Radio Propagation Theory 1

PROPAGATION ISSUES
IN DIGITAL RADIO LINK ENGINEERING
1997, Siemens ICN , Milano, Italy
Foreword
This Course covers the main topics in Radio Propagation, with application to the
Engineering of Digital Radio-Relay Links. The aim is to provide the radio engineer
with the basic knowledge and understanding of radio propagation phenomena and
their impact on the operation and performance of digital radio systems.
The Course makes reference to fundamentals in Radio Propagation Physics (without
need of complex mathematical tools in Electromagnetics theory). From this, it derives the
basic concepts in Radio Link Engineering. A detailed presentation of procedures
and computer tools for the Engineering and Planning of Radio Systems is out of the
scope of this course.
The Course User is assumed to be familiar with elementary notions in Digital Radio
Modulations, Equipments, and Systems, as well as in Interference Analysis and
Planning and in Regulatory Issues. Some topics in the above areas are discussed, but
only in connection with propagation aspects.
Hypertextual techniques have been adopted. It is expected that this choice will improve
significantly the flexibility and effectiveness of Computer Based Training, both in
Class Presentations and in Individual (or Small Group) Use.
RADIO PROPAGATION TUTORIAL

Copyright :
1997 Siemens ICN

Viale P. e A. Pirelli 10, Milano, Italy
Phone +39-2-27331
Author
Luigi Moreno
Radio Engineering Services
Via Asti 10. Torino, Italy
Phone & Fax +39-11-8194575
E-mail : luigi.moreno@torino.alpcom.it
USER GUIDE
Navigation through the Radio Propagation Tutorial is controlled by clicking on
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RADIO PROPAGATION TUTORIAL

Copyright :
1997 ITALTEL SISTEMI

Via Tempesta 2, Milano, Italy
Phone +39-2-43881 Fax +39-2-48000190
Author
Luigi Moreno
Radio Engineering Services
Via Asti 10. Torino, Italy
Phone & Fax +39-11-8194575
E-mail : luigi.moreno@torino.alpcom.it
INDEX
1. Introduction
Radio Link Equation
Radio Link Engineering
2. Refraction through the Atmosphere
Ray Curvature - Clearance and Diffraction
3. Refraction through the Atmosphere
Multipath Propagation
4. Ground Reflections
5. Atmosphere and Rain Attenuation
Rain Scattering and Absorption
Absorption without rain
6. Propagation Related Topics
Regulatory Background
Interference Scenarios
HELP
About ...
User Guide
1.1 - POINT-TO-POINT RADIO LINK
Tx
Rx
The diagram shows the basic elements in any point-to-point radio link.
TRANSMITTER
ANTENNAS
RADIO HOP
RECEIVER
:
:
:
:
Frequency, Tx Power, Capacity (bit/s, tel. chs., ...).

Frequency range, Gain.
Hop Length.
Frequency, Rx Threshold (related to Rx Signal Quality).
1.2 - BASIC RADIO LINK EQUATION (FREE SPACE)

The basic parameters in a Point-to-Point Radio Link (see Block Diagram) are
put together in the Radio Link Equation. The Radio Link Equation computes
the Rx Power in the absence of any propagation anomaly (free space
propagation):
PR = PT + GT + GR - 92.4 - 20 Log (F) - 20 Log (L)
PT
PR
GT
GR
F
L
=
=
=
=
=
=
Transmitted power (dBm)

Received power (dBm) (normal propagation)
Tx antenna gain (dB)
Rx antenna gain (dB)
Frequency (GHz)
Hop length (km)
Warning : The constant 92.4 is correct only if the frequency is expressed in

GHz and the hop length in km. If other units are used, the constant 92.4 must
be modified accordingly (e.g. : with hop length in miles, the constant is 96.6).
1.3 - FREE SPACE LOSS (FSL)

The Radio Link Equation can be also written as : PR = PT + GT + GR - FSL
FSL (dB) = 92.4 + 20 Log(F) + 20 Log(L)
FSL is the Free Space Loss :
Free Space Loss [dB]
The Free Space Loss is often referred as Loss between Isotropic Antennas.
In fact, for Isotropic Antennas (Gain = 0 dB), we have : PR = PT - FSL
The FSL increases 6 dB if :
the hop length is doubled;
or the frequency is doubled.
155
150
60 km
145
Examples:
40 km
20 km
140
1.9 GHz
3.8 GHz
7.6 GHz
15.2 GHz
135
130
10
15
Frequency (GHz)
20
60 km
60 km
30 km
30 km
FSL = 133 dB
FSL = 139 dB
FSL = 139 dB
FSL = 145 dB
1.4 - ANTENNA GAIN

The antenna directivity mainly depends on the D/ ratio (antenna diameter to
wavelength ratio). The maximum gain is proportional to (D/)2.
= Antenna Efficiency = 0.55 - 0.65

Parabolic antenna : G = (D/)2
In dB units : G = 20 Log(D) + 20 Log(F) + 18.2 + 0.5
(depending on ).
Antenna Gain [dB]
50
Antenna gain is 6 dB higher if :
4m
46
3m
antenna diameter is doubled,

for a given frequency.
2m
42
1m
frequency is doubled, for a

given diameter.
38
0.5m
34
30
0
10
15
Frequency [GHz]
20
1.5 - LINK BUDGET

By using Logarithmic units (dB, dBm), the Radio Link Equation is put in a
very convenient form. Gains and Losses are added with positive or negative
sign, as in financial budgets. The Radio Link Equation is presented in the form
of a simple Link Budget.
Example of a 50 km 7GHz link :
Power
Transmitter Power PT
Tx Antenna Gain (3 m diam.)
Free Space Loss
Rx Antenna Gain (3 m diam.)
Received Power
PR
Gains
Losses
30 dBm
42.5 dB
143.3 dB
42.5 dB
- 28.3 dBm
A more detailed Link Budget may include additional losses caused by Tx/Rx
components (feeders, branching, etc.) and by propagation impairments.
1.6 - TERRESTRIAL RADIO-RELAY LINKS

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE PROPAGATION
IN THE LOWER ATMOSPHERE, CLOSE TO GROUND,
AT FREQUENCIES IN THE RANGE 1 TO 40 GHz
In comparison with Free Space Propagation, a terrestrial radio-relay link is
affected by the presence of the atmosphere and of the ground. They produce
a number of phenomena which may have a severe impact on radio wave
propagation. Propagation anomalies mainly depend on :
FREQUENCY;
HOP LENGTH;
METEOROLOGICAL AND CLIMATIC CONDITIONS;
GROUND CHARACTERISTICS.
Propagation anomalies produce additional attenuation, which reduces the Rx
power. In most cases such phenomena are of short duration. In particular
cases the Rx signal is also distorted in some measure.
1.7. - MAIN PHENOMENA RELATED TO RADIO PROPAGATION

IN THE LOWER ATMOSPHERE
Effects of the Atmosphere :
Atmospheric Absorption (without rain);
Refraction through the atmosphere: Ray Curvature;
Refraction through the atmosphere: Multipath Propagation.
Effects of the Rain :
Raindrop Absorption;
Raindrop Scattering;
RF Signal Depolarization.
Effects of the Ground :
Diffraction through Obstacles;
Reflections.
1.8 - RADIO LINK ENGINEERING - FADE MARGIN

In a well designed Radio-Relay Link, the Rx Power should be close to the
Free Space Level for most of the time.
The Radio Link is usually designed in such a way that the Received Power PR
(normal propagation conditions) is much greater than the Receiver Threshold
PTH .
The Fade Margin FM is defined as :
FM (dB) = PR (dBm) - PTH (dBm)
A Fade Margin is required to compensate for the reduction in Rx power caused

by Propagation Anomalies.
The Fade Margin guarantees that the link will operate with acceptable quality,
even if propagation anomalies causes Additional Losses (AdL), as long as the
Additional Loss is lower than the Fade Margin :
AdL < FM.
1.9. - OUTAGE PREDICTION

Generally speaking, an Outage is observed when the Rx power is below the Rx
Threshold (PR < PTH). So, the Outage Probability is :
Prob {Outage} = Prob {PR < PTH} = Prob {AdL > FM}
Received Power
Normal Propagation
Outage Time
Fade Margin
Threshold
Time
1.10 - LINK BUDGET

A more complete Link Budget example (7GHz, 50 km link) is :
Power
Transmitter Power PT
Tx Feeder & Branching Loss
Tx Antenna Gain (3 m diam.)
Free Space Loss
Additional Propagation Losses
Rx Antenna Gain (3 m diam.)
Rx Feeder & Branching Loss
Net Path Loss
Received Power PR
Gains
Losses
30 dBm
1.4 dB
42.5 dB
143.3 dB
3.0 dB
42.5 dB
1.4 dB
------------------------------------------------64 dB
- 34 dBm
Assuming the RX Threshold PTH = -77 dBm, then the Fade Margin is :
FM = PR - PTH = 43 dB
END OF CHAPTER
2.1 - ATMOSPHERE REFRACTION

The radio waves propagate along a straight line only if the electromagnetic
parameters in the propagation medium are homogeneous.
In the atmosphere, the Refractive Index modifies as the distance from ground
increases (Vertical Refractivity Gradient). This is due to the vertical gradient
of basic atmosphere parameters, such as temperature, humidity, and
pressure.
Several anomalies in EM propagation are produced by variations in the
refractive index :
Ray Curvature
Multipath Propagation
Duct Propagation
2.2 - RAY CURVATURE IN ATMOSPHERIC PROPAGATION

Up to about 1 km height, the Refractive Index usually decreases with height,
at a constant rate. This means that the Refractivity Gradient (rate of variation)
is constant.
As a result, the path (radio ray) from the Tx to the Rx antenna is bent in some
measure. The ray curvature is proportional to the Refractivity Gradient :
thus it depends on the atmosphere parameters at any given time.
Tx
CL
Rx
To check the visibility between the Tx

and Rx antennas, the joint effects of
the Radio Ray Curvature, of the
Earth Curvature, and of the terrain
profile have to be considered.
The Clearance CL is defined as the

distance of the radio ray to the
ground. A negative Clearance means
that a ground obstruction is higher than the ray.
Real Earth
2.3 - EQUIVALENT EARTH CURVATURE
CL
Tx
Rx
Real Earth
Rx
Tx
CL
kR
Equivalent Earth
An "Equivalent Earth Curvature" can

be defined by altering the real Earth
Curvature in order that the radio ray
path be straight.
The Real Earth and the Straight Ray
diagrams are equivalent : the vertical
distance CL from the radio ray to the
earth surface is the same in any point
of the two diagrams.
In the Equivalent Earth representation
the Earth Radius R is multiplied by a
factor k. The value of the k-factor
depends on the curvature of the radio
ray.
2.4 - WHAT DOES THE k-FACTOR MEAN ?

The k-factor is a measure of the ray curvature effect, produced by the variation in
the Atmosphere Refraction Index with height. So, the k-factor is related to the
Vertical Refractivity Gradient G. The k-factor indicates the atmosphere state at
a given time and its effect to the radio ray curvature.
In a well-mixed atmosphere (Standard Atmosphere), the Refractivity decreases
with height at a constant rate. This corresponds to the so-called Standard
Condition, with a stable k-factor, equal to about 4/3.
Other k-factor conditions are :
k < 4/3
Sub-refractive Atm.
Ray Path closer to the earth.
The lowest k value corresponds to the highest probability that the radio ray
be obstructed by the ground.
k > 4/3
Super-refractive Atm.
Ray Path more distant from the earth.
The range of the radio transmission can be significantly expanded. Unexpected
interference can be observed.
2.5 - FLAT EARTH REPRESENTATION

The Flat Earth Representation is an
alternative way to plot the Radio Ray
path from the Tx to the Rx antenna.
The earth profile is forced to be flat,
and the Radio Ray curvature is altered
accordingly.
The Real Earth and the Flat Earth
diagrams are equivalent: the vertical
distance CL from the radio ray to the
earth surface is the same in any point
of the two diagrams.
The Radio Rays representing different
k values can be shown on the same
Flat Earth diagram. This is the more
usual representation, particularly in
computer aided link design.
Tx
Rx
CL
Real Earth
Rx
Tx
CL
Flat Earth
2.6 - REVIEW OF RADIO RAY REPRESENTATIONS

Equivalent Representations :
CL equal in the three diagrams.
`
Rx
CL
Tx
Real Earth Diagram :

R
Real Earth
Rx
Tx
CL
Equivalent Earth Diagram :

(or Straight Ray)
kR
Equivalent Earth
Rx
Tx
Flat Earth Diagram :
CL
Flat Earth
2.7 - VISIBILITY
Point-to-Point Radio Relay Links are usually designed under the requirement
of Visibility between the two Hop Terminals.
Two factors to be considered in Defining Visibility Criteria in a Radio Path:
Variability in Atmospheric conditions producing different ray curvatures
Tool : Statistical distributions of the k-factor.
Objective : Find the Typical and Minimum k-factors appropriate for that
path.
Effects of partial obstructions along the radio path
Tool : Fresnel Ellipsoids and Diffraction Analysis.
Objective : Identify the Clearance Rules to be applied (minimum distance
between the Radio Ray and the Ground).
2.8 - VARIABILITY OF THE k-FACTOR

