacuum
..
.
E3
E2
E1
Figure 29: Energy Levels in a Single Atom
According to Paulis Exclusion Principle, no two electrons can occupy the

same energy level. Hence, if two atoms are brought close to each other, the
energy levels of the shells split, and form new energy levels, which can be
represented as
Evacuum
..
.
Figure 30: Split Energy Levels in two Atoms
Therefore, in the limiting case, if an infinite number of atoms are brought

together to form a crystal, the split energy levels form ranges of energy which
can be occupied by electrons. These energy ranges are called energy bands.
108
Evacuum
..
.
Figure 31: Energy Bands in a Crystal

For a semiconductor, the energy bands can be represented as
Free states
Conduction band
Valence band
Tightly bound bands

Figure 32: Energy Bands in a Semiconductor Crystal
Definition 45. The energy gap between Evacuum and Econduction is called the
electron affinity for that particular material. It is denoted by q.
Definition 46. The intrinsic energy level is denoted by Ei .
109
Evacuum
q
Econduction
1
E
2 gap
Egap
Eintrinsic
Evalence
Figure 33: Energy Gaps for a Perfect Semiconductor
16
Presence of an Electric Field in the Energy Band Model
Suppose a voltage V is applied across a semiconductor.

Therefore,
dV
E =
dx
1 dEi
=
q dx
where Ei is the intrinsic energy level.
Due to the electric field generated, the electrons move towards the positive
terminal and the holes towards the negative terminal.
Let the potential difference be applied such that the electric field generated
is directed towards the left.
Hence, the energy bands are modified, and a slope is generated in the bands.
Therefore, the energy bands which were originally represented as in Figure 34,
will now be represented as in Figure 35. Hence, the electrons in the energy
bands tend to move to the right.
This behaviour is analogous to the behaviour of water in tilted pipes, with
the water representing the electrons and the air representing the holes.
In general, the direction of the electric field is the same as the slope of the
energy bands.
110
Conduction band
Valence band
Figure 34: Energy Bands for a Perfect Semiconductor
Conduction band
Valence band
Figure 35: Energy Bands for a Perfect Semiconductor in Presence of an

Electric Field
Exercise 21.
Given an electric field
dn
E (x) = c dx
n
where
kT
c=
q
= 0.026 eV(at room temperature)
The doping profile is given to be
n(x) = Nd (x)
= N0 ex
111
1. Find E (x).
1
, what is E (x)?
2. If = 1 m
3. Sketch the energy band diagram.
Solution 21.
1.
dn
dex
= N0
dx
dx
= N0 ex
Therefore,
N0 ex
E (x) = c
N0 ex
cN0 ex
=
N0 ex
= c
2.
E (x) = c
= (0.026V)(1
= 260
V
cm
1
)
m
3. As the electric field is positive, the slope of the energy bands also must be
positive. As the electric field is constant, the energy bands must be linear.
Therefore, the energy band diagram is
Conduction band
Valence band
112
Exercise 22.
The electric field through a sample is given to be as shown.
Sketch the energy levels with respect to x.

Solution 22.
EC
Ei
EV
EC
Ei
EV
x
113
17
Movement of Carriers in Semiconductor

Crystals
The motion of charge carriers in a semiconductor crystal is affected by the

interactions within the crystal. The collisions between the charge carriers
affects their movement.
Definition 47 (Scattering processes). The change in direction of movement
of charge carriers, due to collisions is called scattering processes.
Definition 48 (Mean free path). The average distance between collision is
called the mean free path. It is denoted by lm .
Definition 49 (Time between collisions). The average time between collision
is called the mean free path. It is denoted by m .
17.1
Drift
Consider an electric field E applied on a sample. Therefore the net motion

