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No. 1.
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No. 4.
(No. 5.) Structural Changes in World Industry: A Quantitative Analysis of Recent Developments
No. 6.
No. 7.
Notes on the Design and Operation of Waste Stabilization Ponds in Warm Climates
of Developing Countries
No. 8.
(No. 9.) Meeting the Needs of the Poor for Water Supply and Waste Disposal
No. 10. Appraising Poultry Enterprises for Profitability: A Manual for Investors
No. 11. Opportunities for Biological Control of Agricultural Pests in Developing Countries
No. 12. Water Supply and Sanitation Project Preparation Handbook: Guidelines
No. 13. Water Supply and Sanitation Project Preparation Handbook: Case Studies
No. 14. Water Supply and Sanitation Project Preparation Handbook: Case Study
(No. 15.)Sheep and Goats in Developing Countries: Their Present and Potential Role
(No. 16.)Managing Elephant Depredation in Agricultural and Forestry Projects
(No. 17.)Energy Efficiency and Fuel Substitution in the Cement Industry with Emphasis
on Developing Countries
No. 18. Urban Sanitation Planning Manual Based on the Jakarta Case Study
No. 19. Laboratory Testing of Handpumps for Developing Countries: Final Technical Report
No. 20. Water Quality in Hydroelectric Projects: Considerations for Planning in Tropical
Forest Regions
No. 21. Industrial Restructuring: Issues and Experiences in Selected Developed Economies
No. 22. Energy Efficiency in the Steel Industry with Emphasis on Developing Countries
No. 23. The Twinning of Institutions: Its Use as a Technical Assistance Delivery System
No. 24. World Sulphur Survey
PAPERNUMBER46
WORLDBANKTECHNICAL
Copyright ( 1986
The International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development/THE
WORLDBANK
1818 H Street, N.W,
Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.
All rights reserved
Manufactured in the United States of America
First printing January 1986
This is a document published informally by the World Bank. In order that the
information contained in it can be presented with the least possible delay, the
typescript has not been prepared in accordance with the procedures appropriate to
formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility for errors. The
publication is supplied at a token charge to defray part of the cost of manufacture and
distribution.
The World Bank does not accept responsibility for the views expressed herein, which
are those of the author(s) and should not be attributed to the World Bank or to its
affiliated organizations. The findings, interpretations, and condusions are the results
of research supported by the Bank, they do not necessarily represent official policy of
the Bank. The designations employed, the presentation of material, and any maps used
in this document are solely for the convenience of the reader and do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the World Bank or its affiliates
concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, area, or of its authorities, or
concerning the delimitation of its boundaries or national affiliation.
The most recent World Bank publications are described in the annual spring and fall
lists; the continuing research program is described in the annual Abstracts of Current
Studies.The latest edition of each is available free of charge from the Publications Sales
Unit, Department T, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W, Washington, D.C. 20433,
U.S.A.,or from the European Office of the Bank, 66 avenue d'1ena, 75116 Paris, France.
MfichaelW Sayers is assistant research scientist and Thomas D. Gillespie is research
scientist at the Transportation Research Institute of the University of Michigan in Ann
Arbor. William D. 0. Paterson is senior highway engineer with the Transportation
Department of the World Bank.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Sayers,
M. W. (Michael W.)
ABSTRACr
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: SCOPE.......................................
1
I..*.........**...
2.1
Class
Class
Class
Class
1:
2:
3:
4:
....
Precision profiles................................ 6
Other profilometric methods....................... 7
IRI estimates from correlation equations.......... 8
Subjective ratings and uncalibrated measures...... 9
2.3
2.4
Description of Method............................................
19
3.2
Accuracy Requirement ..
3.3
Measurement of Profile.o......s
........o.........
......
22
3.3.1 Rod and Level Survey.......................................22
3.3.2 TRRL Beam Static Profilometer...o.........................
.26
3.3.3 APL Inertial Profilometer.
. ....
.................
27
3.3.4 K. J. Law Inertial Profilometers............................29
3.3.5 Other profilometers........................................
31
3.4
Computation of IRI.....................
3.4.1 Equations ................... .............................
31
3.4.2 Example program for computing IRI.....
3.4.3 Tables of coefficients for the IRI equations...............
*35
3.4.4 Program for computing coefficients for the IRI equations...35
3.4.5 Test input for checking computation.........................40
...........................................
el19
.48
e...
. .. . .. ............ e..
4.1.5 Shock absorber selection ....
..........................
4
4ol.6 Vehiclelodn
4.1.7 Tire pressureo.....o............o e o o.o @ *.o**.* ..... **49
4.1.8 Mechanicallinkagesin the roadmeter........................49
49
4.1.9 Tire imbalanceand out-of-roundness...... o................
4.1.10 Temperatureeffects..........................................49
50
4.1.11 Water and moisture effects...................................
4.2 Calibrationof a RTRRMS.............................................
.50
...
4.2.1 Calibration method-.o.oo
4.2.2 Calibration equation.. .......................
.*o....oooo
...
. .... .. .. ..51
53
.............
o..o....o...o...oo.........oo.......o.o...o....75
Personnel..............
......o....
75
..o..o.............
oo.o.Calibration.o...oo .............
Survey eoo
ooooogso*eoo.....o.....................oo....o.........o..75
76
........................................
Data Processingo...
GLOSSARY *.*.oo
. . . ......
. . .. . . .. . . . . . . .o.. . . . . .. o..76
oooo.oo.e.go.o.o....oo...o...................... .o79
8
REFERENCES........ ....................................
vi
CHAPTER 1
SCOPE
This document presents guidelinesfor use by personnel in highway
organizationsresponsiblefor setting up or operating road roughness
monitoringprograms. It provides guidance on:
*
That the roughness measures have the same meaning on all types of
roads used by highway trucks and passenger cars, including
asphalt,concrete, surface treatment,gravel, and earth surfaces.