The k-factor is related to the atmosphere Vertical Refractivity Gradient G
(measured in N-units / km). In Standard Atmosphere G = - 40 N-units/km
and k = 4/3.
The Vertical Refractivity Gradient G and the k-factor are time varying
parameters, depending on daily and seasonal cycles and on meteorological
conditions. Their range of variation is more or less wide, depending on the
climatic region.
In cold and temperate regions the range is rather narrow, while in tropical
regions it is very wide. Experimental observations show for example that the
probability of k<0.6 in temperate climates is generally well below 1%. In tropical
climates the same probability may be in the range 5% - 10%.
This means that, in tropical regions, there is the highest probability of
observing propagation anomalies due to extreme k-factor values.
The ITU-R gives world maps of the time percentage with G < -100 N-units / km
(k > 2.75), in different months.
2.9 - MINIMUM k-FACTOR

When atmospheric conditions determine the minimum k-factor, then the Radio
Ray is closer to the ground (maximum obstruction probability).
In a radio hop an Effective k-Factor kEFF can be defined, taking into account
the local k-factor values along the hop. For given climatic conditions, kEFF is a
function of the hop length (on long hops, kEFF is likely close to standard values;
extreme atmosphere conditions are probably not present on the whole hop).
The ITU-R gives a curve of
minimum kEFF values as a
function of hop length (temperate
climate).
1.1
keff
0.9
0.7
This curve can be used in

establishing the worst case
condition to check Visibility
Criteria.
0.5
0.3
10
20
50
100
Path Length [km]
200
2.10 - THE FRESNEL ELLIPSOID

The Fresnel ellipsoid gives an estimate of the space volume involved in the
propagation phenomena from Tx to Rx. The points on the Fresnel ellipsoid
satisfy the relation : TxP + PRx = TxRx + /2
A radio wave through the
path Tx-P-Rx arrives at the
receiver with 180 deg
phase shift with respect to
the direct path Tx-Rx.
Rx
Tx
F1
P
About half of the Rx signal

energy travels through the
Fresnel ellipsoid. So, any
L1
obstruction within the
L2
Fresnel ellipsoid has some
impact on the Rx power.
F1 is the Fresnel Ellipsoid Radius, depending on distance L1 from the hop
terminal.
2.11 - THE FRESNEL ELLIPSOID - Examples

The Fresnel Ellipsoid Radius at a distance L1(km) from one hop terminal is :
F 1 = 300 L 1( L L 1 ) / ( FL ) (m)
F = Frequency (GHz)
L = Hop length (km)
Fresnel Radius [m]
Note : F1 depends on the signal frequency.

In the figure : Fresnel Ellipsoid Radius
at the middle of the path (L1=0.5L).
60
50
Other Path positions :
2 GHz
40
4 GHz
7 GHz
30
12 GHz
20
10
0
20
40
60
80
Hop Length [km]
100
R (L1=0.3L) =
R (L1=0.1L) =
R (L1=0.01L) =
0.92 * R (L1=0.5L)
0.6 * R (L1=0.5L)
0.2 * R (L1=0.5L)
2.12 - OBSTRUCTION LOSS

The Clearance (CL) is the vertical distance from the radio ray to the ground.
The Obstruction Loss depends on :
Obstruction height (normalized clearance CL/F1)
Obstruction shape (knife-edge, earth curvature, ..)
In the figure : Loss in Rx Power
caused by obstructions with
different shapes :
1) Knife-edge; 2) Earth curvature
(beyond the horizon link);
3) Intermediate case.
Obstruction Loss [dB]
-10
0
10
1
20
3
2
30
40
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.
0.5
Normalized Clearance Cl/F1
1.
The Normalized Clearance (x-axis)

is positive for obstacles below the
ray, and negative for obstacles
above the ray.
2.13 - CLEARANCE CRITERIA

In any point of the Radio Path, the Clearance CL is the distance from the Radio
Ray (depending on the k-factor) to the ground .
1) Typical and Minimum k-factors :
If possible, derive the k-factors from local data.
For Temperate Climate, Minimum k-factor from ITU-R data.
In the absence of specific data : Typical k = 4/3 Minimum k = 2/3.
2) Clearance Criteria : at any point between Tx and Rx :
CL > 100% F1 with Typical k
CL > 60% F1 with Minimum k
When a frequency below 2 GHz is used :

CL > 60% F1 with Typical k
CL > 30% F1 with Minimum k.
END OF CHAPTER
3.1 - MULTIPATH PROPAGATION

Refractive Layer
Tx
Rx
When atmospheric stratification is

such that the refractivity varies
with altitude according to particular
profiles, it may happen that the
energy from the Tx travels to the Rx
over several spatially distinct paths
(Multipath Propagation).
n
Under Multipath Propagation conditions,
total Rx
several "echoes" of the Tx signal arrive at
the Rx antenna with random amplitude,
delay, and phase shift. The received signal
echo 1
can be represented as the addition of multiple Vectors.
3.2 - IMPAIRMENTS DUE TO MULTIPATH PROPAGATION

The received power level is determined by combining a number of signal
echoes.
Depending on the instantaneous phase shifts of echo components, the
Rx signal is subject to fast amplitude variations. For this reason, multipath
propagation is responsible of fast fading phenomena.
Echo phase shift are frequency dependent. The fade depth produced at a
given time by combining signal echoes varies with frequency. Multipath
fading is "frequency selective".
The frequency selective fading has a significant impact on wide-band
digital signals : Amplitude and Group Delay distortions are produced (this
causes Intersymbol Interference).
The XPD (Cross Polarization Discrimination)pol.) is reduced during Multipath
events. This enhances the Interference between X-pol. channels.
3.3 - MULTIPATH FADING EVENTS

Multipath events are observed with daily and seasonal cycles, when
atmospheric stratification is more likely to happen. They are more frequent with
strong evaporation (high temperature and humidity), absence of wind, and flat
terrain.
Rx Power
During multipath propagation

events, the Rx signal level
varies very fast. It may be
almost cancelled, for short
periods (fraction of a second, or
few seconds). A multipath
activity period can last some
minutes or even one hour or
more.
Multipath activity depends on

environmental conditions and on
radio link parameters.Particularly in tropical climates, long multipath events
can be observed.
Time
3.4 - MULTIPATH FADING STATISTICS

When the Rx signal is produced by a large number of components (vectors with
random phases), then the Rx power level is variable, with Rayleigh statistics.
Prob { A > Ao }
1
0.1
10 dB/dec
0.01
The Probability of having a fade

depth A (dB) greater than a given
depth Ao is (Rayleigh formula) :
Prob {A>Ao} = Po 10-Ao/10
0.001
Po = Multipath Occurrence
Factor. It is a measure of the
multipath activity in a radio hop.
0.0001
10
20
30
Ao [dB]
Operating Hop :
40
50
? How to know Po ?
Po is estimated by monitoring the Rx Power and by

processing the measured data.
Hop under Design : Po is predicted by empirical propagation models.
3.5 - MULTIPATH OCCURRENCE FACTOR

The Multipath Occurrence Factor Po depends on :
Frequency;
Hop Length;
Climatic conditions;
Terrain.
Po can be predicted using empirical formulas, proposed by ITU-R and by

operating companies or research labs. A general formula is :
Po = K Q Fa Lb
where :
F
L
K
Q
=
=
=
=
Frequency;
Hop Length;
Geo-climatic Coefficient;
Terrain Coefficient;
The Frequency Exponent is close to unity. This means that the fading activity
in a given hop is proportional to the frequency (at 11 GHz is approximately twice
than at 5.5 GHz).
The Distance Exponent is in the range 3 - 3.6. This means that the fading
activity , for a given frequency, climate, and terrain, is increased about ten times
if the hop length is doubled.
3.6 - MULTIPATH OCCURRENCE FACTOR - Examples

6 GHz hop : According to the prediction models, Po expected in the ranges :
Dry climate, mountains
Temperate clim., average terrain
Tropical, humid clim., average terrain
Tropical, humid clim., wet terrain
30 km
0.01 - 0.05
0.05 - 0.12
0.15 - 0.4
0.4 - 2.0
50 km
0.05 - 0.2
0.2 - 0.6
0.8 - 2.0
2.0 - 10.
65 km
0.12 - 0.5
0.5 - 1.5
1.8 - 4.5
5.0 - 20
Linear scaling to other frequencies :

divide by 2 the Po values computed for the 6 GHz hop
3 GHz
12 GHz
multiply for 2 " "
"
"
"
"
"
? How to use Po predictions ?
Fade Depth > 30 dB for 2600 seconds / one month.
Any Fade Depth : divide seconds by ten for 10 dB deeper fade
(e.g. Po = 1
Fade Depth > 40 dB for 260 seconds / one month).
Other Po values : linear scaling (number of seconds proportional to Po).
Po = 1
3.7 - FREQUENCY SELECTIVE FADING
During Multipath Events, a signal

bandwidth of some 20 MHz may
be subject to slope distortion
(fade depth maximum at one end
and minimum at the other), or to
notch distortion (maximum fade
depth within the signal band)
Fade Depth
The phase shift between signal echoes depends on frequency. As a result, the
fade depth is varying with frequency (frequency selective fading).
Notch
Slope
Amplitude distortion is associated

to Group Delay distortion.
Frequency
Frequency selectivity is fast
varying. This dynamic effect
can be observed as a fast-varying slope or even as a fast moving notch
trough the signal bandwidth.
3.8 - EFFECTS OF FREQUENCY SELECTIVE FADING

If the signal bandwidth is narrow (few MHz), the selective fading effect is
negligible. Multipath fading is assumed as a flat attenuation.
On the other hand, for wide-band signals (medium and large capacity digital
signals), the attenuation within the signal band produces a significant
distortion in the received signal.
When a digital signal is distorted by selective multipath fading, the Bit Error Rate
(BER) may be at the threshold level (10-3) even if the Rx power is higher
than the Rx threshold. The final effect is a reduction in the Fade Margin.
Narrow-Band signals
(almost) Flat Attenuation
Reduction in Rx Power
Wide-Band Signals
Frequency Selective Attenuation
Reduction in Rx Power + Signal Distortion
3.9 - SIGNATURE MEASUREMENT

The sensitivity of a digital radio equipment to multipath distortions can be
estimated by laboratory measurements ("Equipment Signature").
The Tx signal passes through a simulated multipath channel, modelled by a
direct path plus echo (2-path channel). This produces a frequency selective
response : Notch Depth = maximum Fade Depth within the signal bandwidth;
Notch Frequency = notch position, relative to the signal carrier.
In the Notch Depth / Notch Frequency

plane, the Signature gives the region
(Notch parameters) with BER > 10-3 (or
any other threshold). The area below the
Signature gives a measure of the receiver
sensitivity to multipath distortions.
BER < 10-3
Notch Depth [dB]
The Notch Depth and Frequency are

varied (adjusting amplitude and phase of
direct and echo signals). In each condition
the Bit Error Ratio (BER) is measured.
BER > 10-3
-15
-10
-5
10
15
Relative Notch Position [MHz]
3.10 - MULTIPATH FADING OUTAGE TIME PREDICTION

Outage Events are usually defined as time periods with Bit Error Rate (BER)
higher than a threshold (usually 10-3).
Note : More complex definitions are required if reference is made to quality
evaluation on errored blocks (ITU-T Error Performance Rec. G.826).
The Probability of Outage due to Multipath Events can be predicted by means
of a Multipath Fading Statistical Model. It must include specific models for :
Flat Attenuation (Po prediction);
Frequency Selective Fading (prediction of channel dispersion and
its effect on receiver performance);
XPD Degradation (prediction of reduction in XPD associated to
signal attenuation).
3.11 - MULTIPATH FADING OUTAGE TIME PREDICTION

WIDE-BAND SIGNALS
With Wide-Band signals, Fading Selectivity must be considered. Several
statistical models have been proposed; some are described in ITU-R Recs.
A general formula for the Outage Time Tout, during the observation period To,
is :
Tout = To POUT = To [ PT + PS ]
PT = Po 10-FM/10
Non-Selective Outage Probability (related to signal

attenuation only; same as for narrow-band signals);
PS = Selective Outage Probability (related to signal distortion). Computed on
the basis of the Receiver "Signature" (sensitivity to signal echoes).
An alternative formula for combining PT and PS is :

Tout = To [ PT/2 + PS/2] 2/
= 1.5 - 2 is an empirical constant.
3.12 - MULTIPATH COUNTERMEASURES

Techniques used to reduce the multipath fading impairment in digital systems :
Adaptive Signal Equalization at the Receiver.
Diversity Reception :
Space Diversity;
Angle Diversity;
Frequency Diversity.
For each Multipath Countermeasure, the Improvement Factor IF is defined :