of the electrons is in the direction opposite to that of the electric field, and
the net motion of the holes is in the direction of the electric field.
Definition 50 (Drift). The motion of charge carriers which is driven by
electric fields is called drift.
The acceleration of the charge carriers due to the external electric field is
balanced by the deceleration of the charge carriers due to collisions.
Therefore, on a microscopic level, the motion of the charge carriers is random,
and on a macroscopic level, the charge carriers move with a constant velocity.
Definition 51 (Average drift velocity). The average velocity of charge carriers,
on a macroscopic scale, is called the average drift velocity.
The force on a charge carrier is given by
F = qE
Therefore,
F m = q E m
= m vd
qm
vd = E
m
114
Definition 52 (Mobility). The ease with which electrons and holes can flow
through the crystal is called mobility. It is denoted by . It is defined to be
q
=
m
where q is the charge on the particle, is the average time between collisions,
and m is the effective mass.
Mobility is the ratio between the drift velocity of electrons or holes, and the
electric field acting on them.
Therefore,
qm
=
m
As the effective mass of an electron is less than that of a hole, the mobility of
an electron is more than that of a hole.
For silicon, at room temperature, the mobilities of electrons and holes are
cm2
Vs
cm2
p = 400
Vs
n = 1000
vd ( cm
)
s
vsaturationn
vsaturationp
slope = n
slope = p
V
E ( cm )
Ecritical
17.1.1
Current Density due to Net Drift
Definition 53 (Direction of current due to drift of electrons). The direction

of the current generated due to the net drift of electrons is defined to be in
the direction opposite to the drift velocity of the electrons.
115
Definition 54 (Direction of current due to drift of holes). The direction of

the current generated due to the net drift of holes is defined to be in the
direction of the drift velocity of the holes.
Theorem 36 (Current density due to net drift). The current density due to
the drift of electrons is
Jdriftn = qnvdn
= qnn E
The current density due to the drift of holes is
Jdriftp = qpvdp
= qpp E
Therefore, the net current density is
Jdrifttotal = Jdriftn + Jdriftp
= qnn E + qnp E
= q(nn + pp ) E
Theorem 37.
= q(nn + pp )
Proof.
J = E
= q(nn + pp ) E
Therefore,
= q(nn + pp )
Theorem 38. For a N-type material,

= n
= qnn
116
Proof. For a N-type material, n >> p.

Therefore,
= q(nn + pp )
= qnn
Theorem 39. For a P-type material,

= p
= qpp
Proof. For a P-type material, p >> n.
Therefore,
= q(nn + pp )
= qpp
Exercise 23.
A sample of a P-type material with length l = 10m is connected to a voltage
of V = 10 V. The dopant concentration in the material is Na = 1017 cm1 3 .
Find the drift velocity of the holes and the current density.
Solution 23.
p =
=
m

1.6 1019 C 1013 s
0.5 9.11 1031 kg

m2
= 0.035
Vs
Therefore,
vdriftp = p E
V
= p
l
cm2
= 350
Vs
= 3.5 106
cm
s
V
104
cm
117
As the material is P type,

Jdrift = Jdriftp
= qpp E
= qpvdriftp

= 1.6 10
= 5.6 104
17.2
19
1
10
cm3
17
!
6 cm
3.5 10
A
cm2
Scattering Mechanisms that Influence Electron

and Hole Mobility
Definition 55 (Lattice scattering). The scattering of charge carriers due to

interaction with atoms in the crystal lattice is called lattice scattering.
In this scattering, there are collisions of moving carriers due to disturbances
in the semiconductor. Therefore, as the velocity of the moving carriers
increases with temperature, lattice scattering dominates the mobility at high
temperature.
Definition 56 (Impurity scattering). The scattering of charge carriers due
to crystal defects is called impurity scattering.
In this scattering, the fixed charges dispersed throughout the crystal exert
forces on the charge carriers.
A slow moving carrier is likely to be scattered more strongly due to interaction,
than a fast moving carrier. Therefore, impurity scattering dominates the
mobility of the charge carriers at low temperature.
The temperature range for the graph in Figure 36 is in the extrinsic region
corresponding to the graph in Figure 27. Therefore, the graph of n with
respect to T1 is as in Figure 37. Hence, as J and are directly proportional
to n, they exhibit a similar relation to the temperature.
118
(log scale)
impurity scattering
lattice scattering
T
Figure 36: Effect of Temperature on Mobility
n (log scale)
1
T
intrinsic
extrinsic
ionization
Figure 37: Effect of Doping Concentration and Temperature on Mobility
119
17.3
Diffusion
Definition 57 (Diffusion). The motion of charge carriers from regions of

higher concentration to regions of lower concentration, is called diffusion. It
is a gradient driven motion.
Definition 58 (Direction of current due to diffusion of electrons). The
direction of the current generated due to the diffusion of electrons is defined
to be in the direction opposite to the movement of the electrons.
Definition 59 (Direction of current due to diffusion of holes). The direction
of the current generated due to the diffusion of electrons is defined to be in
the direction of the movement of the holes.
17.3.1
Current Density due to Net Diffusion
Definition 60 (Direction of current due to diffusion of electrons). The