CHAPTER 2
PLANNINGA ROUGHNESSMEASUREMENT
PROJECT
NUSEAL
A
16
14 _
12
EROSION
GULLEYSAND
DEEPDEPRESSIONS
:^^^
FREOUENTUNAE
MINORDEPRESSIONS
_
S
SURFACE.
.. .
50 km/h
60 km/h
FREQUENT
SHALLOW
DEPRESSIONS,
SOME
DEEP.
10
=
.~~~~~S
ROUGH
:.*^UNPAVED
ROADS
rDAMAGED
PAENT
OLDER
PAVEMENTS)
0= ABSOLUTE
4 ERFECTION
R
I
AIRO
NEWPAVEMENTS)
W
USSUPERHIGHWAYSJ
....
~80 km/h
are presently sold by K.J. Law, Inc. (Section3.3.4), and both are
designed to provide the IRI roughnessduring measurement. Both are
consideredas Class 2 systems at this time, although their accuracy and
range of operationhave not been verified against rod and level yet.
Tests with these and other profilometershave been performed,but the
analyses of the data have not yet been completed sufficientlyto
quantify their ability to measure IRI
High-speedprofilometershave the disadvantageof being the most
expensiveand complex instrumentationsystems used to measure road
roughness,and generally require operatorswith engineeringtraining.
Yet, they offer a great advantage in being able to obtain high-quality
measurementsrapidly,without requiringthat great effort be spent in
maintaining calibration. Detailed proceduresfor operating a
profilometerto measure IRI are highly specific to the design of the
profilometer;hence, the manufacturershould be consulted. Sections
3.3.3 and 3.3.4 briefly describe several of the high-speedprofilometers
that have been used to measure IRI.
2.2.3 Class 3: IRI estimates from correlationequations. By far,
the majority of road roughness data that is collected throughoutthe
world today is obtained with RTRRMSs. The RTRRMS measure depends on the
dynamics of a vehicle to scale the measurementsto yield roughness
propertiescomparableto the IRI. The dynamic propertiesare unique for
each vehicle, however, and change with time, Thus, the "raw" measures
of ARS obtained from the RTRRMS must be corrected to the IRI scale using
a calibrationequation that is obtained experimentallyfor that specific
RTRRMS. Because the dynamics of a vehicle change easily, very rigorous
maintenanceand operating proceduresmust be employed for the vehicles
used, and control testing must be made a routine part of normal
operations. When changes occur, there is no simple correctionthat can
be applied; instead, the entire roadmeter-vehiclesystem must be recalibrated.
This class also includes other roughnessmeasuring instruments
capable of generatinga roughnessnumeric reasonablycorrelatedto the
IRI (e.g., a rolling straightedge). The measures obtained can be used
to estimate IRI through regressionequations if a correlationexperiment
is performed. This approach is usually more trouble than it's worth
10
11
12
13
14
2Profilometersare
3 Speed
15
16
17
18
CHAPTER 3
MEASUREMENT
OF IRI USING PROFILOMETRICMETHODS(CLASSES 1 & 2)
3.1 Description
of Method
19
TABLE 1.
Roughness range
Precision of elevation
measures (mm)2 /
IRI (m/km)
Class 1
Class 2
Class 1
Class 2
1.0 - 3.0
250
500
0.5
1.0
3.0 - 5.0
250
500
1.0
1.5
5.0
- 7.0
250
500
1.5
2.5
7.0
- 10.
250
500
2.0
4.0
250
500
3.0
6.0
10 - 20
1/ For tapes marked in foot units, the maximum convenient intervals are
respectively Class 1: 1 ft.
Class 2: 2 ft.
2/ Precision Class 1 yields less than 1.5% bias in IRI.
Precision Class 2 yields less than 5% bias in IRI.
Note:
20
21
22
23
Rodold
24
bl.25
otom.
Z s
of JOiM
(400-500)
top
of form
(500-600)
M1M
74
74.25
74.5
74.75
75
61. Q
61 75
~~62
62.25
62.5
V599
.25
75
I
__
1.25 t[1
1.5
1 7 5
Qe
9
36.5
86.75
87
87.25
87.5
99
99.254
99.5
9975
100
Date
Stort: 0=
AS
75
25.25
13.2
13.5 ff
13.75:r
14
Ill
1425 -79
26.25
37.75
38.s _
so
23
26.5 S
26 7
-.
Tape
497.5
497.75
498
498.25
498.5
Rod
7047
7044
7039
7045
7044
Eleu.
6939
6942
6947
6941
6942
499
7044
6942
499.5 7041
499.75 7044
6945
6942
500.25 7591
500.75 7586
6948
6953
501
75R.
501 .251 75
501.5
6953
profile
8o0
Ele.u
500
7044 6942
502.
502.75
400
r
Tape Position
10000
11378
12545
13224
175.25 200
200.25 300
300.25 400
12616
100
100.25 175
600
pen..5
Tape =
501.25
new digits
Total length
2
501
25
26
27
m/cycle.
Site lengths need to be selected in multiples of 100 m, generally
with a minimum of 200 m and normal length for APL 72 of 1000 m.
Adequate allowance of approach length is necessary for the faster test
speed.