IF = Tout (Unprotected) / Tout (with Countermeasure)
where Tout = outage time.
The Improvement Factor can be predicted by means of Statistical Models
including the effect of each specific countermeasure. When both Equalization
and Diversity are used, the overall Improvement Factor is approximately given
by the product of the factors relevant to each technique (Synergistic Effect).
3.13 - ADAPTIVE EQUALIZATION

An Adaptive Equalizer is a circuit used at Rx, to partially compensate for
signal distortion. Adaptativity means that the equalizer response modifies,
depending on the received signal.
Notch Depth [dB]
In the Intermediate Frequency (IF) implementation, the equalizer amplifies the

spectral components more deeply attenuated by fading. In the Base Band (BB)
implementation, the equalizer cancels from each signal sample the component
due to Intersymbol Interference (ISI). This technique is usually more effective.
The effectiveness of a signal
equalizer can be appreciated by
comparing the receiver signatures
with and without the equalizer.
The reduction in the area below the
signature curve gives a measure of
the improvement provided by the
equalizer.
Without Equalizer
With Equalizer
-15
-10
-5
10
Notch Frequency [MHz]
15
3.14 - SPACE DIVERSITY

Two antennas are usually arranged on a single structure, with a suitable
vertical spacing. Typical spacing : 150 - 200 wavelengths.
The correlation of fade depth at the two antennas decreases as the antenna
spacing increases. Thus the probability of deep fading at the two antennas
at the same time can be made sufficiently low, with a suitable antenna
spacing.
The relation between antenna spacing and correlation in signal distortion is
more controversial. It appears that also with small spacing a low correlation
is obtained.
Signal Processing Options :
Switch to the best signal

Combine both signals
Maximum Power
Objective :
Minimum Distortion
Implementation : at RF, IF, or BB.
Technique :
3.15 - FREQUENCY DIVERSITY

Multipath fading is frequency selective. In multi-channel radio systems
(usually with about 20 - 30 MHz spacing), not all the RF channels are deeply
faded at the same time.
An RF stand-by channel is usually available (In 1+1 or N+1 arrangement) for
equipment failure. It can be exploited also for multipath protection.
The traffic of a low quality (deeply faded) working channel can be switched to
the stand-by channel, with high probability of a significant quality improvement.
In some cases, the stand-by channel can be in a different RF band (Crossband frequency diversity). Example : 7 GHz system with 11 GHz protection.
Fast quality detector and switching circuits are required (Hitless Switching:
without errors or frame loss caused by the switching itself).
3.16 - PROPAGATION THROUGH DUCTS

In extreme cases, atmospheric layering may be such that radio propagation is
confined within a sort of waveguide (radio duct). Ducts are classified as :
Surface Ducts : if the duct lower boundary is the earth surface;
Elevated Ducts : if the duct lower boundary is above the earth surface;
Duct propagation is characterized by attenuation well below the free space
value. So, if the Rx antenna is within the duct, the Rx signal may be much
higher than in normal conditions. On the other hand, If the Rx antenna is out of
the duct, rather long signal fadings are observed. Duct propagation may be
also responsible of unexpected interference at very long distance.
There is no general approach for a statistical prediction of duct events.
However, in specific cases, the analysis can be based on the identification of
refraction conditions leading to the duct formation. Then, if statistical local
data on refractivity gradient distribution are available, the ducting probability
can be estimated.
END OF CHAPTER
4.1 - GROUND REFLECTIONS

Depending on the Path Profile, it may happen that a portion of the Tx radio
signal is reflected by the ground toward the Rx antenna. At the receiver, in
addition to the direct signal (D), a reflected signal (R) arrives.
In most cases, the presence of a ground reflection is rather critical :
Fluctuations in the Rx signal level, even for long time periods;
Enhancement of Multipath Activity (the reflected signal is not added to a
stable direct signal, but to the fast-varying multipath signal);
Reduction of Space Diversity effectiveness as a countermeasure to
multipath.
As far as possible, reflections should be avoided by :
Route Planning (in particular over-water paths);
Site Selection : Obstruction of the reflected ray can be obtained in some cases,
by suitable selection of the radio sites and of antenna heights.
4.2 - REFLECTION GEOMETRY

Geometrical parameters related to the Reflection mechanism :
Rx
Tx
1
R1
D
P
2
R2
Reflection point P;
Grazing angle ;
Direct path length D;
Reflected path length
R1+R2;
Angles 1, 2 between
Direct and Refl. Rays.
These parameters are varying with time, because of varying propagation

conditions (k-factor).
4.3 - RX SIGNAL WITH REFLECTION

In the presence of reflection, the overall received signal (S) is given by the
(vectorial) addition of the direct (D) and the reflected (R) signals :
S=D+R
The result of adding the two vectors D and R depends on:
Relative amplitude of D and R :
reflection loss : depends on the surface type (worst case : 0 dB e.g. water);
divergence factor : due to the spherical earth surface (usually a small loss);
antenna directivity : depends on path geometry and antenna beamwidth.
Phase shift between D and R :
direct and reflected path length difference (expressed in multiples of the
wavelength ; 360 deg. phase shift for each ) ;
reflection shift : depends on frequency, grazing angle, and surface type
(usually close to 180 deg;).
4.4 - RX SIGNAL LEVEL

If the antenna height is varied, then the path length difference and the phase
shift between the Direct and the Reflected signal change. As a result, the
Rx signal level is a function of the Antenna Height.
Direct and Reflected signals co-phased
" "
"
" phase-opposed
Tx
Rx
Rx Level
Maximum Rx level
Minimum Rx level
The exact positions
corresponding to the
maximum and
minimum Rx level
change with
propagation
conditions (k-factor).
4.5 - SPACE DIVERSITY IN REFLECTION PATHS

The Rx level varies with the antenna height, but the position of the maximum Rx
level is not stable, due to varying propagation conditions (k-factor). With two
antennas, a good Rx level can be expected at least at one antenna.
Space Diversity Engineering :
Antenna Spacing : The optimum value is computed, but again it depends on
the k-factor. Design Rule : Compute Spacing for k=4/3 and check for higher
and lower k-factors.
Position of the lower antenna : In general, as low as possible, in order to :
Obstruct (at least partially, if possible) the reflected ray;
Minimize path difference and reflected signal delay.
Clearance : For the Lower Antenna, in most cases, Clearance=0 is enough;
Usual rules for the Higher Antenna.
Implementation Options :
BB Switching to the best signal;
RF or IF Adaptive Combining (as for Multipath countermeasure);
RF Combining (Anti-Reflection System).
4.6 - EFFECT OF ECHO DELAY

The Reflected Ray Delay must be compared with the Symbol Period Ts of
the digital signal. Depending on and Ts, the reflection effects are :
<< Ts : (most frequent condition) variation in the Rx signal level, without

frequency selectivity in the signal bandwidth (no distortion)
<= Ts : frequency selective attenuation within the signal bandwidth; the max.
in-band dispersion (notch) depends on the reflected signal level; a
measure of the Rx sensitivity is given by the "equipment signature".
> Ts : (very rare condition) similar to external co-channel interference, since

the reflected signal is uncorrelated to the direct one; the equipment
BER vs. C/I curve gives a measure of the relevant degradation.
END OF CHAPTER
5.1 - PROPAGATION THROUGH RAIN

Main phenomena associated to Radio Propagation in the presence of Rain :
Scattering : part of the EM energy is re-irradiated by the raindrops in every
directions.
Absorption : part of the EM energy is transferred to the water molecules in
the raindrops.
De-polarization : the polarization plane (e.g. Vertical) of the incident radio
signal is rotated, thus producing a cross-polarized (e.g. Horizontal) component.
in the signal at the receiver.
These phenomena are sensitive to :
Signal Frequency (wavelength compared to the drop size);
Signal Polarization (this is related to not-spherical drop shape);
Rain Intensity.
A radio wave travelling through

rain drops is subject to scattering
and absorption phenomena. In
this process, part of the signal
energy directed to the receiver is
lost.
The Rain Attenuation :
is measured in dB/km;
increases with frequency,
but can be assumed as
uniform (flat) within a radio
channel bandwidth;
increases with rain intensity;
with Horizontal Pol. is
higher than with Vertical
Pol.;
produces fades usually
several minutes long.
Specific Attenuation [dB/km]
5.2 - RAIN ATTENUATION
100
100
20
25
1.25
0.2
0.25 mm/h
0.05
0.01
1
20
100
Frequency [GHz]
500
5.3 - ITU-R RAIN REGIONS

In temperate climates, frequencies below about 10 GHz are not significantly
affected by rain. On the other hand, in tropical climates rain effects are to be
considered even at 5-6 GHz. The ITU-R provides a world map of rain regions.
For each region, the rain
rates (mm/h) for given
time percentages are
reported.
Rain Attenuation Models
make reference to Rain
Rates corresponding to
small time percentages
(0.01 %).
5.4 - ITU-R RAIN ATTENUATION MODEL

A step-by-step procedure is recommended by ITU-R :
1) Find the rain rate R for 0.01% of time (from ITU-R maps, or from local data).
2) Compute the specific loss ((dB/km) corresponding to the rain rate R and to
the wave frequency and polarization (H or V) (formulas are given by Rec. 838).
3) Compute the Effective Hop Length Leff (km) (the real length is reduced,
taking into account the rain cell size) (formulas are given by Rec. 530).
4) Compute the Attenuation for p = 0.01% of time : A0.01 (dB) = ( Leff.
5) The attenuation for other time percentages (in the range 1% to 0.001%) is
computed from A0.01, (formulas are given by Rec. 530).
As a result, a curve can be plotted of Rain Attenuation vs. Time Percentage,
valid for given rain region, frequency, polarization, and hop length)
5.5 - RAIN UNAVAILABILITY PREDICTION

From the Time % vs. Rain
Attenuation curve, the
Unavailability is computed
as the time percentage
with attenuation greater
than the Fade Margin.
% of Time
Region L 50Km
11GHz Pol. H
0.1
FM
0.01
0.001
10
20
30
40
Attenuation [dB]
50
In the Figure a 38 dB Fade

Margin is assumed. Then
the Rain Unavailability is
about 0.0025% (about 12
minutes / year)..
The prediction method

derives from long-term rain
rate statistics. Therefore, the Rain Unavailability Prediction must be
considered as an average, to be expected during a period of several years.
5.6 - OTHER RAIN IMPAIRMENTS

Effect of De-Polarization : In radio links using the co-channel plan (two
cross-polar radio channels at the same frequency) the C/I ratio is guaranteed by
the isolation between H and V polarizations. In the absence of rain, the
antenna XPD can provide a C/I ratio well above 25 dB.
Rain de-polarization reduces the C/I ratio at the receiver. A statistical model
is proposed by ITU-R Rec. 530. Example : In a 13 GHz link, with 40 dB rain
attenuation, the XPD is reduced to about 16 dB (according to the ITU model).
While an increase in Tx power (and in fade margin) reduces rain unavailability
due to rain fading, it is of no help for rain de-polarization.
Effect of Scattering : The scattering of radio wave energy produced by rain
drops may cause interference to other radio systems. This effect is particularly
significant with high Tx power (e.g. interference from satellite earth stations
to radio-relay links). The procedures for the evaluation of the Co-ordination
Area around Earth Stations (ITU-R Rec. 615) include an estimate of this effect.
5.7 - ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION
Attenuation [dB/km]
The power loss caused by Atmospheric Absorption is usually not significant and
can be neglected in the Link Budget. Only in particular frequency bands this
effect is to be considered.
Frequency Bands affected by
Atmospheric Absorption Peaks :
O2
10
22.5 GHz (water vapour)

Max Attenuation = 0.18 dB / km
H2 O
60 GHz (oxygen)
Max Attenuation = 16 dB / km.
0.1
0.01
10
20
50
Frequency [GHz]
100
The figure is valid for :

sea level
temperature : 15 C
water vapour : 7.5 g/m3
5.8 - USE OF 22.5 AND 60 GHz FREQUENCY BANDS

Radio systems operating in the 22 - 23 GHz bands are only marginally
affected by atmospheric absorption. In temperate climates, hop lengths are
generally limited below 10 - 12 km because of rain attenuation. The additional
attenuation due to water vapour absorption is small (2 to 3 dB depending on
temperature and humidity), but is to be considered in the link budget.
The 60 GHz band is not presently in commercial use. It could be used for very
short hops (e.g. building-to-building links).
Propagation impact on Interference : The very high attenuation at 60 GHz
allows the re-use of the same RF carrier within a short distance, without mutual
interference (small re-use distance). A high efficiency in spectrum utilization
can be achieved.
END OF CHAPTER
6.1 - REGULATORY ISSUES