direction of the current generated due to the diffusion of electrons is defined
to be opposite to the direction of the movement of electrons, and hence in the
direction of increase in concentration of electrons with respect to position.
Definition 61 (Direction of current due to diffusion of holes). The direction
of the current generated due to the diffusion of holes is defined to be in the
direction of the movement of holes, and hence opposite to the direction of
increase in concentration of holes with respect to position.
Theorem 40 (Current density due to diffusion). The current density due to
the diffusion of electrons is
Jdiffusionn = qDn
dn
dx
The current density due to the diffusion of holes is

Jdiffusionp = qDp
dp
dx
where Dn and Dp are positive constants.

Theorem 41.
1
Dn = vthermaln l
3
where the motion of electrons is from x = l to x = l.
120
Proof. Consider a N-type sample with some doping profile. The flux through
a cross-section at x = 0 is

1
F = vthermal n(l) n(l)
6
where electrons move from x = l to x = l.
Therefore,
Jdiffusionn = qF
dn
1
= (q) vthermal l
3
dx
!
dn
1
vthermal l
=q
2
dx
Therefore,
1
Dn = vthermaln l
3
Theorem 42.
1
Dp = vthermalp l
3
where the motion of holes is from x = l to x = l.
Exercise 24.
A sample of N-type material has doping profile as shown.
Nd (x)
x
Sketch the graph of the current density with respect to x.
121
The
1
6
is due to the
fact that an electron

can move through 3
spatial dimensions,
with 2 directions of
flow each.
Solution 24.
Nd (x)
Exercise 25.
A sample has doping profile as shown.
N (x)
Nd (x)
Na (x)
x
Sketch the graph of the current density with respect to x.

Solution 25.
The current densities due to the diffusion of electrons and holes are
122
Jdiffusion
Jdiffusionn
Jdiffusionp
x
Therefore, the net diffusion current density is
Jdiffusion
17.4
Transport Equations
The total current densities due to the net motion of electrons and holes is
Jtotaln = Jdriftn + Jdiffusionn
dn
= qnn E + qDn
dx
Jtotalp = Jdriftp + Jdiffusionp
dp
= qpp E + qDp
dx
17.5
Einsteins Relation
Theorem 43 (Einsteins Relation).

D
kT
=
q
At room temperature,
D
= 0.026 V
123
Proof.
vthermal =
1
m vthermal 2
2
3
kT
2
1
v
l
D
3 thermal
=
1
vthermal 2
= 3
1
vthermal 2
= 3 q
1 m vthermal 2
3
q
1 3kT
=
3 q
kT
=
q
Exercise 26.
Find Dn for a sample of silicon at room temperature, if the mobility of
2
.
electrons in the sample is 1000 cm
Vs
Solution 26.
By Einsteins Relation,
Dn
= 0.026 V
n
Dn = 0.026n
= 26
cm2
s
cm2
s
Exercise 27.
Find Dn for a sample of silicon at 450 K, if the mobility of electrons in the
2
sample is 800 cm
.
Vs
124
Solution 27.
Dn
kT
=
n
q
kT
Dn =
n
q
cm2
= 49.7
s
18
Quantum Wells
Consider a sample made with one semiconductor sandwiched between two

samples of another semiconductor. The energy bands in this composite
material is as in Figure 38. Hence, there are quantum wells created in the
energy bands.
Evacuum
EC
EV
Figure 38: Quantum Wells due to Varying Energy Band Gaps
19
Optical Absorption
Let a sample be illuminated with light of photon energy greater than the
energy band gap of the material of the sample.
Therefore, the electrons in the valence band absorb this energy, and move to
the conduction band. Such electrons are called hot electrons. Hot electrons
then lose energy till they reach EC . Thereafter, they recombine with holes in
the valence band, and in the process give out photons corresponding to the
energy band gap of the material.
125
This emitted light can be observed, and used to find the energy band gap of
the material.
20
Optical Generation of Carriers
Consider a sample illuminated by light with photons of energy greater than

the energy gap of the material of the sample. This extra energy will lead to
generation of EHPs.
Let n0 and p0 be the concentrations of electrons and holes, at thermal
equilibrium. Let n
and p be the concentrations of electrons and holes, from
the optically generated EHPs.
Therefore,
n = n0 + n
p = p0 + p
20.1
Carrier Generation Dependent on Illumination
Consider a sample such that

Nd = 1016
1
cm3
Therefore the intensity of light affects the concentration of charge carriers.