The APL 72 system can be easily adapted to measure IRI, by
processing the recordeddata differentlyin the laboratory. The
manufacturer'sinstructionsshould be followed for details of test
operation. In the laboratory,the analog signals stored on the tape
recorder should be digitized using standard microcomputerhardware (also
available as part of the APL 72 system, or available in different forms
from various commercialsources). Once the profile signal is digitized
and stored on a microcomputer,it can then be processed as any other
profile data, as described in Section 3.4. When this is done, the
APL 72 can be consideredto be a Class 2 method for measuring IRI.
b) APL 25. The APL 25 system consists of a towing vehicle and
only one trailer, and is used at a slower speed of 21.6 km/h [5]. A
different instrumentationsystem is used. It digitizes the profile
signal and stores the numerical values on digital cassette tape along
28
29
30
Z2'=
Z3
Z4
=0
Y1 ) / 11
(1)
(2)
a - 11 / dx + 1
(3)
5
sj
ZI + s12
Z2 + s13 * Z3
+ s14 * Z44
+ P1 * Y'
(4)
Z2
S21
Z* + s22
Z2 +
+ P2 * y'
(5)
Z3
s31 *Z1
(6)
Z4
841
+ p4 * Y'
(7)
+ s32 *
Z1 + s42
23 *Z3
Z2 + 843 * Z3
where
31
24 * Z4
+ 844 * Z4
V=
(Y
/ dx = slope input
-Y)
(8)
and
Zj'= Z from previousposition,J=1,4
(9)
and sij and p are coefficientsthat are fixed for a given sample
interval,dx. Thus, Equations 4 - 7 are solved for each positionalong
the wheeltrack. After they are solved for one position,Eqn. 9 is used
to reset the values of Z1 , Z2 , Z3 1, and Z4' for the next position.
Also for each position, the rectifiedslope (RS)of the filteredprofile
is computedas:
RSi = IZ3
Zli
(10)
The IRI statisticis the average of the RS variable over the length of
the site. Thus after the above equationshave been solved for all
profile points, the IRI is calculatedas:
IRI
n1
(11)
RSi
32
The computed IRI will have units consistentwith those used for
the elevation measures and for the sample interval. For example, if
elevation is measured as mm, and dx has units3of m, then IRI will have
the preferred units: mm/m = m/km
slope x 10 .
33
1000 REM
This program demonstrates the IRI computation.
1010 REM
A number of recommended modifications are described in
the accompanying text.
1020 REM
1030 REM --------------------------------------- Initialize constants
1040
DIM Y(26),Z(4),Z1(4),ST(4,4),PR(4)
1050
READ DX
K = INT (.25 / DX + .5) + 1
1060
1070
IF K < 2 THEN K = 2
1080
BL = (K - 1) * DX
1090
FOR I = 1 TO 4
1100
FOR J = 1 TO 4
1110
READ ST(I,J)
1120
NEXT J
1130
READ PR(I)
1140
NEXT I
1150 REM -------------------------------------- Initialize variables.
1160
INPUT "profile elevation 11 m from start:", Y(K)
1170
INPUT "X = 0. Elevation = ",Y(1)
1180
Z1(1) = (Y(K) - Y(1)) / 11
1190
Z1(2) = 0
1200
Z1(3) = Zl(1)
1210
Z1(4) = 0
1220
RS = 0
IX = 1
1230
1240
I = 0
Loop to input profile and Calculate Roughness
1250 REM -----------1260
I = I + 1
1270
PRINT "X = ";IX * DX,
1280
IX = IX + 1
1290
INPUT "Elev. = "; Y(K)
1300 REM ----------------------------------------- Compute slope input
1310
IF IX < K THEN Y(IX) = Y(K)
1320
IF IX < K THEN GOTO 1270
1330
YP = (Y(K) - Y(1)) / BL
FOR J = 2 TO K
1340
1350
Y(J-1) = Y(J)
1360
NEXT J
vehicle
response
1370 REM ---------------------------------- Simulate
1380
FOR J = I TO 4
1390
Z(J) = PR(J) * YP
1400
FOR JJ = 1 TO 4
1410
Z(J) = Z(J) + ST(J,JJ) * Z1(JJ)
1420
NEXT JJ
1430
NEXT J
1440
FOR J = 1 TO 4
1450
Zi(J) = z(J)
1460
NEXT J
1470
RS = RS + ABS (Z(1) - Z(3))
1480
PRINT "disp = ";RS * DX, "IRI = ";RS / I
1490
GOTO 1260
1500 END
1510 DATA .25
1520 DATA .9966071 , .01091514,-.002083274 , .0003190145 , .005476107
1530 DATA -.5563044 , .9438768 ,-.8324718 , .05064701 , 1.388776
1540 DATA .02153176 , .002126763 , .7508714 , .008221888 , .2275968
,-39.12762
, .4347564 , 35.79262
1550 DATA 3.335013 , .3376467
Figure 3.
34
Lines 1260 - 1360 compute the slope input from the entered
elevation points. The Y array is a buffer used for temporary storage of
up to 26 profile points. Only the first K elements are ever used,
however. Thus, when DX is 0.25 m or greater,which will be the case for
most applicationswhere profile is measured manually,K=2 and only the
first two elements in the Y array are needed. For very short sample
intervals,however, the Y buffer is needed for the moving average. When
DX = .01 m, then all 26 elements in the Y buffer are used.
Lines 1380 - 1490 are straightforward translations of Eqs. 4 - 10.