Main topics, relevant to Digital Radio-Relay Systems, dealt with by Regulatory
bodies :
Performance Objectives : The Error Performance and Availability Objectives
for Digital Networks are recommended by the ITU-T, regardless of the
transmission medium.
ITU-T Recommendations are taken into account in producing the ITU-R Error
performance and Availability Recommendations, which are specific for the case
of Digital Radio-Relay Systems.
Use of RF Bands : The International Radio Regulations define the type of
radio services operating in each RF band, on a primary or secondary status.
For the RF bands assigned to the (Terrestrial) Fixed Radio Service, the ITU-R
recommends the adoption of Frequency Plans, with detailed specification of the
RF carrier position, channel spacings, guard bands, etc.
OBJECT.
RF BANDS
6.2 - ITU PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES FOR DIGITAL PATHS

ERROR PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES based on :
Quality Parameters (among them : SES = Severely Errored Second i.e. a
period of 1 second with a severe performance degradation)
Max. Time Percentages for each quality param. below given thresholds.
AVAILABILITY OBJECTIVES based on :

Definition of Availability : After 10 consecutive SES events , Unavailability
is detected. The 10 seconds are part of the Unavailable time. After 10
consecutive non-SES events Availability is detected. The 10 seconds are
part of the Available time.
Max. Unavailable Time Percentage
Note : Error Performance Objectives are checked only during Available Time.
6.2 - ITU-R AVAILABILITY OBJECTIVES

New ITU-T Rec. (and related ITU-R Rec.) under study.
ITU-R Recs.for a 2500 km Reference Path, including High Grade, Medium
Grade, and Local Grade Links.
High Grade Basic Objective : Unavailability < 0.3%
Allocation Criteria : Distance scaling for Radio Sections down to 280 km;
Block Allocation for shorter Radio Sections.
Unavailability produced by :
Propagation (usually 1/3 of objective)
Equipment failures (usually 2/3 of objective).
Unavilability is usually measured on a one year basis, but objectives should be
satisfied as a multiple year average.
6.3 - ITU-T ERROR PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES

Two approaches :
Rec. G.821
Rec. G.826
First Issue
1980
1992
Ref. Connection
Radio Link part of :
27,500 km
ISDN Connection
27,500 km
PDH and SDH transport
ATM Connection
Bit Rate
Below Primary Rate
At or Above Primary Rate
Performance criteria
Errored Bits
Errored Blocks
Definition of Errored Second (ES) : One Second with >= 1 Errored Bit (Block).
Different definitions for Severely Errored Seconds (SES).
Only in G.826 : Background Block Error (BBE)
ES / total available seconds : < 0.08 in G.821; depending on bit rate in G.826;
SES / total available seconds : < 0.002 both in G.821 and G.826.
6.4 - ITU-R ERROR PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES

Reference : ITU-T Rec. G.821
ITU-T Objectives are scaled to a 2500 km Reference Path, including High
Grade, Medium Grade, and Local Grade Quality.
High Grade Basic Objective : BER > 10-3 less than 0.054% of Available Time.
Allocation Criteria : Distance scaling for Radio Sections down to 280 km; Block
Allocation for shorter Radio Sections.
Reference : ITU-T Rec. G.826
Objectives scaled to a 2500 km Reference Path, with International Portion and
National Portion (intermediate or terminating countries)
Allocation Criteria : Block Allowance Factor + Distance Allocation Factor.
6.5 - IMPACT OF PROPAGATION ON PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES

Performance Impairment
Degradation
Period
Performance Objective
Rain
Obstruction Fading
(Sub-Refractive Conditions)
Interference
(Super-Refractive Conditions)
>= 10 seconds
Availability
Multipath Fading
Short Term Uncorrelated
Interference
< 10 seconds
Error Performance
(SES)
Long Term Correlated

Interference
Not Significant
Error Performance
(ES and BBE)
6.6 - ITU-R RECOMMENDED FREQUENCY PLANS

General characteristics :
Separate sub-bands for Tx and Rx channels, with a central guard band (one
exception : U.S. TD 4 GHz plan, with alternate Tx and Rx channels).
Constant channel spacing between co-polarized channels.
Two types of channel arrangements :
Interleaved Plan
Co-Channel Plan
Criteria followed in the ITU-R Frequency Plan activity :

Below 12 GHz : Compatibility of Channel Arrangements in the transition from
Analog to Digital systems.
Above 12 GHz : Channel Arrangements optimized for Digital systems.
6.7 - INTERLEAVED CHANNEL ARRANGEMENT

GO CHANNELS
x
Pol.
...
H(V)
RETURN CHANNELS
N-1
...
N-1
F
V(H)
z
2
x/2 x/2
x = Co-polar. .
channel
spacing
y = Central
guard band
z = Edge
guard band
Interferences : two adjacent X-pol. signals, channel spacing F = x/2

two adjacent Co-pol. signals, channel spacing F = x
Comment : Recommended in analog systems (frequency reuse not possible)
Adopted also for digital systems below 12 GHz.
6.8 - CO-CHANNEL ARRANGEMENT

GO CHANNELS
Pol. z x
1
H(V)
RETURN CHANNELS
y
z
1
...
...
x = Co-polar.
channel
spacing
F y = Central
guard band
V(H)
2
z = Edge
guard band
Interferences : one X-pol. signal at the same frequency (F = 0)

two adjacent Co-pol. signals, channel spacing F = x
two adjacent X-pol. signals, channel spacing F = x
Comment : Suitable for digital systems, short hops, simple modulations
Recommended in frequency bands above 12 GHz (only digital)
Recently adopted in some frequency bands below 12 GHz (x-pol.
interference canceller required for complex digital modulations)
6.9 - INTERFERENCE CLASSIFICATION

From the Propagation point of view :
Correlated : the interfering signal is subject to the same propagation conditions
as the useful signal (same fade depth for the two signals, at the same time).
Uncorrelated : the interfering and the useful signals are subject to different
propagation conditions (worst case: interference at the nominal level, while the
useful signal is at the threshold level).
From the Signal Source point of view :
Intra-System (Internal) Interference : coming from the same radio site or from
other sites in the same radio system. Signal parameters are known by the
system designer in detail . It includes correlated and uncorrelated interference.
Inter-System (External) Interference : coming from other radio systems,
sometimes only partially known by the system designer. Usually, it has to be
considered as uncorrelated interference.
6.10 - INTERFERENCE SCENARIO

D e s ire d S ig n a l
In te rfe rin g S ig n a l P a th
O th e r U s e fu l S ig n a ls
In te rfe re d
R e c e iv e r
C lic k o n
fo r d e ta ils
END OF CHAPTER
INTERFERENCE SCENARIO - Same Hop Interference
Co-Channel Frequency Arrangement :
Same Frequency, X-pol.

Adjacent channel, Co-pol.
Interleaved Frequency Arrangement :
Adjacent channel, X-pol.
INTERFERENCE SCENARIO - Same Frequency X-pol.

Type of Interference :
Intra-System, Same Hop

(only in Co-Channel Frequency Arrangement)
Frequency Spacing :
zero
Polarization :
X-polar
Discrimination from :
Antenna XPD
Propagation issues :
Multipath : Partially correlated interference. Multipath

outage prediction models include the XPD degradation
effect.
Rain : Correlated interference, but with XPD degraded
by rain de-polarization effect.
INTERFERENCE SCENARIO - Adjacent Channel Co-pol.


(only in Co-Channel Frequency Arrangement).
Frequency Spacing :
x (x = co-polar minimum spacing)
Polarization :
Co-polar
Tx & Rx Filtering (NFD)
Multipath : Partially Uncorrelated Interference.

Correlation can be evaluated by Frequency Diversity
Models
Rain : Correlated interference (same fade depth as
desired signal).
INTERFERENCE SCENARIO - Adjacent Channel X-pol.


(significant only in Interleaved Frequency Arrangement,
usually negligible in Co-channel arrangement)
Frequency Spacing :
Interleaved Plan x /2
Co-channel Plan x (x = co-polar minimum spacing)
Polarization :
X-polar
Antenna XPD and Tx & Rx Filtering (NFD).
Multipath : Partially correlated interference. Multipath

outage prediction models include the XPD degradation
effect.
Rain : Correlated interference, but with XPD degraded
by rain de-polarization effect.
INTERFERENCE SCENARIO - Next Hop, Tx to Rx

Intra-System, Any Frequency Arrangement
Frequency Spacing :
> y (y = central guard-band)
Polarization :
usually X-polar, at least for min. spacing (not always)
Tx & Rx Filtering (NFD), Antenna back-to-back

decoupling.
Uncorrelated interference.
Antenna Back-to-back decoupling degraded by nearby
reflections.
INTERFERENCE SCENARIO - Next Site, Front-to-Back

Frequency Spacing :
co-channel (worst case)
Polarization :
usually X-polar (not always)
Tx Antenna Front-to-Back discrimination.
Rain : Correlated interference.

Multipath : Partially uncorrelated (space diversity effect)
Antenna Front-to-Back discrimination degraded by
nearby reflections.
INTERFERENCE SCENARIO - Adjacent Hop

Frequency Spacing :
Polarization :
usually X-polar (not always)
Rx Antenna Front-to-Back discrimination
Rain : Uncorrelated interference (partial correlation if

raincell close to Interfered Rx).
Multipath : Uncorrelated interference
Antenna Front-to-Back discrimination degraded by
nearby reflections.
INTERFERENCE SCENARIO - Same Hop Tx to Rx

Frequency Spacing :
> y (y = central guard-band)
Polarization :
usually X-polar, at least for min. spacing (not always)
Tx & Rx Filtering (NFD), Antenna Tx/Rx decoupling (or

antenna side-to-side decoupling if two antennas are
used) .
Reflections nearby the radio site very dangerous if the
Tx signal is reflected toward the Rx.
INTERFERENCE SCENARIO - Overreach

Frequency Spacing :
co-channel
Polarization :
Co-polar
Tx and Rx Antenna angular discrimination (if hops are

not in line). Additional Free Space Loss for interfering
signal
Rain : Correlated Interference, as far as the Interfering

path is close to the desired signal path.
Multipath : Uncorrelated.
The check of Clearance for the Interfering signal path
must be based on worst case assumption (effect of
super-refractive propagation, k-factor > standard value).
INTERFERENCE SCENARIO - Other System

Inter-System
Frequency Spacing :
Polarization :
Co-polar (worst case)
Tx and Rx Antenna angular discrimination.

Tx & Rx Filtering (NFD) if not co-channel
The check of Clearance for the Interfering signal path
must be based on worst case assumption (effect of
super-refractive propagation, k-factor > standard value).
INTERFERENCE SCENARIO - Node

Inter-System
Frequency Spacing :
Co-channel (worst case)
Polarization :
Co-polar (worst case)
Rx Antenna angular discrimination.

Tx & Rx Filtering (NFD) if not co-channel
Rain : Partially correlated if Rx angle is small