For no light,
n = n0
= Nd
= 1016
p = p0
ni 2
=
Nd
= 104
1
cm3
1
cm3
126
For low level injection, i.e. p0 < n

= p < n0 , say n
= p 1014 cm1 3 ,
n = n0 + n
16
= 10 + 1014
1
1016 3
cm
p = p0 + p
= 104 + 1014
1
1014 3
cm
For high level injection, i.e. p0 < n
= p < n0 , say n
= p 1020 cm1 3 ,
n = n0 + n
16
= 10 + 1020
1
1020 3
cm
p = p0 + p
= 104 + 1020
1
1020 3
cm
Therefore, the concentrations are as shown in Figure 39.
127
n, p
1021
1020
1019
1018
1017
1016
1015
1014
1013
1012
1011
1010
109
108
107
106
105
104
103
102
101
100
n = n0 + n
p = p0 + p
n = n0
n = n0 + n
p = p0 + p
p = p0
No Light
Low Level Injection High Level Injection
Figure 39: Carrier Concentration in N-type Material under Different Light

Conditions
20.2
Minority Carrier Concentration in Illuminated Materials
Consider a N-type material which is illuminated from t = 0 onwards.

The rate of recombination is defined to be
R = r np
128
Therefore, in case of low level injection,

R = r np
= r (n0 + n
) (p0 + p)
= r (n0 p0 + n0 p + p0 n
pn
)
As p0 n
and pn
are
small compared to
n0 p0 and n0 p.
= r ni 2 + n0 p

= r ni 2 + r n0 p
= Rthermal + Roptical
Therefore,
G R = Gthermal + Goptical Rthermal + Roptical
= Goptical Roptical
In the steady state, the generation of EHPs is balanced by recombination.
Therefore,
G=R
Goptical = Roptical
As the rate of recombination cannot increase instantaneously, p must be a
function of time.
Definition 62 (Lifetime of minority carriers).
p =
1
r n0
is called the lifetime of the minority carriers

Therefore,
R = r n0 p
p
=
p
Therefore, at steady state,
Goptical = Roptical
p
=
p
129
Therefore,
p = Goptical p
Therefore, before the steady state,
d p
dt
p(t)
d p
Goptical
=
p
dt
GR=
Therefore, solving,

p(t) = Goptical p 1 e
Similarly, for a sample which is stopped being illuminated at t = 0,

p(t) = Goptical p e
20.3
Conductivity of Illuminated Materials
When a sample is not illuminated,

J = 0 E
When the sample has light shined on it,
J = (0 +
) E
Therefore,
=
= light dark

= qn (n + n
) + qp (p + p) qn n + qp p
= qp p + qn n
= qGoptical p (p + n )
21
Photo-detectors
A device which changes its resistivity when exposed to light is called a photodetector. The basic structure is as in Figure 40. However, realistically the
structure of the device is as in Figure 41.
130
A
Figure 40: Basic Structure of a Photo-detector
A
semiconductor
insulating substrate
Figure 41: Actual Structure of a Photo-detector
22
Continuity Equations
Consider a slice of thickness x in a semiconductor sample. The rate of

change of the number of holes in the slice, is the sum of the difference between
the number of holes entering this slice and the number of holes exiting this
slice, and the net rate of generation of holes.
dp
1

=

dx xx+x q

Jp (x) Jp (x + x)
+ (G R)
x
!
As the temperature is constant, the thermally generated carrier concentrations

do not change with time. Therefore, the only change responsible for the change
in the net carrier concentration is the change in the optically generated carrier
concentration.
Therefore, if the slice is infinitesimally thin,
p(x, t)
p
=
t
t
1
=
q
p(x, t)
Jp (x, t)
+ Goptical
x
p
!
131
Similarly, for electrons,

n(x, t)
n
=
t
t
!
!
1 Jn (x, t)
n
(x, t)
=
+ Goptical
q
x
n
22.1
Uniform Carrier Distribution
Assume
E =0
If the charge carrier distribution in a semiconductor is zero, i.e.,
p
=0
x
n
=0
x
there is no diffusion in the semiconductor. Therefore,
p
=0
x
If the semiconductor is illuminated,
p(t)
p
= Goptical
t
p
Therefore, solving,

p(t) = Goptical p 1 e
If the semiconductor is stopped being illuminated,

p
p(t)
=
t
p
Therefore, solving,
p(t) = p0 e
where p0 is the initial condition.