A * z(t) + B * y(t)
(12)
35
Table 2. Coefficients
dx=
ST =
ST =
ST =
4.442351E-03
.975036
3.814527E-04
.1638951
ST =
.9977588
-.4660258
1.448438E-02
2.908761
ST
.9966071
-. 5563044
2.153176E-02
3.335013
ST
.9951219
-. 6468806
3.018876E-02
3.661957
ST =
.9942636
-. 6911992
3.496214E-02
3.775608
.9881727
-. 928516
6.386326E-02
3.743294
5.72179E-05
2.458427E-02
4.055587E-03
.7948701
PR
3.793992E-04
.2490886
4.123478E-02
17.65532
1.281116E-04
3.527427E-02
5.787373E-03
.6728373
PR =
1.309621E-03
5577123
9.200091E-02
25.19436
PR =
1.70055E-03
.6602406
.1088096
27.03121
.006858 sec
3.30789E-05
-. 1859178
.8992078
-27.58257
-1.096989E-04
-.2592032
.8808076
-29.58754
1.516632E-04
3.790333E-02
6.209313E-03
.6385015
-6.436089E-04
-.4602074
.8332105
-33.84164
2.127641E-04
4.352945E-02
7.105564E-03
.5574984
FR =
2.885245E-03
.9262331
.1523053
30.93289
3.190145E-04
5.064701E-02
8.221888E-03
.4347564
FR =
5.476107E-03
1.388776
.2275968
35.79262
-2.083274E-03
-. 8324718
.7508714
-39.12762
.013716 sec
-4.721649E-03
-1.319262
.6487856
-43.40468
4.516408E-04
5.659404E-02
9.129263E-03
.3016807
PR =
9.599989E-03
1.966143
.3210257
39.74273
.0149985 sec
PR =
1.232715E-02
2.288865
.3729946
41.23787
9.923165E-04
6.280167E-02
9.862685E-03
-.1145251
PR =
3.703847E-02
4.319885
.6958473
42.93555
1.291335E-03
5.758515E-02
8.861093E-03
-. 2822351
FiR=
6.159972E-02
5.621614
.898334
38.57529
-6.590556E-03
-1.597666
.5920432
-45.01348
5.25773E-04
5.892596E-02
9.472713E-03
.2341656
-2.520931E-02
-3.391369
.2402896
-46.67883
.0225 sec
2.128394E-02
.9001616
6.615445E-03
.4186779
dt =
1.442457E-02
.9287472
3.505154E-03
.3928397
dx = 500 mm, dt =
ST =
ft),
1.323022E-02
.9338062
3.010939E-03
.3772937
dx = 333.3 mm, dt =
2.188854E-04
7.966216E-03
.9548048
-19.34264
.01125 sec
1.091514E-02
.9438768
2.126763E-03
.3376467
dx = 304.8 mm (1.00
4.858894E-05
6.427258E-02
1.067582E-02
9.331372
.009 sec
8.780606E-03
.9535856
1.418428E-03
.2901964
dx = 250 n , dt =
PR
.0075015 sec
7.346592E-03
.9603959
1.011088E-03
.2526888
dx = 200 mm, dt =
1.476399E-05
1.292695E-02
2.143501E-03
.9031446
dt =
6.727609E-03
.9634164
8.540772E-04
.2351618
166.7 mm, dt =
.9984089
-.4010374
1.038282E-02
2.556328
1.062545E-04
7.098568E-02
.9882941
-10.2297
.0045 sec
.9986576
-. 3717946
8.791381E-03
2.388208
dx =
00225 sec
2.235208E-03
.9870245
9.842664E-05
8.617964E-02
.9994014
-. 2570548
3.960378E-03
1.687312
dx =
ST =
50 n, dt=
.9998452
-.1352583
1.030173E-03
.8983268
dx =
dt =
2.567633E-02
.8808161
8.608906E-03
.3839011
.027432 sec
-. 0448194
-4.541246
2.055522E-02
-41.76972
36
1000
1010
1020
1030
1040
1050
1060
1070
1080
REM
REM
REM
REM
REM
N
K1 = 653
K2 = 63.3
MU = .15
1090
C = 6
1100
DIM A(4,4), ST(4,4), PR(4), A1(4,4), A2(4;4), IC(4), JC(4), Y(4)
1110 REM
1120 REM
Get sample interval and convert to time step at 80 km/h
1130 REM
1140
PRINT
1150
INPUT "Sample interval (mm) = ";MM
1160
V = 80
1170
T = MM / V * 0.0036
1180
PRINT
1190
PRINT "*** Time step = ";T;" sec"
1200 REM
1210 REM Build the 'A' matrix from the vehicle parametersand
1215 REM initializethe 'ST' matrix.
1220 REM
1230
FOR I = 1 TO 4
1240
FOR J = 1 TO 4
1250
A(J,I) = 0
1260
A1(J,I) = 0
1270
ST(I,J) = 0
1280
NEXT J
A1(I,I) = 1
ST(I,I) = 1
1290
1300
1310
NEXT I
1320
1330
1340
1350
1360
1370
A(1,2)
A(3,4)
A(2,1)
A(2,2)
A(2,3)
A(2,4)
1380
1390
A(4,1) = K2 / MU
A(4,2) = C / MU
A(4,3) = - (K1 + K2) I MU
1400
1410
1420
1430
1440
1450
1460
1470
1475
=
=
=
=
=
=
A(4,4) =
REM
REM
REM
REM
REM
REM
REM
1
1
- K2
- C
K2
C
C / MU
37
1480
1490
1500
1510
1520
IT = 0
IT = IT + 1
IS = 1
FOR J = 1 TO N
FOR I = 1 TO N
1530
A2(I,J) = 0
1540
FOR K = 1 TO N
1550
1560
1570
NEXT I
1580
1590
1600
NEXT J
FOR J = 1 TO N
FOR I = 1 TO N
1610
1620
A1(I,J) = A2(I,J) * T / IT
IF ST(I,J) = ST(I,J) + A1(I,J) THEN GOTO 1650
1630
1640
1650
1660
1670
1680
1690
1700
1710
1720
1730
1740
IS = 0
NEXT I
NEXT J
IF IS = O THEN GOTO 1490
PRINT
PRINT "STATE TRANSITIONMATRIX:"
PRINT
FOR J = 1 TO N
FOR I = I TO N
PRINT ST(J,I),
NEXT I
1750
1760
1770
PRINT
NEXT J
REK
1780 REM
The following code is a matrix inversion routine. ER is an
1790 REM
error threshold
that can be used to indicate
singularity.