Multipath : Uncorrelated interference.
Antenna Gain [dB]
50
4m
46
3m
2m
42
1m
38
0.5m
34
30
0
10
15
Frequency [GHz]
20
Tx
Rx
CL
Real Earth
CL
Tx
Rx
Real Earth
Rx
Tx
CL
kR
Equivalent Earth
Tx
Rx
CL
Real Earth
Rx
Tx
CL
Flat Earth
1.1
keff
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.3
10
20
50
100
Path Length [km]
200
1.1
keff
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.3
10
20
50
100
Path Length [km]
200
Rx
Tx
F1
P
L1
L2
Fresnel Radius [m]
60
50
2 GHz
40
4 GHz
7 GHz
12 GHz
30
20
10
0
20
40
60
80
Hop Length [km]
100
Obstruction Loss [dB]
-10
0
10
1
20
3
2
30
40
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.
0.5
Normalized Clearance Cl/F1
1.
Notch Depth [dB]
BER < 10-3
BER > 10-3
-15
-10
-5
10
15
Relative Notch Position [MHz]
Notch Depth [dB]
Without Equalizer
With Equalizer
-15
-10
-5
10
Notch Frequency [MHz]
15
Rx
Tx
D
1
R1
R2
Tx
Rx
Rx Level
Specific Attenuation [dB/km]
100
100
20
25
1.25
0.2
0.25 mm/h
0.05
0.01
1
20
100
Frequency [GHz]
500
% of Time
Region L 50Km
11GHz Pol. H
0.1
FM
0.01
0.001
10
20
30
40
Attenuation [dB]
50
Attenuation [dB/km]
O2
10
H2O
0.1
0.01
10
20
50
Frequency [GHz]
100
INTERLEAVED CHANNEL PLAN
GO CHANNELS
x
Pol.
...
H(V)
RETURN CHANNELS
1
N-1
...
N-1
F
V(H)
z
2
x/2 x/2
N
z
CO-CHANNEL PLAN
GO CHANNELS
Pol. z x
1
H(V)
RETURN CHANNELS
y
z
1
...
...
V(H)
2
CO-CHANNEL PLAN
GO CHANNELS
Pol. z x
1
H(V)
RETURN CHANNELS
y
z
1
...
...
V(H)
2
Free Space Loss [dB]
155
150
60 km
145
40 km
20 km
140
135
130
10
15
Frequency (GHz)
20
Prob {A>Ao} = Po 10-Ao/10
In this Figure : Po = 1
Prob { A > Ao }
1
0.1
10 dB/dec
0.01
0.001
0.0001
10
20
30
Ao [dB]
40
50
Amplitude [dB]
10
0
b=0.5
-10
b=0.9
-20
b=1
-30
-40
fo
fo+1/
Frequency
Norm. group delay
b=0.95
b=0.9
b=0.5
fo
Frequency
fo+1/
To Probe Further :
Glossary - Radio Transceivers
Glossary - Antennas
To Probe Further :
Derivation of the Radio Link Equation
Definition of Logarithmic Units
To Probe Further :
Loss vs. Distance in Radio and Cables
Derivation of the Radio Link Equation
To Probe Further :
Glossary - Antennas
Definition of Antenna Gain
To Probe Further :
Definition of Logarithmic Units
To Probe Further :
Atmosphere Structure and Refraction
Effects of Vertical Refractivity Gradient
To Probe Further :
Atmosphere Structure and Refraction
To Probe Further :
Fresnel Ellipsoid and Optical Analogy
Diffraction Analysis
To Probe Further :
To Probe Further :
To Probe Further :
Vectorial Addition of Multiple Signals
To Probe Further :
Rx Signal Level vs. Time and Frequency
during Multipath Events
To Probe Further :
To Probe Further :
Formulas for Po prediction
To Probe Further :
To Probe Further :
To Probe Further :
Rx Signal Level vs. Time and Frequency
during Multipath Events
To Probe Further :
Effects of Multipath Distortion on Digital Signals
To Probe Further :
Signature Measurement
To Probe Further :
Selective Fading Prediction Models
De-Polarization due to Multipath
To Probe Further :
Formulas for Po Prediction
To Probe Further :
Selective Fading Prediction Model
Maximum Hop Length (Rain & Multipath)
To Probe Further :
Selective Fading Prediction Model
To Probe Further :
Angle Diversity
To Probe Further :
Vectorial Addition of Two Signals
Reflection Coefficients
To Probe Further :
Anti-Reflection System
To Probe Further :
To Probe Further :
Radio Wave Propagation through Rain
De-Polarization due to Rain
Other Hydrometeor Effects (fog, snow)
To Probe Further :
To Probe Further :
ITU-R Model for Rain Unavailability Prediction
To Probe Further :
To Probe Further :
Other Hydrometeor Effects (fog, snow)
To Probe Further :
RF Bands Assigned to the Radio Fixed
Service (FS)
To Probe Further :
ITU-T Error Performance Objectives
To Probe Further :
Status of ITU-R Recs. on Performance
Objectives
To Probe Further :
RF Bands Assigned to the Radio Fixed
Service (FS)
To Probe Further :
To Probe Further :
Equalization Improvement
To Probe Further :
Angle Diversity
Diversity Improvement
To Probe Further :
To Probe Further :
Rain Rates in ITU-R Regions
GLOSSARY - Radio Transceivers

Tx Power : The RF power at the Radio Transmitter Output (usually manufacturer data
do not include loss in the RF branching system).
Tx Capacity : The amount of information delivered at the Tx input and available at the
Rx output (usually expressed in bit / second, or telephone chs, or TV chs., etc.).
Path Bit Rate : Bit Rate (bit/second) actually transmitted on the radio path (it is usually
higher than the Tx Capacity, due to bits added by the Tx radio equipment for channel
coding, service channels, framing, etc.)
Tx Frequency : The Carrier Frequency in the Emitted Signal.
Emitted Spectrum : The distribution of emitted RF energy at frequencies around the Tx
Carrier Frequency. It depends on the (Path) Bit Rate, Modulation technique and Tx
Filtering (Tx Spectral Shaping).
Tx Spectral Shaping : The overall effect of Tx Filters in limiting the Emitted Spectrum.
Rx Power (nominal) : The RF power at the Radio Receiver Input in normal propagation
conditions.
Glossary - Radio Transceivers
Rx Power (actual) : The RF power at the Radio Receiver Input, at a given time,
including propagation losses present at that time.
Rx Threshold : The minimum RF power at the Rx input, required for the Receiver to
operate above a threshold of acceptable quality.
Reception Quality : The result of comparison between the original information delivered
at the Tx input and that available at the Rx output; it can be expressed by the Bit Error
Ratio (BER), or by other (more complex) parameters related to Bit Blocks.
Rx Selectivity : The overall effect of the Receiver Filters in discriminating the desired
signal from signals received on adjacent radio channels. It is expressed by an overall
transfer function, including the contribute of RF, IF, and BB filters.
Net Filter Discrimination (NFD) : The attenuation of the Interfering signal level at the
Rx decision circuit, as a result of the interfering signal Tx spectral shaping and of the Rx
selectivity at the interfered receiver.
GLOSSARY - Antennas
Isotropic Antenna : An ideal source of Electromagnetic Radiation, that radiates
uniformly in all directions.
Omnidirectional Antenna : A Real Antenna, that approximates an Isotropic Antenna; in
most cases radiation is (almost) uniform at all azimuth angles, but within a limited range
of elevatuion angles.
Directive Antenna : A Real Antenna, that concentrates most of the emitted radiation
within a small angle in a given direction.
Reflector Antenna : A Directive Antenna, using one or more reflecting surfaces to
concentrate the emitted radiation in the desired direction.
Parabolic Antenna : A Reflector Antenna using a Parabolic Surface; the feeder position
is in the parabola focus.
Horn Antenna : A Reflector Antenna using a sector of a Parabolic Surface.
Cassegrain Antenna : A double Reflector Antenna: the primary reflector is a parabolic
surface, the secondary reflector is a hyperbolic surface.
Glossary - Antennas
Antenna Gain : See Definition.

Directivity Diagram : A plot of the antenna gain (usually relative to the maximum gain)
as a function of the azimuth or elevation angle.
Far Field Region : The region sufficiently distant from the antenna, where the EM field
can be represented as a plane wave and the antenna diagram is stabilized. Closer to the
antenna, the Near Field Region and the Fresnel (transition) Region are defined. The
boundary between the Fresnel and the Far Field Region is approximately at the distance
:
dFF = 2 D2 /
(D = antenna diameter)
Launch and Arrival Angles : The angle of the Radio Ray at the Tx or Rx antenna, with
respect to the Horizon; it varies with atmospheric conditions (k-factor).
Logarithmic Units
Logarithmic units are widely used in Radio Link Engineering computations. The Link
Budget is put in a very convenient form by using logarithmic units. Gains and Losses are
added with positive or negative sign, as in financial budgets.
The ratio R between the power P and a reference power PREF (both in the same unit,
like W or mW) is expressed in decibels as:
R (dB) = 10 Log10 (P / PREF)
If R>0, then P > PREF (gain). Otherwise, if R<0, then P < PREF (loss).
NOTE : Decibels are used to express ratios only. Absolute power levels can never be
expressed in dB. Sometimes the reference power level PREF is implicit in some way.
Absolute power levels can be expressed in dBm, by assuming PREF = 1 mW :
P (dBm) = 10 Log10 (P[mW] / 1mW)
Similarly, with PREF = 1 W, power P in dBW is :
P (dBW) = 10 Log10 (P[W] / 1W)
Logarithmic Units
Examples of power levels expressed in different units :

Power in mW
0.001
0.1
1.0
2.0
5.0
10.0
40.0
100.0
200.0
1000.0
5000.0
10000.0
Power in dBm
-30
-10
0
+3
+7
+10
+16
+20
+23
+30
+37
+40
Power in dBW
-60
-40
-30
-27
-23
-20
-14
-10
-7
0
+7
+10
Derivation of the Basic Radio Link Equation

Let us assume that a radio signal is transmitted using an Isotropic Antenna, with power
PT. At the distance L from the antenna, the Power Density is : = PT / 4BL2
If a Directive Antenna (gain GT) is used and assuming that the distance L is sufficiently
large, in order that Far Field Conditions are satisfied, then the Power Density in the
antenna pointing direction is :
= PT GT / 4BL2
At the distance L, a receiving antenna with an Effective Area ARE is used. Then, the
received power is :
PR = ARE = PT GT ARE / 4BL2
The Effective Area is related to the Antenna Gain : ARE = GR 82 / 4B (8 = wavelength)
Then the Received Power can be finally expressed as :
PR = PT GT GR 82 / [4BL]2 = PT GT GR [c / 4BFL]2
where c is the propagation velocity and F is the signal frequency.
Derivation of the Basic Radio Link Equation
By transforming into Logarithmic Units, we get :

PR[dBm] = PT[dBm] + GT[dB] + GR[dB] - 92.44 - 20 Log (F[GHz]) - 20 Log(L[km])
which is the usual Radio Link Equation. If frequency and distance are not expressed,
respectively, in GHz and km, then the numerical constant 92.4 must be modified
accordingly.
Comments : Two equivalent forms of the Radio Link Equation have been derived above:
PR = PT GT 0 AR / 4BL2
PR = PT GT GR [c / 4BFL]2
(1)
(2)
The antenna parameters used in (1) are the Tx gain GT and the Rx antenna area AR.
The Rx power is proportional to GT, to AR and to PT; it is inversely proportional to the
distance squared. This probably sounds quite clear from the physical point of view.
On the other hand, formula (2) looks attractive for its symmetric form, since both the Tx
and Rx antenna gains appear. However, we must remember that, for a given antenna
area, the gain increases with frequency (see also Antenna Gain Definition). That's why
the frequency term appears in (2).
Definition of Antenna Gain

Let us imagine an Isotropic Antenna at the centre of a sphere (with radius L), radiating
a total power P. In every point on the sphere surface, a uniform EM power density
could be measured :
)ISO = P / 4BL2
(
Now, we substitute the Isotropic Antenna with a Directive Antenna and we measure the
EM power density on the sphere surface, at the intersection with the antenna axis (we
maintain the same total emitted power P). The result is (
)DIR
The antenna gain on the axis is defined as :
or, in logarithmic units :
g = (p)DIR / (p)ISO
G (dB) = 10 Log (g) = 10 Log [(p)DIR / (p)ISO]
The Antenna Gain depends on the physical dimensions of the antenna, normalized to
the signal wavelength 8. For Reflector Antennas we have :
G (dB) = 10 Log (4 B 0 A / 82) = 10 Log (4 B AE / 82)
where A is the reflector area, 0 is the Antenna Efficiency (generally in the range 0.55 0.65) and AE = 0A is called Antenna Effective Area.
Loss vs. Distance in Radio (and Cable) Links

In the Radio Link Equation, the factor 1/L2 (or -20 Log (L) in logarithmic units) shows how
the received signal power is reduced as the distance L from Tx to Rx increases.
We refer to the simple Isotropic Antenna example. The antenna is at the centre of a
sphere (with radius L), radiating a total power P. In every point on the sphere surface, the
EM power density is:
= P / 4BL2
The Loss vs. Distance mechanism is directly related to the EM power density at the Rx
antenna, which is proportional to 1/L2. This corresponds to a 6 dB increase in power
loss every time the hop length is doubled.
It must be recalled that the Radio Link Equation is valid for Free Space Propagation.
Therefore, no interaction between the Electromagnetic (EM) radiation and the
propagation medium is responsible for power loss.
For the above reason, the term Free Space Loss could be slightly misleading.
A completely different mechanism is responsible of power loss at the receiver when the
Loss vs. Distance in Radio (and Cable) Links
EM energy interacts with the propagation medium and some phenomena of energy
transfer or transformations produce the attenuation in the received signal.
This happens, for example, in coaxial cable transmission, where signal loss is mainly
due to dissipative phenomena (interaction of EM energy with conductive and dielectric
material in the cable). Depending on signal frequency and cable characteristics, some
fraction of signal power is lost every kilometre travelled through the cable. So, the loss is
usually expressed in dB/km.
Also in radio communications through the atmosphere, dissipative phenomena can be
observed. Absorption in the atmosphere is caused by water vapour, oxygen molecules
or by water in raindrops. Also for these phenomena, the power loss is usually expressed
in dB/km.
However, in most cases (dry atmosphere, frequencies below 20 GHz), the interaction of
the EM radiation with atmosphere components is almost negligible.
Atmosphere structure and refraction gradient

The Refractive Index is the ratio of the Velocity of Light in vacuum to the velocity in a
different medium. Since the Velocity of Light in the atmosphere is very close to that in
vacuum, then the Refractive Index in the atmosphere is greater than, but very close to 1.
However, also small variation in the atmosphere Refractive Index have significant effects
on the propagation of Electromagnetic Waves. For this reason, instead of using the
Refractive Index n (close to 1), it is convenient to define the Refractivity N as :
N = (n - 1) 106
that is the number of parts per million that the Refractive Index exceeds unity. The
Refractivity is a dimensionless parameter, measured in N-units.
The atmosphere Refractivity is a function of Temperature, Pressure, and Humidity, and
it is not constant with height. The ITU-R Rec. 453 gives the formula :
N = (77.6 / T ) ( P + 4810 e / T )
where
T = absolute temperature (Kelvin deg);

P = atmospheric pressure (hPa, numerically equal to millibar);
e = water vapour pressure (hPa).
Atmosphere structure and refraction gradient
The average value of N at sea level is about No = 315 The ITU-R gives world maps
with the mean values of No in February and August.
The Vertical Refractivity Gradient G (measured in N-units per km, N/km) is defined as:
G = (N1 - N2) / (H1 - H2)
where N1 and N2 are the refractivity values at elevations H1 and H2, respectively.
In a Standard Atmosphere model, the Vertical Refractivity Gradient is assumed as
constant in the first kilometre of the atmosphere : G = - 40 N/km. This corresponds to
the Standard Propagation conditions.
Deviation from the Standard Atmosphere condition leads to Anomalous Propagation.
Such anomalies are usually associated with particular meteorological conditions, like
temperature inversion, very high evaporation and humidity, passage of cold air over
warm surfaces or vice versa.
In this conditions, the Vertical Refractivity Gradient is no longer constant. A number
of different profiles have been observed and measured. It is worth noting that, at greater
altitude, the Refractive Index is, in any case, closer and closer to 1; so the Refractivity
N goes to zero, according to an exponential function.