132
22.2
Non-uniform Illumination, Steady State Injection,

Illumination only at End
Definition 63 (Diffusion length).

Lp =
Dp p
is defined to be the diffusion length for holes.

Ln =
Dn n
is defined to be the diffusion length for electrons.

Consider a N-type semiconductor sample, connected to an ohmic contact
at one end and illuminated only at x = 0.
Assume
E =0
If the illumination is non-uniform,
p
6 0
=
x
n
6 0
=
x
If the illumination is a steady state injection,
p
=0
t
n
=0
t
Therefore, the continuity equation for holes is
p(x, t)
1 Jp (x, t) p(x, t)
=
t
q
x
p
1 Jp (x, t) p(x, t)
0=
q
x
p
Therefore, as E = 0, the transport equation for Jp is

Jp = Jdiffusionp
p
= qDp
x
133
Therefore, solving
1
p
p
qDp
0=
q x
x
p
2
p
p
=
2
x
Dp p
!
Therefore,
2 p
p
= 2
2
x
Lp
Therefore, as the sample is illuminated only at x = 0, for 0 < x < L,
Goptical = 0
and for x = 0,
p(0) = Goptical p
As there is an ohmic contact at x = L, there cannot be any charge accumulated
there.
Therefore,
p(L) = 0
Therefore, solving,
p(x) = Ae
Lx
+ Be
Lx
Therefore, substituting the boundary conditions, and solving,

p(x) = Goptical p e
If L << Lp , the recombination rate is negligible. Therefore,

=0
R
Therefore, the differential equation is
2 p
=0
x2
Therefore,
p(x) = A + Bx
Therefore, substituting the boundary conditions, and solving,

x
p(x) = p(0) 1
L
134
Exercise 28.
An N-type semiconductor sample of Si at room temperature has the following
properties.
1
cm3
1
Goptical = 1019 3
cm s
n = 1s
p = 1s
cm2
Dn = 40
s
cm2
Dp = 25
s
L = 1mm
Nd = 1016
Determine whether the sample is short or long.

Solution 28.
Lp =
=
Dp p
v
u
u
t
cm2
25
(106 s)
s
!
= 5 103 cm
Therefore,
L = 1mm
= 0.1mm
= 5 102 Lp
Therefore, the sample is long.
Exercise 29.
Consider a N-type sample of Si at 300 K. Assuming low level injection, let
the part of the sample from x = L1 to x = 0 be exposed to light, and let
the part from x = 0 to x = L2 be masked to block light. Assuming L1 >> Lp
and L2 >> Lp , find p(x).
135
Solution 29.
If the unmasked part was absent, p(x) would be
p(x) = Goptical p e
Lx
If the masked part was absent, p(x) would be

p(x) = Goptical p
However, as the concentration must be continuous and differentiable, the
graph of p(x) must be smooth.
By the steady state diffusion equation, on the illuminated part,
p
x
!
1 Jp
p
=
+ Goptical
q x
p
0=
As E = 0, Jp = Jdiffusionp . Therefore, by the Transport Equations,

Jdiffusionp = qDp
p
x
Therefore, substituting,
1 Jdiffusionp
p
0=
+ Goptical
q
x
p
d2 p
p
Dp 2
= Goptical
dx
p
d2 p
p
Goptical
2
=
dx
Dp p
Dp
2
d p
p
Goptical
2 2 =
dx
Dp
Lp
Therefore, for the illuminated part,
Lx
p(x) = Ce
+ De Lp + Goptical p
Similarly, for the masked part, as Goptical = 0,