1800 REM
1810
ER = 0
1820
FOR KK = I TO N
1830
KD = KK - 1
1840
PV = 0
1850
FOR I = 1 TO N
1860
FOR J = 1 TO N
1870
IF KK= 1 THEN 1930
1880
1890
1900
1910
1920
FOR II = 1 TO KD
FOR JJ = 1 TO KD
IF I = IC(II)
OR J
NEXT JJ
NEXT II
1930
IF ABS (A(I,J))<
1940
1950
1960
1970
PV = A(I,J)
IC(KK) - I
JC(KK) - J
NE
J
Figure
4 (continued)
38
1980
NEXT I
1990
IF
2000
2010
2020
2020
2030
2040
A(II,J) = A(II,J) / PV
2050
2060
NEXT J
2070
2080
A(II,JJ) = 1 / PV
FOR I = 1 TO N
2090
AA = A(I,JJ)
2100
IF I = II THEN 2150
2110
A(I,JJ) =
2120
FOR J = 1 TO N
2130
2140
IF J <
NEXT J
2150
2160
NEXT I
NEXT KK
2170
2180
2190
2200
2210
2220
FOR J = I TO N
FOR I = 1 TO
Y(JC(I))
NEXT I
FOR I = 1 TO
A(I,J) =
2230
2240
NEXT I
NEXT J
2250
FOR I = 1 TO N
- AA / PV
> JJ THEN A(I,J)
N
Y(I)
FOR J = 1 TO N
Y(IC(J)) = A(I,JC(J))
2280
NEXT J
2290
FOR J = I TO N
2300
2310
2320
2330
A(I,J) = Y(J)
NEXT J
NEXT I
REM
2340 REM
REM
PRINT
PRINT "PR MATRIX:"
PRINT
FOR I = 1 TO N
PR(I) = - A(I,4)
FOR J = 1 TO N
PR(I) = PR(I) + A(I,J) * ST(J,4)
NEXT J
PR(I) = PR(I) * K1 / MU
PRINT PR(I)
2460
2470
A(I,J)
N
= A(IC(I),J)
2260
2270
2350
2360
2370
2380
2390
2400
2410
2420
2430
2440
2450
NEXT I
END
Figure 4 (continued)
39
AA * A(II,J)
A =
-K2
-c
K2
C / u
-(K1 + K2)/U
-C/u
O
LK2 / U
B
O
(
_KlK
/u
(13)
(14)
/ 2! + A
* dt
/ 3! +
...
(15)
The program keeps adding terms from Eq. 15 until all of the 16 elements
in the ST matrix are precise to the limits of the computer.
The remainingfour p coefficientsconstitutethe partial response
matrix, which is defined as:
PR
A 1 (ST - I) * B
(16)
40
00
0
0
E(0:;F
i
~~~~disp
=IRI *x (line 1480 in Figure 3)
li..
tiso
-/-
1-
0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
**nq
Profile input: y
0~~~~~~~~~~~
,,,
-/, -5
;
;
x < I
x > 1, x < 3
x > 3, x -<5
x > 5
~y =x -1
~~~y
=5 -x
~~~~y
=0
_<v-/
._)/
/ . </
1//
C'>
<(
.,,
1_0
15
Longitudinal
distance
2_0
-
2_5
41
Table 3.
dx = 0.25 m
x = longitudinal distance (m),
x
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.00
2.25
2.50
2.75
3.00
3.25
3.50
3.75
4.00
4.25
4.50
4.75
5.00
5.25
5.50
5.75
6.00
6.25
6.50
6.75
7.00
7.25
7.50
7.75
8.00
8.25
8.50
8.75
9.00
9.25
9.50
9.75
10.00
disp
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.05553
0.22023
0.47306
0.75476
1.00790
1.20138
1.33439
1.42554
1.46459
1.72578
2.16300
2.66248
3.11728
3.47144
3.72540
3.91465
4.02533
4.03072
4.10399
4.20709
4.29849
4.35937
4.39329
4.41616
4.44437
4.48715
4.54489
4.61197
4.68122
4.74746
4.80882
4.86616
4.92149
4.97650
5.03175
5.08670
IRI
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.44424
1.46822
2.70319
3.77380
4.47956
4.80554
4.85232
4.75180
4.50642
4.93081
5.76800
6.65620
7.33478
7.71431
7.84294
7.82931
7.66730
7.32857
7.13737
7.01181
6.87758
6.70672
6.50858
6.30880
6.13016
5.98287
5.86438
5.76496
5.67420
5.58524
5.49579
5.40684
5.32053
5.23842
5.16077
5.08670
disp = IRI * x
10.25
10.50
10.75
11.00
11.25
11.50
11.75
12.00
12.25
12.50
12.75
13.00
13.25
13.50
13.75
14.00
14.25
14.50
14.75
15.00
15.25
15.50
15.75
16.00
16.25
16.50
16.75
17.00
17.25
17.50
17.75
18.00
18.25
18.50
18.75
19.00
19.25
19.50
19.75
20.00
disp
IRI
5.14023
5.19121
5.23892
5.28312
5.32388
5.36141
5.39585
5.42720
5.45534
5.48014
5.50150
5.51941
5.53394
5.54521
5.55336
5.55853
5.56086
5.56124
5.56420
5.56956
5.57717
5.58683
5.59836
5.61155
5.62622
5.64216
5.65920
5.67714
5.69580
5.71501
5.73459
5.75437
5.77419
5.79391
5.81338
5.83247
5.85107
5.86907
5.88635
5.90285
5.01486
4.94401
4.87342
4.80283
4.73234
4.66210
4.59221
4.52266
4.45334
4.38411
4.31490
4.24570
4.17656
4.10756
4.03881
3.97038
3.90236
3.83534
3.77234
3.71304
3.65716
3.60441
3.55451
3.50722
3.46229
3.41949
3.37863
3.33949
3.30192
3.26572
3.23075
3.19687
3.16394
3.13184
3.10047
3.06972
3.03952
3.00978
2.98043
2.95143
42
x
20.25
20.50
20.75
21.00
21.25
21.50
21.75
22.00
22.25
22.50
22.75
23.00
23.25
23.50
23.75
24.00
24.25
24.50
24.75
25.00
25.25
25.50
25.75
26.00
26.25
26.50
26.75
27.00
27.25
27.50
27.75
28.00
28.25
28.50
28.75
29.00
29.25
29.50
29.75
30.00
disp
5.91848
5.93316
5.94686
5.95951
5.97110
5.98158
5.99095
5.99920
6.00633
6.01236
6.01729
6.02116
6.02400
6.02584
6.02673
6.02674
6.02762
6.02929
6.03170
6.03479
6.03851
6.04278
6.04755
6.05274
6.05831
6.06418
6.07030
6.07660
6.08303
6.08954
6.09606