In any point in the space, an Electromagnetic Wave propagates in the direction normal
to the wave-front (iso-phase plane) in that point. In a homogeneous medium, isophase planes are parallel to each other and the propagation direction is a straight line
normal to them.
The Atmosphere is not an homogeneous medium. The Refractivity varies with height
and the Vertical Refractivity Gradient gives a measure of this variation.
Different Refractivity at different heights means different propagation velocity. The
wave-front moves faster or slower depending on the height, producing a rotation of the
wave-front itself. Thus, also the propagation direction (normal to the wave-front) rotates.
The ray curvature 1/r is a function of the Vertical Refractivity Gradient G : 1/r = - G 10-6.
In the Equivalent Earth representation, the ray path is made straight, by modifying the
earth radius R (6370 km) to kR (k = equivalent earth factor). This condition means :
1/kR = 1/R - 1/r
k = 1 / ( 1 - R/r) = 1 / ( 1+ R G 10-6) = 157 / ( 157 + G )
For the Standard Atmosphere (G = -40 N units/km), this gives k = 4/3 ( = 1.33).
Anomalous propagation conditions :

Constant-G profiles : deviation from the Standard Atmosphere (k = 4/3), can result in :
Sub-Refractive propagation (k < 4/3, G > -40 N-units/km) : usually associated to
atmosphere density increasing with height (warm air over cool air or moist surface). The
ray curvature is reduced or even is bent upward ( k < 1, G > 0 ); the ray path is closer to
the ground (maximum obstruction probability when k is minimum).
Super-Refractive propagation (k > 4/3, G < - 40 N-units/km) : observed when
temperature inversion happens or other phenomena makes atmosphere density
decreasing with height. (cool dry air over a warm body of water). The equivalent earth
reduces its curvature; for k the ray is parallel to the earth and propagation may
extend its range (unexpected interference may appear). In extreme super-refraction
conditions (G < -157 N-units/km, negative k) the ray is bent toward ground and no signal
arrives at the Rx antenna (black-out).
Variable-G profiles : with better approximation, the Refractivity Gradient can be
assumed as constant only in limited height ranges (layered atmosphere). Under this
model, the ray curvature changes when passing from one atmosphere layer (G = G1)
to the higher (or lower) one (G = G2). Even if, in the real case, the transition from one
layer to another is smoothed in some way, a layered atmosphere model is useful in
explaining :
Multipath propagation : the different ray curvature in atmospheric layers may
produce a number of separate propagation paths from the transmitter to the receiver.
Duct formation : the atmosphere layers are such that the rays at the duct lower
boundary tend to be bent upward, while rays close to the upper boundary tend to be bent
downward. The result is that propagation is confined within a limited height ranges, with
attenuation much lower than in well mixed atmosphere. If the Rx antenna is within the
duct, a stronger signal will be received. If the Rx antenna is out of the duct, rather long
signal fadings are observed.

The propagation of Radio Waves is often described in terms of Ray Trajectories, with
implicit reference to Geometrical Optics. Reflection and Refraction phenomena are
mainly discussed in this context.
However, it is important to remember that the Geometrical Optics approach is adequate
so long as any discontinuities encountered by an Electromagnetic Wave during its
propagation are very large compared with the wavelength.
The Fresnel Ellipsoid gives an indication of the space volume involved in the propagation
from a source point (Tx) to a sensor (Rx). The ellipsoid radius is proportional to the
wavelength square root.
In the optical field, the wavelength is so small (about 5 10-4 mm) that the radius of
the Fresnel ellipsoid is negligible, at least as a first approximation. Only with accurate
experiments (unusual in our visual experience) diffraction phenomena can be observed
and the role of Fresnel ellipsoid can be appreciated also in the optical field.
We are familiar with our optical experience, that can be of some help in describing
some aspects of propagation mechanisms. But this analogy can be misleading in other
case. For example, the concept of Visibility is quite different in Radio Engineering and
in our visual experience.
Generally speaking, Diffraction effects can be observed when the wave propagation is
altered by an obstacle which has dimensions comparable to the wavelength in the
plane normal to the propagation direction. Usually, this means that the obstacle is close
to the Fresnel ellipsoid (possibly with partial or total obstruction). The theoretical
computation of diffraction loss is rather complex. Usually, reference is made to two
obstacle models :
the smooth spherical earth ;
the knife-edge obstruction.
They represent extreme and opposite conditions and most practical cases can be
assumed as intermediate between these two models. The ITU-R Recs. 368 and 526
include the analysis of the two models. In Rec. 526 the Knife-edge model is generalized
to rounded obstacles and the case of multiple obstructions is also dealt with.
An approximation for the knife-edge case is given by :
Diffraction Loss (dB) = 6.9 + 20 Log [ ( y2 +1 ) + y ]
where y = 2 CL/F1 - 0.1 is a function of the clearance CL normalized to the Fresnel
radius F1, and the approximation is valid for y > - 0.8 (Note : CL is negative when a
ground obstruction is higher than the radio ray).
Vectorial Addition of Two Signals (deterministic)

Let us consider a propagation channel where an echo (delayed) signal adds to the direct
signal at the receiver. The Channel Transfer Function H(F) is :
H(f) = 1 - b exp [ - j (2f - ) ] = 1 - b exp [ - j 2(f - fo) ]
Amplitude [dB]
where :
b = echo amplitude (direct signal amplitude normalized to unity) ;

= echo delay ;
= echo phase (relative to direct signal).
The substitution
= 2fo has been
used in order to
introduce the frequency
fo where the H(f)
modulus is minimum :
0
b=0.5
-10
b=0.9
| H(fo) | = 1 - b
-20
b=1
-30
-40
fo
fo+1/
Frequency
Other minimums in |
H(f) | are found for any
frequency fn = fo + n/
(n integer).
The Group Delay is represented for different values of the echo amplitude b.
b=0.95
Norm. group delay
In the figure it is
assumed b < 1(delayed
signal smaller than the
direct one). This gives a
Minimum-Phase
Transfer Function. If
the delayed signal is
greater than the direct
one, then a NonMinimum Phase
Transfer Function is
produced. This case is
usually dealt with by
assuming again the echo
as the smaller signal,
with a negative . The
Group Delay diagram is
given by the same figure, but
reversing the ordinate axis.
b=0.9
b=0.5
fo
Frequency
fo+1/
Vectorial Addition of Multiple Signals (statistic)

Let us consider the case of N signals, adding together. They can be represented as
vectors, with orthogonal components {x1, y1}, {x2, y2}, ..., {xN, yN}. Each vector has
random amplitude and phase (independent to each other, same statistics).
The orthogonal components of the resultant vector are given by :
X = x1 + x2 + ... + xN
Y = y1 + y2 + ... + yN
(1)
With N (number of signals) growing to infinity, reference can be made to the Central
Limit Theorem : X and Y are independent Gaussian Random Variables, whose
average value is zero and variance is 2 (we are not interested in investigating the
precise value of ). The amplitude R of the {X,Y} vector is given by :
R2 = X2 + Y2
(2)
Given the statistical properties of X and Y (mentioned above), formula (2) defines R as a
Rayleigh Random Variable, with average value (/2). The Rayleigh Cumulative
Function gives :
2 ] c2 / 2
2
Prob { R < c } = 1 - exp [ - c2 / 2
(3)
where the approximation holds when c << , or c << (Rayleigh average value).
In the application to Radio Propagation Models, Logarithmic Units are usual. So, we
are interested in evaluating probilities like ( C = 20 Log [c] ) :
2 = 10 C/10 / 2
2
Prob [ R(dB) < C(dB) ] c2 / 2
(4)
which is the Rayleigh asymptotic formula in Logarithmic Units.

If we define C(dB) = M(dB) - A(dB) , where A is the attenuation below the average value
M in dB, then (4) becomes :
2 = W 10 -A/10
Prob [ R(dB) < M(dB) - A(dB) ] 10 (M-A)/10 / 2
(5)
where W is a constant depending only on the Rayleigh average value. Formula (5) is the
usual asymptotic expression for Rayleigh distributed attenuation in dB, holding for
R values much lower than the Rayleigh average value (A > 15 - 20 dB).
Formula (5) is known as the 10dB / decade formula. If attenuation A is made 10 dB
deeper, then the probablity is one decade smaller.
Reflection Coefficients
In many cases it is advisable to adopt the conservative assumption that the modulus of
the Reflection Coefficient be equal to 1. For very small grazing angles and/or for
Horizontal Polarization this is a realistic approximation.
For Vertical Polarization, the table gives the Reflection Coefficient modulus in the case of
sea reflection :
Grazing Angle
Frequency
0.5
1
2
4
1 GHz
3 GHz
10 GHz
-1.4 dB
-1.2 dB
-0.8 dB
-2.8 dB
-2.3 dB
-1.7 dB
-6.2 dB
-5.3 dB
-4.3 dB
-12.0 dB
-10.9 dB
-8.4 dB
Similarly, the phase of the Reflection Coefficient is very close to 180 with Horizontal
Polarization (any grazing angle) and also with Vertical Polarization, for grazing angles
below 0.5.
With Vertical Polarization and larger grazing angles, the phase is smaller than 180,
depending also on the frequency. However, in radio link design, the prediction of the
Reflection Coefficient phase is usually not required.
Space Diversity, as a Reflection Countermeasure, is usually implemented to maximize
the Rx power level, by switching to the best signal or combining in IF or RF. However,
the maximized Rx signal is in some way a combination of the direct and the reflected
signal.
In some cases it is required that the reflected signal be cancelled, to avoid signal
distortion (particularly with very long reflection delays). The Anti-Reflection system is an
RF Space Diversity implementation with the objective of cancelling (or minimizing) the
reflected signal component in the overall Rx signal.
.
The Antenna Spacing is such that the
reflected signal arrives in phase
opposition at the two antennas.
The phase shifter is used for fine
Hybrid
Rx
phase adjustment. The result at the
hybrid is a co-phase addition of the
direct signal components from the two
antennas, and phase opposition
cancelling of the reflected signal components.
The Space Diversity configuration can also be seen as an Antenna Array, with an
overall directivity pattern having a null toward the reflection point.
Also the Anti-Reflecting systems, as other Space Diversity implementations, are usually
optimized for standard propagation conditions. Then the solution is checked in the whole
range of expected k-factor values.
Multipath Propagation - Rx Level vs. Time and Frequency

In a Frequency &
Time Plane, the
figure shows the
addition of multiple
vectors with random
phases.
Frequency
n
f2
3
Rx
Rx
Each vector
represents one Rx
signal component,
during a multipath
event.
The Rx signal
amplitude changes
from time t1 to t2, as
well as from
frequency f1 to f2.
1
n
4
n
f1
Rx
Rx
2
1
t1
Time
t2
Multipath propagation is a dynamic event, both in the time dimension and in the
frequency dimension.
.
Rx SIGNAL vs. TIME :

Phase shifts are varying with time because of movements in atmospheric layers.
Since the wavelength is rather small (e.g. 10 cm at 3 GHz), even a small change in the
path length produces a significant phase rotation. So the relative phases among
multipath components are fast varying, as well as the reultant vector (Rx amplitude).
The speed of change of the multipath channel is expressed in two ways.
1) Rx signal power variation in a given time interval : up to 10 dB in 100 ms (100 dB/s)
has been observed, according to several authors.
2) Fade Notch (deepest attenuation) movement through the signal bandwidth : up to 10
MHz in 100 ms (100 MHz/s) has been observed, according to several authors.
The above estimates affect the design of multipath countermeasures, like adaptive
equalizers, combiners, and switches to the protection channel (frequency diversity).
Rx SIGNAL vs. FREQUENCY :

In a modulated signal, let us consider the spectral components at the edge of the signal
bandwidth F : F1 = Fc - F/2 and F2 = Fc + F/2 (Fc = carrier frequency).
Moreover, let us simplify the multipath propagation as the composition of a direct and a
delayed (echo) signal.
The phase shift between the F1 signal component and the delayed echo is :
1 = 2F1 where is the echo delay. Similarly, at F2, we have 2 = 2F2.
The multipath propagation produces an (almost) flat attenuation through the whole
signal bandwidth F, if the phase shifts 1 and 2 are equal (or very close) (same
composition of the direct and echo signals at F1 and F2 ) :
= 2 - 1 = 2 (F2 - F1) = 2 F 0
that is
2 F << 1 /
Under this condition, the frequency selective effect of multipath propagation can be
neglected, Otherwise, for frequencies spaced more than F above, the composition
of multipath components, at the same time instant, gives different Rx amplitudes
(frequency selective multipath).