p(x) = Ae
Lx
+ Be Lp
136
As the end of the masked part, the concentration must be as if the illuminated
part is absent. Therefore, the concentration must be zero.
Therefore,
p(L2 ) = 0
L
L2
p
Ae
L2
+ Be Lp = 0
As L2 >> Lp ,
L
p
L2
Ae
=0
Therefore,
L2
0 + Be L0 = 0
Therefore,
B=0
At the end of the illuminated part, the concentration must be as if the masked
part is absent. Therefore, the concentration must be Goptical p .
Therefore,
p(L1 ) = Goptical p
Ce
L1
Lp
+ De L1 + Goptical p = Goptical p
Lp
As L1 >> Lp ,
De
L
p
L1
=0
Therefore,
L1
Ce Lp + 0 + Goptical p = Goptical p
Therefore,
C=0
At the junction of the two parts, the concentration must be continuous.
Therefore,
p(0+ ) = p(0 )
Ae Lp = De Lp + Goptical p
A = D + Goptical p
137
At the junction of the two parts, the diffusion current is continuous. Hence,
the derivative of the concentration must be continuous.
Therefore,
p0 (0+ ) = p0 (0 )
Ae Lp
De Lp
=
Lp
Lp
D
A
=
Lp
Lp
A = D
Therefore,
A = D + Goptical p
A = A + Goptical p
Therefore,
1
A = Goptical p
2
1
D = Goptical p
2
Therefore,
p(x) =

x
Goptical p 1 1 e Lp
1 G
2
optical p e
2
Lx
+ Goptical p
Therefore, the graph is

138
x>0
p^(x)
Goptical =p
1
2 Goptical =p
0
!L1
L2
Consider a N-type semiconductor sample which is masked everywhere,

except for a narrow slit at x = 0. A pulse of light is shined at t = 0.
23
Haynes-Shockley Experiment
A N-type semiconductor sample, of length L, is masked everywhere, except

for a narrow slit at x = 0. A pulse of light is shined at t = 0. If there is no
electric field acting on the semiconductor, the concentration of holes is as in
Figure 42. If there is an electric field E acting on the semiconductor, acting

towards the right, the concentration of holes is as in Figure 43.
If recombination occurs, the number of available holes reduces. Therefore,
the area under the curve of the excess carrier concentration reduces.
Therefore, the excess carrier concentration is given by
p(x, 0)
p(x, t) = q
e
2 Dp t
x2
4D
pt
tp
e
Therefore, the effect of the pulse can be felt at the end, such that
139
p^(x)
t=0
t1 > 0
t2 > t1
t3 > t2
Figure 42: Concentration of Holes Generated due to a Pulse of Light, without

Electric Field
L
td
Vdrift
p =
E
L
=
Etd
Vdrift =
Therefore, the properties of minority carriers can be experimentally measured,

using this technique.
140
p^(x)
t=0
t1 > 0
t2 > t1
t3 > t2
Figure 43: Concentration of Holes Generated due to a Pulse of Light, with

Electric Field
24
24.1
Quasi-neutrality
Carrier Concentration Gradient due to Illumination Only
Consider a N-type semiconductor, masked everywhere except for a thin slit

in the middle.
Dn
kT
=
n
q
Dp
kT
=
p
q
As electrons are lighter than holes, their mobility is higher. Therefore, n > p ,
i.e. electrons diffuse faster than holes. Therefore, the excess carrier concentration profiles will be as in Figure 44. However, as electrons and holes have
opposite charges, the separation between them creates an internal attractive
electric field between them. Therefore, the real excess carrier concentration
profiles will be identical, as in Figure 44. This behaviour is called quasi
neutrality.
141
n
^ (x)
p^(x)
Figure 44: Expected Excess Carrier Concentration in N-type Sample with

Constant Illumination Through Narrow Slit Only
In general, if there is a relatively small internal electric field, the excess
electrons and holes are forced to drift and diffuse together, i.e., if E internal 0,
n
(x) = p(x)
Such a semiconductor is said to be quasi neutral. In such a case, the transport
is dominated by minority carriers, and the excess majority carriers follow the
minority.
142
n
^ (x)
p^(x)
Figure 45: Actual Excess Carrier Concentration in N-type Sample with

Constant Illumination Through Narrow Slit Only
Exercise 30.
Consider a P-type semiconductor, masked everywhere except for a thin slit
in the middle.
Given Dp >> Dn , what is the direction of the built-in electric fields?
Solution 30.
As Dp >> Dn ,
p >> n
Therefore, as the minority carriers dominate the transport, the holes move
according to the electrons. Therefore, the electric field is directed inwards,
towards the slit.
24.2
Carrier Concentration Gradient due to Doping