6.10256
6.10898
6.11529
6.12144
6.12739
6.13311
6.13858
6.14376
6.14864
IRI
2.92270
2.89423
2.86596
2.83786
2.80993
2.78213
2.75446
2.72691
2.69948
2.67216
2.64496
2.61790
2.59097
2.56419
2.53757
2.51114
2.48561
2.46093
2.43705
2.41392
2.39149
2.36972
2.34856
2.32798
2.30793
2.28837
2.26927
2.25059
2.23231
2.21438
2.19678
2.17949
2.16247
2.14572
2.12920
2.11289
2.09679
2.08087
2.06513
2.04955
43
CHAPTER4
ESTIMATION
OF IRI USINGA CALIBRATED
RTRRHMS(CLASS 3)
By far, most of the roughnessdata that is collected throughout
the world is obtainedwith RTRRMSs. The RTRRMS is suited to the rapid
and inexpensivecollectionof roughnessdata on roads, covering 200 to
300 km per day on continuous surveys. The referencedefinitionof
roughness,IRI, was designed to functionallyduplicate the responseof a
standardized"ideal" RTRRMS.
In order for the performance obtained from a RTRRMS to be
consistent, the mechanicalpropertiesof the vehicle (and roadmeter)
must be kept constant through good maintenanceand operating practices.
Variationsin the vehicle will cause correspondingvariations in the
roughnessmeasures. In selecting and maintaining the vehicle for use in
a RTRRMS, the practitionershould be aware of the many variables
affecting performance,listed in Section 4.1.
A potential problem with RTRRMSs is that no two are alike in their
response to road roughness. Thus, it is necessary to transform the
measures to a standard scale (IRI) using relationshipsestablishedin a
calibration,as described in Section 4.2.
In order to ensure that measures made from day-to-daymaintain the
same meaning, control proceduresmust be specified in order to limit the
changes in the RTRRMS performance. Section 4.3 describes the control
test methods and proceduresthat should be used to ensure that roughness
measurementsare obtained that will have the same meaning in the future
as they had during measurement.
45
47
48
49
50
51
rL i CA
m CA
e TS
a TS
A GR
* GR
E TE
+
j
+ TE
e;+
15
10
ARS80
m/km
a. Opala-Maysmeter #2
x CA
* TS
A + GR
ARS8 0 -
m/km
10
b. Caravan-NAASRA
WxCA
e*TS
*4GR
4~+xTE
EE
+tx>/
^
E 0l
4'
+ x TE
~
S....
I %-
+~~~
L()~~~~~~~~~~~L
r.
10
ARS5 0
20
-
30
m/km
ARS5 0 -
c. BI Trailer
Fig.
6
m/km
d. BPR Roughometer
6.
Example calibration
52
plots.
53
ARS is the "raw" measure with units: counts/km or an equivalent (in/mile, mm/km,
etc.), and E[IRI] is the estimate of IRI, having the same units used for RARS80
(m/km is recommended). The coefficients A, B, and C are calculated as indicated
below, where N - number of calibration sites, xi - ARS measurement on ith site,
roughness of ith site (computed from a measured profile). The
and Yi - RARS
80
accuracy of E[IRI] measures is the Standard Error (SE), which should also be
calculated as indicated below.
N
N i,
Nii
N
i
x zy
[xy
=x
SE
7=
-
(+
E Yi
iE
Y2 + .. XN-YN)/N
x*
x2 _y )IN
N
xi
-x)+
xI x
;+A2
+
Y)
x.y
2 1 +x2i,y+.
2
2.
- x
=-
i=x
i
1y2++y.
*y)/
i-i
(XYyl+X
xiyi
Ni
xA)y
Yi 2
Ni
i=l
xi)/N
(x
/N
.. .. XN)
+ jx+.=(+x2
(x +x2 +...xN)/N
x,
(B2
(2 -A
y - * 2 ;*
-=x +
C)
*
*xy -
x.
;Z42
+ 2 * A * B * x + 2 * C *7
Fig. 7.
54
y+y+ ...yN)IN
(yi+y22+
2
2
roughness
range.
55
Table 4.
RTRRMS Type
Two-track Single-track
Minimum number of sites....*******.................
12
200 m
200 m
4.5 km
6.0 km
1000 / L
1000 / L
50 m
50 m
..............................
........
Allowable variation in site length
(all sites should have the same length)
#..
56
57
58
59
with the RTRRMS at the two speeds on a number of sites. The calibration
sites may be used, although a number of other representativesites
should be included. This does not involve a significantamount of
additionaleffort because profile measurement is not required.
Then the measurementsat the non-standardspeed are used to
estimate the value that would have been obtained at 80 km/h. That
estimate of the 80 km/h measurementis then used with the calibration
equation for that particularRTRRMS to yield IRI.
Note that the roughness range covered by this second method does
not need to cover the roughness range of the entire project, but only
the roughness range over which speed conversionsare needed. The
minimum requirementsof Table 4 still apply, however, meaning that at
least three roughness levels must be included.