Several formulas have been proposed to predict the Multipath Occurrence Factor Po.
They can be derived from the general formula :
Po = C Q Fa Lb
where F is the Frequency in GHz, L is the Hop Length in km. The four parameters
defining the prediction model are : a = Frequency Exponent;
b = Distance Exponent;
C = Climatic Factor; Q = Profile Factor.
Formula from Bell Labs (USA) :
This formula is the result of field measurements in the US, mainly reported by A. Vigants
and W.T. Barnett in several papers. The parameters in the general Po formula are
specialized as follows :
Frequency Exponent a = 1;
Distance Exponent b = 3;
C = from 10-5 (dry mountain climate) to 4.1 10-5 (climate with high humidity and
temperature; coastal regions);
Q = 1 / S1.3 where S = Profile roughness, computed from the hop profile.
Formula for NW. Europe :

This formula was derived from measurements performed by European PTT and reported
by CCIR documents in 1978-1986.
The parameters in the general Po formula are specialized as follows :
Frequency Exponent a = 1;
Distance Exponent b = 3.5;
C = 1.4 10-8 (continental temperate climate, to be modified for very dry or humid or hot
climates and/or wet terrain);
Q = 1 (for average rolling terrain, to be increased for completely flat profile).
Formula from ITU-R Rec. 530 :
The present issue of ITU-R Rec. 530 reports a formula for predicting the Po factor in any
radio link. The general Po formula is specialized as follows :
Frequency Exponent a = 0.89;
Distance Exponent b = 3.6;
C is computed from rather complex tables, considering several conditions (inland or
coastal links, fraction of the path profile near large or medium bodies of water; plain,
hilly or mountainous terrain; latitude and longitude). As an example, for inland links :
C = 0.01 E pL1.5
Q = ( 1 + ) -1.4
where E = environment factor (in the range 2.2 10-8 to 5 10-6)

pL = % time with average refractivity gradient in the lowest
100m of the atmosphere less than -100 N-units/km (from
maps in ITU-R Rec. 453);
where = slope (mrad) from Tx to Rx antenna.
The specific procedure for the computation of E is reported in ITU-R Rec. 530.
Note : In the above formulas C has the same role as K in Rec. 530, but C = 0.01 K, since
in Rec. 530 the Rayleigh formula is expressed in %.

During Multipath events a reduction in the Cross-Polar Discrimination (XPD) at the
Rx antenna is observed. This is mainly related to the shape of the X-polar antenna
diagram (usually with deep and sharp attenuation only in the maximum gain direction),
quite different from the shape of the Co-polar diagram.
In most cases it has been observed that the XPD remains almost constant for signal
fades up to about 20 dB, while it degrades 1 dB for dB for deeper fades. This suggest
an approximate model for estimating the XPD reduction on the following basis :
a) define XPD0 as a fictitious unfaded XPD, better than the actual antenna XPD by some
15 to 20 dB;
b) for Co-polar Attenuation (CPA) deeper than 20-25 dB, estimate the probability of
XPD reduction as :
Prob { XPD < XPD0 - A0(dB) } = Prob { CPA > A0(dB) }
ITU-R Rec. 530 reports a more sophisticated model, which takes into account also the
use of an X-Polar Interference Canceller (XPIC). Moreover, it considers the
transmission of the two cross-polarized signals by a single antenna, or by two space
separated antennas (in last case the XPD reduction effect is in some measure relaxed,
thanks to a space diversity effect at Tx site).
Effects of Multipath Distortions on Digital Signals

When a digital signal is distorted by
frequency selective fading, the Bit Error
Ratio (BER) may be greater than the
threshold (10-3) even if the Rx power is
higher than the Rx threshold.
Log(BER)
-1
-2
-3
In the figure, the continuous line (BER

vs. Fade Depth) is measured in the
laboratory with a flat fading simulator
(no signal distortion). The Flat Fade
Margin is 41 dB (fade depth
corresponding to BER = 10-3)
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
60
50
40
30
20
10
The points at the right of the BER line

are the result of field measurements,
Fade Depth [dB]
during selective fading. Each point is
a measured BER, with the corresponding fade depth. The BER threshold is reached
even with 20 dB fade depth only.
Continuous Line : Flat Fading
Bit errors caused by noise only.
Points on the right : Multipath Selective Fading
Bit errors caused by the
joint effect of noise and signal distortion.
In order to simulate in the laboratory the distortions produced during multipath fading
events, a Two-Ray Channel Model is usually adopted.
Measurement Set-up :
Tx
Delay Phase
MOD
Rx
delay;
= echo signal
Att
= echo signal
DEM
phase shift (relative

to the direct
signal).
b = echo signal
amplitude;
Bit
Sequence
BER
Error
Counter
Two-Ray Channel Transfer Function :

H(f) = 1 - b exp [ - j (2f - ) ] = 1 - b exp [ - j 2(f - fo) ]
0
-10
-20
-20log(1-b)
Amplitude [dB]
1/
Echo delay : assumed as constant

( = 6.3 ns in the original Bell Labs /
Rummler model ).
Notch Frequency fo = / 2 :
corresponds to the minimum of H(f) ;
it is controlled by varying the echo
phase ; the notch moves through
(or out of) the signal bandwidth.
Notch Depth B = - 20 Log10 (1 - b) :

minimum of H(f) expressed in dB. It
fo
fo+1/
Frequency
is controlled by the value of the echo
amplitude b. The b-range is 0 - 1 : this corresponds to a Minimum-Phase Transfer
Function (first signal larger than the delayed one). In the other case (first signal smaller)
a Non-Minimum-Phase Transfer Function is produced. Assuming the smaller signal as
the echo signal, this is referred as a "negative " condition.
Measurement Procedure :
The Bit Error Rate (BER) is measured by comparing the bit stream at the Tx input with
the one estimated at the receiver. The following steps must be performed :
a) Set the echo delay to a positive value (to get a minimum phase signature).
b) Set the echo phase to the value corresponding to Notch Frequency fo = Fc - F (Fc =
carrier frequency, 2F = bandwidth to be explored).
c) Starting with b=0, increase the Notch Depth B; stop when the BER reaches a given
threshold (usually 10-3). This is the Critical Notch Depth Bc for that BER value.
d) The point [ Bc, fo] is a Signature point, to be plotted in the Notch Depth vs. Notch
Frequency plane.
e) Move the Notch Frequency fo of a given frequency step. Repeat steps c), and d) until
fo = Fc + F (the band to be explored is completed).
f) Repeat steps b) to e) with a negative delay (to get a non-minimum phase signature).
Angle Diversity
Some Space Diversity experiments have led to the conclusion that the diversity
improvement in signal distortion seems to be independent of the antenna spacing.
Even if this point is, in some way, controversial, it suggested the possibility of getting a
diversity improvement also with Angle Diversity. Two implementations of Angle Diversity
are considered :
Two antennas (of the same type or of different types) side-byAntenna Diversity :
side with slightly different pointing angles (used in preliminary experiments).
One antenna with two feeders, producing beams with different
Beam Diversity :
shapes and/or pointing.
In both cases, two beams operate at the receiver, closely spaced, but with different
shapes. The multipath components are subject to different weighting at the two beams
and the two composed Rx signals are in some measure uncorrelated.
No need of high, complex tower structures; only one antenna with
Beam Diversity; lower costs.
Disadvantages : Less diversity improvement; less experience in Outage Prediction
models.
Advantages :

The model recommended by ITU-R Rec. 530 can be summarized as follows :
Single Receiver
The Outage Probability due to Selective Fading only (PS) is given by :
PS = 2.15 [ WM 10-BM/20 (2m / r,M ) + WNM 10-BNM/20 ( 2m / r,NM ) ]
where :
= fading activity parameter = 1 - exp[ -0.2 Po0.75 ] ;
Po = multipath fading occurrence factor ;
m = mean time delay (ns) = 0.7 [ L / 50 ]1.3 ;
L = hop length (km) ;
M, NM pedices = signature data from measurements with minimum (M) and nonminimum (NM) phase channel ;
W M, W NM = signature width (GHz) ;
BM, BNM = signature depth (dB) ;
r,M, r,NM = reference delay used in signature measurements.
Diversity Receiver
The Outage Probability due to Selective Fading only (PDS) is given by :
PDS = PS2 / (1 - k2s)
where :
PS = Selective Fading Outage Probability with single receiver;
ks = Selective Correlation Coefficient ; formulas for the computation of ks for
space and frequency diversity are rather complex and are given in Rec. 530.
Total Outage Probability
The Selective Outage Probability (PS or PDS) and the Non-Selective (Thermal Noise)
Outage Probability (PT or PDT) are combined to give the Total Outage Probability :
POUT = PT + PS for Single Receiver
POUT = [ PDT0.75 + PDS0.75 ]1.33 for Diversity Receiver
The Diversity Outage Probability for Narrow-Band Signals (PDT, Non-Selective
Fading Model) is given by :
PDT = PT / IFD
where :
PT = Non-Selective Outage Probability, Single Receiver = Po 10 -FM/10 ;

Po = multipath fading occurrence factor ;
FM = Fade margin ;
IFD = Diversity Improvement factor.
Space Diversity : The ITU-R Rec. 530 gives the Improvement Factor ISD at Fade
Depth A (dB) as :
IFSD = [ 1 - exp ( -3.34 10-4 S0.87 F-0.12 L0.48 Po-1.04) ] 10(A-V)/10
where :
S = Vertical Spacing (m) of Rx Antennas (centre-to-centre);

F = Frequency (GHz) ;
L = Hop Length (km) ;
V = Absolute difference of the two antenna gains (dB).
With the same symbols, the Bell Labs (Vigants) formula gives (S < 15 m) :
.
IFSD = 1.2 10-3 S2 F L-1 10(A-V)/10
1 + 1 Frequency Diversity : Both the ITU-R Rec. 530 and the Bell Labs (Barnett,
Vigants) give the Improvement Factor IFFD at Fade Depth A (dB) as :
IFFD = (80 / F L) (F / F) 10A/10
where :
F = Frequency Spacing (GHz) .
The Diversity Outage Probability due to Selective Fading only (PDS) is given by :
PDS = PS2 / (1 - k2s)
where :
PS = Selective Fading Outage Probability with single receiver;

ks = Selective Correlation Coefficient ; formulas for the computation of ks with
space and frequency diversity are rather complex (see Rec. 530).
Equalization Improvement
The reduction in Multipath Outage Time provided by equalization is estimated by
comparing the Rx signatures with and without the equalizer.
The Equalizer Improvement Factor (IFE) is defined as the ratio of the Selective Outage
Probability PS without and with the equalizer :
IFE = PS(unequalized) / PS(equalized)
According to the ITU-R Rec. 530 model, the Selective Outage Probability PS is
proportional to the Signature Area AS , defined as :
AS = W 10-B/20
where :
W = signature width (GHz) and B = signature depth (dB).
So, the Equalizer Improvement Factor (IFE) can be estimated as :

IFE = AS(unequalized) / AS(equalized)

In passing through a region containing precipitation, an EM wave is attenuated by two
phenomena : (a) energy is scattered out of the desired direction; (b) energy is
absorbed and converted into heat. The total power lost PLOST in the impact with a
raindrop is:
)
(1)
PLOST = PINC Q(r,
where PINC is the incident power and Q is called the drop cross section, which is a
function of the drop radius r and of the signal wavelength . The drop cross section Q
can be considered as the sum of a scattering cross section and an absorption cross
section.
Formula (1) can be integrated in a volume (called a rain cell), in order to estimate the
total loss produced within that rain cell. The integral extends to the raindrops contained in
that volume. The integrand function Q depends on the drop size (radius r in [1]).
This integral can be solved by means of statistical models, relating the number of
drops and their size distribution to the intensity of rain precipitation. On the basis
of such models, with a large amount of experimental data, the exponential formula :
= k R
(2)
has been derived, giving the specific rain attenuation (dB/km), as a function of the
rain rate R (mm/h). The factor k and the exponent are given in ITU-R Rec. 838, as
functions of frequency and of wave polarization (horizontal or vertical). Formulas in the
same Recommendation also include the cases of any linear or circular polarization
and the effect of path elevation angle.
The above discussion applies to rain attenuation within a rain cell, with a uniform rain
intensity. The real situation is that of a radio path, whose length is usually (much)
greater than the average cell size. In order to represent the effect of spatial variation in
rain intensity, most prediction models make reference to an Effective Path Length
LEFF, depending on the real path length and on assumptions on the rain distribution
along the path. For very short paths, LEFF becomes equal to the real path length.
The ITU-R Model for Rain Unavailability Prediction is based on these concepts.