Variation Only
Consider a N-type semiconductor sample with concentration gradient

n(x) = Nd (x)
143
Let the doping profile be linearly graded, i.e. let Nd (x) grow linearly with x.
Let
1
cm3
1
Nd (x = L) = 1016 3
cm
Nd (x = 0) = 1015
Therefore, the electrons tend to move towards the left. However, the excess
fixed positive charges on the right create an attractive force on the electrons,
towards the right. Therefore, the internal electric field, which opposes diffusion
is directed towards the left.
24.3
Calculation of Internal Electric Field
Consider a N-type, quasi neutral sample in which the total current density is
zero. Therefore,
0 = Jn
dn(x)
= qn n(x) E (x) + qDn
dx
Dn 1 dn(x)
E (x) =
n n(x) dx
kT 1 dn(x)
=
q n(x) dx
Therefore, as the sample is quasi neutral, n(x) = Nd (x). Therefore,
kT 1 dNd (x)
E (x) =
q Nd (x) dx
Therefore, the internal voltage drop across the internal field region is
V = E dx
kT
=
q
x2
x1
1 dNd (x)
dx
Nd (x) dx
Therefore, solving,
kT
Nd (x2 )
|V | =
ln
q
x1 )
144
This built-in voltage is denoted as VBI .

Therefore the intrinsic energy of the sample is given by
dV (x)
E =
dx
1 dEi
=
q dx
Exercise 31.
The doping profile in a N-type sample is given to be
Nd (x) = N0 ex
Assuming that the sample is at equilibrium, find the internal electric field.
Solution 31.
As the sample is at equilibrium and is not illuminated, the sample is quasi
neutral. Therefore,
kT 1 dNd (x)
q Nd (x) dx
kT
1
d
=
N0 ex
x
q N0 e
dx
kT
=
q
E(x) =
145

Quantum and Solid State Physics: Aakash Jog 2015-16

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Quantum and Solid State Physics: Aakash Jog 2015-16

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Quantum and Solid State Physics

6 Youngs Double Slit Experiment (1801)

7 The Photoelectric Effect

10 Basic Postulates of Quantum Mechanics

13 Measurements and Operators

14 Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle

16 Definite Position States

17 Description of Physical State by Eigenstates

21 Infinite Potential Wells

23 Finite Potential Wells

30 Commutation Relations for 3D Operators

31 Angular Momentum in Spherical Coordinates

34 General Form of the Uncertainty Principle

Solid State Physics

15 Energy Band Model

17 Movement of Carriers in Semiconductor Crystals

20 Optical Generation of Carriers

Intensity of light with only first slit open . . . . . . . . . . .

Energy Bands for a Perfect Semiconductor in Presence of an

Need medium for propagation Do not need medium for propagation

Definition 1 (1D wave equation). The equation

where is a function of x and t, and v is the velocity of the wave, is called a

Definition 2 (Harmonic waves). If a wave satisfies the equation

Definition 4 (Time period). For a harmonic wave, a number T , such that

where k is the wave number, and is the wavelength.

where is the angular frequency, and T is the time period.

Complex Representation of Waves

Theorem 3. Wave equations are linear, i.e. if 1 and 2 are solutions to

Interference of Waves with a Phase Difference

Therefore, the resultant wave is a wave with amplitude 2A cos

Youngs Double Slit Experiment (1801)

Figure 1: Intensity of light with only first slit open

Figure 2: Intensity of light with only second slit open

Figure 3: Intensity of light with both slits open

YDSE with Classical Particles

If the double slit experiment is performed with classical particles, instead of

The Photoelectric Effect

(a) If the light intensity is constant, a specific amount of electrons is

The conclusions were as follows.

Einsteins Explanation of the Photoelectric Effect

According to Einsteins explanation, light is a stream of particles, called

experiment, which could not be explained by classical theories.

Definition 5 (Momentum of a quantum particle). The momentum of a

where E is the energy of the particle.

Definition 6. The reduced Plancks constant is defined as

where h is Plancks constant.

According to de Broglies theory, particles have waves associated with them.

where m is the mass of the particle and v is its velocity.

(9.11 1031 kg) 107 ms

Impact of Observation on the Result of Experiments

Theorem 6 (Schrodinger Equation).

Proof. Let the wave be given by

Differentiating with respect to x,

Basic Postulates of Quantum Mechanics

1. (x, t) describes the configuration of the system.

where is the complex conjugate of of ,

is the probability of the particle being in the neighbourhood of

Then the equation is said to be normalized.

From the Schrodinger Equation,

Therefore, the normalization is conserved if the wave function tapers off at

Measurements and Operators

Consider a probability distribution of finding a particle at x, given by the

hence found to be at some position x = A, at time t. Therefore, after a small