This second method is less accurate than the first, and can result
in a calibrationerror due to the combineduse of two regression
equations.
60
NEEDFORROUGHNESS
MEASUREMENTS
INSPECT
VEHICLE
ANDROADMETER
SETTIREPRESSURE,
WEIGHT
CARGO
A/CEPT
MEASURE
WITHIND
CONEROL
T
LIMITS
NO
\HCK ON3 SECTIONS
"xDAILYTO
ON
CHECK
EUPNT
CONTROL
LIMITS\HCKON
fURTHER/
\
2 SECTION
3ES
YES
YES|
wCNTRLATR
EUGNES SLISCARD
SECTI
F >
MEASUREMENTSat
ACEPT
MEASUREMENTS
IAND
CONVERT
TOASTANDARD
ROUGHNESS
SCALEE
YES1
~ ~
Fig. 8
61
A + B * ARS + C * ARS2
(16)
62
The value of E [IRI] is the RTRRMS estimate of the IRI on the measured
section.
When repeat measurementshave been performed,simple averagingof
the original ARS measures is recommended,prior to conversionto IRI.
Figure 9 shows a combinationfield form and work sheet that can be
used to help convert the readings from the roadmeter to calibrated
roughness measures. In this example, the procedure requires three
repeat measurementson each site. The calibrationequation, shown at
the top of the figure, is also plotted for graphical conversionto IRI.
4.3.3 Temperature sensitivitytest. The responsivenessof a
RTRRMS to roughness changes as vehicle components"warm up" when
traversingrough roads. This test should be conducted for each RTRRMS
when it is first used to determine the amount of warm-up time that
should be allowed for daily operation,and also to quickly identify
vehicles that are unduly sensitive to temperatureand thus unsuitable
for RTRRMSs.
A section of road should be found that is at the roughest level
anticipatedin the study. It should have the minimum length required
for a calibrationsite, as defined in Table 4. (The roughest
calibrationsite is, in fact, a good choice of location for this test.)
The vehicle should be instrumentedwith a roadmeter and taken to the
selected site, where it is allowed to cool down for a period of one to
two hours. The vehicle can be considered"cool" 15 minutes after the
shock absorbers and tires no longer feel warm to the touch.
When the vehicle has cooled, "measure"the roughnessof the warmup test site at the constant test speed. Record the time and the
roadmeter"measure." Conversionto the IRI scale is not necessary,as
the interest here is in the relative change obtained. Immediately
repeat the test, again recordingthe roadmeter reading and the time.
Continue until the roadmeter readings reach a constant level for at
least five consecutiveruns.
The amount of time needed to reach the steady readingsshould
always be used as a minimum warm-up time. If the differencebetween the
initial and final reading is more than 30%, alternativeshock absorbers
should be consideredfor the vehicle.
4.3.4 Control tests for RTRRMS time stability. Control sites are
sections of road that are measured on a daily or weekly basis to
determine wherther the RTRRMS has changed since the last check. They
can also be used to determine and/or monitor the repeatabilityof the
RTRRMS, and its sensitivityto environmentalconditions. One example of
how control testing can be integratedinto the operating procedure
63
CDX ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0~~~~~C
7c~ ~
-i~~~~~~~~-D;.
mr
~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~
FA-
I-I H
ci
**
*
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~....
0~~ CD
vi
c -1~~cn0
pi .- -~~~~~~~~~~~rL
Lo-
65
66
project. When the range of interest covers mainly paved roads, and in
particular,smoother paved roads such as major highways, then the third
form is recommended. When the range covers unpaved roads, or extremely
rough paved roads, then one of the first two forms is recommended.
The exact threshold selectedmust be determinedfrom experience
with the actual RTRRMS. (The 5% figure used in the above example may or
may not be appropriate.)
h) Data reporting. As with other areas of data collection,preprinted field forms can help to reduce human error and to detect trends
as they start to occur. Figures 10 and 11 show work sheets that have
been used for this purpose [9].
In this example, the control testing
covered both changes in the sensitivityof the RTRRMS and in its
repeatability. Thus, repeat measures on the control sites are required.
Each week, several control sites are measured five times. From the work
sheet (Figure 10), the mean value for each site is computed, and the
range of measures (an indicationof repeatabilty)is noted. The log of
the mean value is compared to the log of the original measure, and the
change is plotted in the top chart in Figure 11. This visually
indicates any trends in the sensitivityof the RTRRMS to roughness. The
range is also plotted, in the bottom chart of Figure 11, so that
inconstantbehavior indicativeof damaged componentscan be detected
early.
i) Frequency of testing. There is a trade-offinvolved in
establishingthe frequencywith which control tests are performed:
frrequent control tests take up time that could instead be used
obtainingdata. Yet, when problems are discoveredfrom a control test,
less data is discarded if the previous test was performed recently.
Essentially,the control tests should be repeatedwith sufficient
frequency so that if data must be discarded,the loss in time will not
be too severe for the project.
67
INSTRUMENT
xinitiaL
RUN
OS3
3
0
Z__s,
___
0o(
0.0/
0.oo
O.oI
0qo2o
RANGE
DEVIATION
/42
___
__a_
5.0 I
RANGE = LDI
___2_--O___
q!y
-o
______rv
_____
-oqq
RANGE
f-7
0_
DEVIATION
DEVIATION
-o
0Oz__
0O
53
current
-_78_
0__c
Xcurrent
0O'(L
__
__3_
2A
207
-y0"
0- '3
s3
L0OGo(LDI)
Fig.
__
(m/km)
If
O1svra
4
_
LDI VALUES
00Z0
02
__
021
3_
e4A'3
LOG 1 0
/0
__
12-
4 POAt_DATE:
4N'
221
SECTION
L-DP/_-TP
IDENTIFICATION:_
TECHNICIANS:
A
RUNS
max
LDI.
min
X
DEV=
nitiaL
current
= ENTER ON RANGE CONTROL CHART
= ENTER ON MEAN CONTROL CHART
X...
used for
68
recording
control
test
data
(9)
T/ZV
CHART
DATEOF CALIBRATION:
INITIAL MEAN
SECTIONX
-P
I I I I II I
..