Rain Rate R : in the absence of local data, an estimate of the Rain Rate R (mm/h) for
0.01% of time can be obtained from data in the ITU-R maps (Rec. 837).
Specific loss : (dB/km) = k R where k and are functions of frequency and of
wave polarization. Some examples (valid for small path elevation angles) :
10 / H
Frequency [GHz] / Polarization

10 / V
20 / H
20 / V
30 / H
30 / V
0.0101
1.276
0.00887
1.264
0.167
1.000
0.0751
1.099
0.0691
1.065
0.187
1.021
A Table with k and values from 1 to 400 GHz is reported in ITU-R Rec. 838, which
includes formulas for taking into account also path elevation angles and circular
polarization.
Effective Hop Length :
LEFF = r L where L = actual hop length ; r = distance factor.

r = 1 / (1 + L / {35 exp[-0.015 R)]}
r = 1 / (1 + L / 7.81)
if R < 100 mm/h

if R >= 100 mm/h
Attenuation for p = 0.01% of time :
A0.01 (dB) = LEFF
Attenuation for any time percentage p (in the range 1% to 0.001%) :

A (dB) = 0.12 A0.01 p -(0.546 + 0.043 Log10 p)
The ITU-R prediction method is considered to be valid for frequencies up to 40 GHz and
hop lengths up to 60 km.
Rain Rates in ITU-R Regions

The Rain Rate R (mm/h) for 0.01% of time is used in the ITU-R Rain Attenuation Model,
in order to predict Rain Unavailability.
The Rain Rate in the Rain Regions specified in ITU-R Maps are :
Rain Region
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
J
K
L
M
N
P
Rain Rate (mm/h)

8
12
15
19
22
28
30
32
35
42
60
63
95
145

A polarized signal passing through raindrops is subject to a partial rotation of its
polarization plane. This is produced by : (a) the non-spherical shape of raindrops and
(b) the canting angle in raindrop fall (caused by wind generally present during storms).
According to ITU-R Rec. 530, an equiprobability relation can be established between the
Co-Polar signal Attenuation (CPA, in dB) and the Cross-Polar Discrimination (XPD)
during intense rain periods:
XPD (dB) = Uo 30 Log10 F - 20 Log10 CPA
where :
Uo = 15 dB (average, lower bound 9 dB);
(1)
F = frequency in GHz.
The uncertainty in the Uo value makes not significant the difference between H and V
pol. attenuation. In (1) CPA can be assumed as an average value. Other validity
limitations :
Frequency in the range 8 < F < 35 GHz;
Small path elevation angle.
Formula (1) (equiprobability relation) means that the probability of attenuation higher than
CPA value used in (1) is roughly equal to the probability of Cross-Polar Discrimination
lower than the XPD computed by (1).

The Maximum Hop Length in Point-to-Point Radio Links can be estimated on the basis of
the following (simplifying) assumtions :
Multipath Outage must be below the Error Performance Objective; Rain Unavailability
below 1/3 of the Unavailability Objective (2/3 assigned to Equipment Failures);
Objectives are from ITU-R Recs.557 (Availability) and 594 (Error Performance) ; they
are allocated proportionaly to the hop length (for very short hops at 23 GHz a fixed
Unavailability objective has been adopted).
Propagation : ITU-R Rain prediction model for different Rain Regions (K, L. N, P);
Multipath Occurrence Factor : Po = 4 10-7 F L3 (F = freq. GHz, L = hop length km)
(corresponding to temperate climate with average-to-bad terrain)
Space Diversity : 8 m antenna spacing.
Results are given for High Capacity Systems at 7, 13, and 23 GHz. Equipment and
Antenna assumptions are :
7 GHz : 100 dB System Gain; 3.0 m Antenna (44.5 dB gain); 3 dB Add. Losses.
Rain Unavailability:
Error Performance:
Predicted
Predicted
Objective
Objective
Percentage of Time
10-2
7 GHz
Single Receiver
10-3
Rain
Region P
Diversity
Receiver
10-4
0
20
40
60
Hop Lenght [km]
80
100
Error Performance:
Predicted
Predicted
Objective
Objective
Percentage of Time
10-2
13 GHz
Rain
Region: P
10-3
K
Single
Receiver
10-4
0
12
18
24
Hop Lenght [km]
30
36
Percentage of Time
10-2
Rain
Region: P
Predicted
Objective
L
10 min/year
30 min/year
10-3
23 GHz
10-4
0
Hop Lenght [km]
Other Hydrometeor Effects

Apart from rain, other Hydrometeors that may impair Radio communications are :
SNOW : Dry snow has no significant impact, at least for frequencies below 30 GHz.
On the other hand, very wet snow can produce, in extreme cases, signal attenuation
even at frequencies usually not affected by rain phenomena. The probability of such
events, however, is generally small. The most important effect of snow is the possible ice
build-up on the antenna reflectors, thus modifying the antenna performance. For this
reason, radomes are often installed. Large earth station antennas for satellite
communications are usually protected with anti-ice devices.
HAIL : The effect is similar to rain, but strongly dependent on the dimension of ice
spheres. Less significant effects are observed at frequencies above 30 GHz.
FOG : The specific attenuation due to fog is : (dB / km) = K M where K is the
specific attenuation coefficient in (dB/km)/(g/m3) and M is the liquid water content of fog
in g/m3 (with very thick fog M = 0.5 g/m3).
At 30 GHz, K = 0.5 - 1 (depending on temperature), so the specific attenuation is
expected, in any case, to be not higher than 0.5 dB / km.
At frequencies above 100 GHz, K is about ten times greater than at 30 GHz.
Further information in ITU-R Rec. 840.
Status of ITU-R Performance Recommendations

ITU-R Performance Recs. are in transition to be updated to recent ITU-T Recs. G.826
(Error performance) and G.827 (Availability). Presently, G.827 final objectives are under
study.
Status Ante G.826 / G.827 (Objectives for Bit Rates below Primary Rate)
Availability :
Rec. 557 (Hypothetical Reference Digital Path HRDP)
Rec. 695 (Real Digital Radio Relay Links, High Grade)
Basic Objective for 2500 km High Grade Systems : Unavailability < 0.3%
Error performance :
Rec. 594 (Hypothetical Reference Digital Path HRDP)
Rec. 634 (Real Digital radio relay Links, High Grade)
Basic Objective for 2500 km High Grade Systems :
BER > 10-3 for less than 0.054% of Available Time
Status of ITU-R Performance Recommendations
Status Post G.826 / G.827 (Objectives for Bit Rates at or above Primary Rate)
Availability : New ITU-R Rec. under study.
Error performance :
Rec. 1092 (Digital Radio System in International Portion of a 27500 HRP)
Rec. 1189 (Digital Radio System in National Portion of a 27500 HRP)
Draft New Rec. (Real Digital Radio Links in International Portion of a 27500 HRP)
Basic Objective for a 50 km hop in the International portion of HRDP :
SES (Severely Errored Seconds) percentage not greater than 2 - 4 10-4 %
( 5 - 10 seconds / month, depending on overall objective allocation, block
allowance, etc. ).

G.821 : The Error Performance is based on Errored Bit measurements at a Bit
Rate below the Primary Rate.
Scope :
27,500 km Hypothetical Reference Connection (HRX); part of an ISDN

Network.
Definitions :
Errored Second (ES) : a one-second period with one or more errored bits;
Severely Errored Second (SES) : a one-second period with BER >= 1.10-3.
Objectives :
Number of ES / Seconds in total available time < 0.08.
Number of SES / Seconds in total available time < 0.002.
Objective Allocation :
The total objectives are allocated to High, Medium, and Local Grade portions
of the HRX.
G.826 : The Error Performance is based on Errored Block measurements at a Bit

Rate at or above Primary Rate.
Scope : 27,500 km IHypothetical Reference Path (HRP); PDH and SDH transport
networks, Cell-based (ATM) connections.
Definitions :
Block : Set of consecutive bits, with size depending on bit rate.
Errored Second (ES) : a one-second period with one or more errored blocks;
Severely Errored Second (SES) : a one-second period which contains >= 30%
errored blocks or at least one defect.
Defect : Loss of signal, AIS, LOF for PDH; more complex for SDH and ATM.
Background Block Error (BBE) : an errored block not as part of a SES.
of
Objectives :
Number of ES / Seconds in total available time < (0.04 - 0.16) (depends on bit rate);
Number of SES / Seconds in total available time < 0.002;
Number of BBE / Number of blocks in available time (excluding SES) < 0.0004.
Objective Allocation : The total objectives are allocated to the International and
National portions (intermediate and terminating countries) of the HRP.
RF Bands Assigned to the Radio Fixed Service (FS)

The Frequency Bands allocated by Radio Regulations to Radio Relay Systems
(Fixed Service FS in the Radio Regulations terminology) are :
0.440
0.806
1.427
1.700
3.400
4.400
0.470 GHz
0.960 GHz
1.525 GHz
2.690 GHz
4.200 GHz
5.000 GHz
5.850
10.500
10.700
12.750
14.300
17.700
- 8.500 GHz
- 10.680 GHz
- 11.700 GHz
- 13.250 GHz
- 15.350 GHz
- 19.700 GHz
21.200
25.250
36.000
47.200
54.250
59.000
23.600 GHz
29.500 GHz
40.500 GHz
51.400 GHz
58.200 GHz
64.000 GHz
Many of the above bands are furtherly sub-divided among different classes of users, on a
National or International basis. The ITU-R gives detailed channel arrangements for
most of these bands.
Additional indications are provided for particular conditions or exceptions relevant to
some countries or group of countries.
Therefore. the above list is to be intended just for general information.

Radio Propagation Theory 1

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PROPAGATION ISSUES

IN DIGITAL RADIO LINK ENGINEERING

1997, Siemens ICN , Milano, Italy

RADIO PROPAGATION TUTORIAL

1997 Siemens ICN

RADIO PROPAGATION TUTORIAL

1997 ITALTEL SISTEMI

1.1 - POINT-TO-POINT RADIO LINK

Frequency, Tx Power, Capacity (bit/s, tel. chs., ...).

1.2 - BASIC RADIO LINK EQUATION (FREE SPACE)

Transmitted power (dBm)

Warning : The constant 92.4 is correct only if the frequency is expressed in

1.3 - FREE SPACE LOSS (FSL)

Free Space Loss [dB]

1.4 - ANTENNA GAIN

= Antenna Efficiency = 0.55 - 0.65

Antenna Gain [dB]

Antenna gain is 6 dB higher if :

antenna diameter is doubled,

frequency is doubled, for a

1.5 - LINK BUDGET

1.6 - TERRESTRIAL RADIO-RELAY LINKS

1.7. - MAIN PHENOMENA RELATED TO RADIO PROPAGATION

1.8 - RADIO LINK ENGINEERING - FADE MARGIN

FM (dB) = PR (dBm) - PTH (dBm)

A Fade Margin is required to compensate for the reduction in Rx power caused

AdL < FM.

1.9. - OUTAGE PREDICTION

1.10 - LINK BUDGET

2.1 - ATMOSPHERE REFRACTION

2.2 - RAY CURVATURE IN ATMOSPHERIC PROPAGATION

To check the visibility between the Tx

The Clearance CL is defined as the

2.3 - EQUIVALENT EARTH CURVATURE

An "Equivalent Earth Curvature" can

2.4 - WHAT DOES THE k-FACTOR MEAN ?

2.5 - FLAT EARTH REPRESENTATION

2.6 - REVIEW OF RADIO RAY REPRESENTATIONS

Real Earth Diagram :

Equivalent Earth Diagram :

Flat Earth Diagram :

2.8 - VARIABILITY OF THE k-FACTOR

2.9 - MINIMUM k-FACTOR

This curve can be used in

Path Length [km]

2.10 - THE FRESNEL ELLIPSOID

About half of the Rx signal

2.11 - THE FRESNEL ELLIPSOID - Examples

L = Hop length (km)

Fresnel Radius [m]

Note : F1 depends on the signal frequency.

Other Path positions :

Hop Length [km]

2.12 - OBSTRUCTION LOSS

Obstruction Loss [dB]

Normalized Clearance Cl/F1

The Normalized Clearance (x-axis)

2.13 - CLEARANCE CRITERIA

CL > 60% F1 with Minimum k

When a frequency below 2 GHz is used :

3.1 - MULTIPATH PROPAGATION

When atmospheric stratification is

3.2 - IMPAIRMENTS DUE TO MULTIPATH PROPAGATION

3.3 - MULTIPATH FADING EVENTS