3wI
6.ID
/7
D*-V0
2.C
O*1*
ZL
0"4
7 ^aoq
30
35
-.-
IfIJ___________
11L1
T_
T I _11H
-<m
rI
]W
-D*13
;;
e:
TEST DATE
tlllXltl
xL
IT I I I I I
_DATEOF CALIBRATION:
I I I I I I I I I I I - 1-1- - - - -
411111111111
n'
r
TT TT
TEST DATE
CHAPTER 5
ESTIMATION OF IRI
5.1 DescriptiveEvaluationMethod
When Class 1, 2, or 3 methods for measuring roughnessare not
feasible, estimationsof the roughness on the IRI scale can be made
subjectively. This approachmay be used in the initial stages of a
project to develop approximateassessmentsof the roughness,or in
situationswhere an RTRRMS is not available. The descriptionsused can
also serve to acquaint the practitionerwith the IRI scale, helping to
visualize the meaning of the IRI values and the road conditions
associatedwith them.
5.1.1 Nethod. The method providesadjective (and some
quantitative)descriptionsof the road surface conditionsand ride
sensationsrepresentativefor several points on the IRI scale. These
descriptionsenable an observer traveling in a vehicle, and occasionally
stopping to inspect the road, to recognize the conditionsand to
estimate the roughness. Photographs can be used effectivelyto support
the method, but they can also be misleading because they tend to
accentuatevisual defects and minimize the shape or profile variations
which relate most closely to roughness.
A method of this type has not been rigorouslydeveloped and
proven, yet the success experiencedwith subjectiveratings in the IRRE
suggests that IRI values can be estimatedwith an accuracy that provides
some indicationof the road conditionsat hand. Therefore,preliminary
guidance is provided for this approach.
The accuracy of the method generallyvaries with the experienceof
the observer. Experiencedobservers will usually estimate roughness
with an accuracywithin 2 to 3 m/km, or about 30%, while new observers
may have errors of 2 to 6 m/km, or about 40%. The estimates of IRI are
therefore approximateand this method should not be used when mechanical
means are available.
5.1.2 Descriptionof the IRI scale. Figures 12 and 13 provide a
series of descriptors for selected levels on the roughness scale.
Figure 12 applies to surfaces of asphaltic concrete or surface treatment
types, whereas Figure 13 applies to gravel and earth surfaces. These
describe the typical categoriesof road, surface shape defects, ride
sensation,and typical travellingspeed associatedwith each given
roughness level. The observer is expected to use all these to make an
objectiveassessment of the roughnessof a road while travellingalong
it. The most objectivedescription relates to the surface shape defects
71
ROUGHNESS
(m/km IRI)
Recently bladed surface of fine gravel, or soil surface with excellent longitudinal and transverse profile (usually found only in
short lengths).
Ride comfortable up to 80-100 km/h, aware of gentle undulations or
swaying. Negligible depressions (e.g. < 5mm/3m) and no potholes.
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
Ride comfortable at 30-40 km/h. Frequent deep transverse depressions and/or potholes (e.g. 40-80mm/1-5m at freq. 5-10 per 50m); or
occasional very deep depressions (e.g. 80mm/1-5m with frequency
less than 5 per 50m) with other shallow depressions. Not possible
to avoid all the depressions except the worst.
24
72
ROUGHNESS
(m/km IRI)
- 2
10
Necessaryto reduce velocity below 50km/h. Many deep depressions,potholes and severedisintegration(e.g. 40-80 mm deep
with frequency 8-16 per 50m).
74
"moderate"
"frequent"
75
76
77
GLOSSARY
79
IRI -
in 1975
In concept,QI is identicalto IRI, and in practice,
the two indices are very highly correlated. It is an ARS measure
with arbitraryunits of "counts"/km,and is based on an early
reference simulationof a RTRRMS. The originalQI was an
abbreviationfor Quarter-carIndex, and was based on the readings
taken from a particularpiece of hardware as operatedon paved
roads in Brazil. Due to a number of equipmentdefects and errors
in calibrationmethodology,the originalQI measure cannot be
replicatedtoday using the same method. Since the beginning of
the PICR project,there have been three types of QI data:
1) 0Ir - A profile-basedroughnessstatisticdeveloped by
Queiroz and other Brazilianresearchersto replace the
0I calibrationscale. QI is computedfrom a single
staticallymeasuredprofile, typicallyobtainedwith the
rod and level method, using a weighted sum of two RMSVA
statisticscalculatedfrom baselengthsof 1.0 and 2.5 m:
QIr = -8.54 + 6.17
'
RIMSVA
1 0 + 19.38 8 RMSVA2
The analysis
01
83
RARS
86
REFERENCES
1. Sayers M. W., Gillespie,T. D., and Queiroz, C., The International
Road Roughness Experiment:EstablishingCorrelationand a CalibrationStandard for Measurements. World Bank TechnicalPaper No. 45, Wash., D.C., 1986.
2. Gillespie,T. D., Sayers,M. W. and Segel, L., Calibrationof
Response-TypeRoad RougnnessMeasurementSystems,NCHRP Report 228, 1980.
3. Methodology for Road Roughness Profiling and Rut Depth Measurement,
Contract No.DTFH61-83-C-00123,
Federal Highway Administration,The University
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4. Analyseur de Profile en Long - APL 72. Bulletin 1 B AC 76, Materiels
des Laboratoiresdes Ponts et Chaussees,Paris.
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Dynamic LogitudinalProfile Analyzer." PreliminaryDraft Procedure,
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87
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