3

N00/430/H(2)

SECTION A
Candidates must answer all questions in the spaces provided.
A1. Radioactive decay measurement
A medical physicist wishes to investigate the decay of a radioactive isotope and determine its decay
constant and half-life. A Geiger-Muller counter is used to detect radiation from a sample of the
isotope, as shown.

Radioactive
Radioactive
source
source

(a)

Voltage supply
and counter
Geiger-Muller tube
Geiger-Muller
tube

Define the activity of a radioactive sample.

[1]

.........................................................................
.........................................................................
Theory predicts that the activity A of the isotope in the sample should decrease exponentially with
time t according to the equation A = A0 e" !t , where A0 is the activity at t = 0 and ! is the decay
constant for the isotope.
(b)

Manipulate this equation into a form which will give a straight line if a semi-log graph is
plotted with appropriate variables on the axes. State what variables should be plotted.

[2]

.........................................................................
.........................................................................
.........................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

880-227

Turn over

N00/430/H(2)

(Question A1 continued)
The Geiger-counter detects a proportion of the particles emitted by the source. The physicist
records the count-rate R of particles detected as a function of time t and plots the data as a graph of
ln R versus t, as shown below.

2
ln ( R / s "1 )

0
(c)

t / hr

Does the plot show that the experimental data are consistent with an exponential law?
Explain.

[1]

.........................................................................
.........................................................................
(d)

The Geiger-counter does not measure the total activity A of the sample, but rather the
count-rate R of those particles that enter the Geiger tube. Explain why this will not matter in
determining the decay constant of the sample.

[1]

.........................................................................
.........................................................................
(e)

From the graph, determine a value for the decay constant !.

[2]

.........................................................................
.........................................................................
.........................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

880-227

N00/430/H(2)

(Question A1 continued)
The physicist now wishes to calculate the half-life.
(f)

Define the half-life of a radioactive substance.

[1]

.........................................................................
.........................................................................
(g)

[2]

Derive a relationship between the decay constant ! and the half-life #.

.........................................................................
.........................................................................
.........................................................................

(h)

Hence calculate the half-life of this radioactive isotope.

[1]

.........................................................................
.........................................................................

880-227

Turn over

Q%R%Q

BN<S=KNSO:L;

!"# !"#$%&'($)#*+%#$%,-*')%'$#+.%)"(%/,0#*,1)#2(%0(1,3%4,5%)*%0()(/6#+(%)"(%,.(%*7%,+%,+1#(+)%1,68$#)(9

:,;

!"(% /,0#*,1)#2(% #$*)*8(% 1,/-*+% <=% :>?<=;% #$% 1*+)#+',443% -(#+.% 8/*0'1(0% #+% )"(% '88(/
,)6*$8"(/(%-3%)"(%#+)(/,1)#*+%*7%+(')/*+$%5#)"%+#)/*.(+%<=9
>*684()(%)"(%+'14(,/%/(,1)#*+%(&',)#*+%-(4*5%7*/%)"(%7*/6,)#*+%*7%>?<=9
<=
@

:-;

B ! + " <=A > !

!"#

C*6(%*7%)"(%1,/-*+%,)*6$%#+%,%4#2#+.%)/((%1*+$#$)%*7%)"(%/,0#*,1)#2(%#$*)*8(%>?<=9%%D'(%)*%)"(
1*+)#+',4% ),E#+.% #+% *7% 1,/-*+% )"(% ,6*'+)% *7% >?<=% #+% )"(% 4#2#+.% )/((% /(6,#+$% 1*+$),+)
)"/*'."*')% )"(% 4#7(% *7% )"(% )/((9% % F"(+% )"(% )/((% 0#($% )"(% ),E#+.% #+% *7% 1,/-*+% 1(,$($% ,+0% )"(
,6*'+)%*7%>?<=%#+%)"(%)/((%0(1/(,$($%5#)"%)#6(9
:#;

GH84,#+%5"3%)"(%,6*'+)%*7%>?<=%0(1/(,$($%5#)"%)#6(9

!"#

999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
:##;

!"(%,1)#2#)3%*7%5**0%7/*6%,%4#2#+.%)/((%#$%6(,$'/(0%,$%<I9I%0#$#+)(./,)#*+$%8(/%6#+')(
8(/%'+#)%6,$$9
J% 8#(1(% *7% -'/+)% 5**0% :1",/1*,4;% 7*'+0% ,)% ,+% ,+1#(+)% $())4(6(+)% ",$% ,+% ,1)#2#)3% *7
<K9L% 0#$#+)(./,)#*+$% 8(/% 6#+')(% 8(/% '+#)% 6,$$9% % M7% )"(% ",47?4#7(% *7% >?<=% #$% IANN% 3(,/$
($)#6,)(%)"(%,.(%*7%)"(%$())4(6(+)9

!$#

999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
:1;

!"(%1,/-*+%7*'+0%#+%1*,4%,4$*%*/#.#+,)($%7/*6%5**09%%O*5(2(/P%#)%#$%7*'+0%)",)%1*,4%$"*5$
(77(1)#2(43%+*%/,0#*,1)#2#)39%%C'..($)%5"3%)"#$%6#.")%-(%$*9
9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999

RR<?<@<

!%#

M$?=$M

N=?;A@=;OF?GP

!"#$%&'()*+,*-()&')#$./
!"#$%& '"()*"+$),-%(-+".
!"#$%&'()('*$+,$%$-%.(+%&'()#$/%012#$(/$/"+34$12+''#.$%5%(4/'$'(0#$+)#-$6$.%*/7$+4$'"#$5-%1"$8#2+39$

>=
E
D
C
6
:&'()('*$;$%-8('-%-*$<4('/$$$$$

B
A
@
?
>
=

>

>= >> >?

!(0#$;$.%*/
F%G

H-%3$%$8#/'$,('$&<-)#$'+$'"#$.%'%$8#'3##4$=$%4.$6$.%*/9

012

F8G$ I/(45$'"#$5-%1"
F(G$

#/'(0%'#$'"#$%&'()('*$%,'#-$B$.%*/9

012

999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
F((G$ .#'#-0(4#$'"#$"%2,J2(,#$+,$'"#$/%012#$%4.$#K12%(4$*+<-$0#'"+.9

032

999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
F&G$ LK'#4.$'"#$8#/'$,('$&<-)#$'+$/"+3$'"#$#K1#&'#.$%&'()('*$,+-$'(0#/$<1$<4'(2$>?$.%*/9

032

9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999
!45'%*6#$%&'()*-()&')#$%*()*&5$*7(88(9'):*;<:$/
DD?J>C>

H*F?*H

I>=JKL>JM,=-

!"#$%&'()*+,*-()&')#$./
!"#$%&'

!"#$%"&'$()*#)&"+

*
,"-

./01"$2*'3)*')45*345675'6$*"6*"001$)#*'%*4"#$%"&'$()*#)&"+7

012

7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
,8-

! )5$66$%2*'%*"2*$6%'%0)*%:*0%1%2$;57**<%4*'3$6*$6%'%0)
93)*$6%'%0)* ==>
?@ !2 *,4"#%2-*#)&"+6*8+*
%:*()*)+,-.%#)')45$2)
,$-

'3)*"'%5$&*2;58)47

012

777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
,$$-

'3)*2;58)4*%:*2);'4%26*$2*'3)*2;&1);67

082

777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
,&-

A:*'3)*$2$'$"1*2;58)4*%:*"'%56*$2*"*6"501)*%:*"*4"#$%"&'$()*$6%'%0)*$6* : > *'3)2*'3)*2;58)4*:

4)5"$2$2B*":')4*"*'$5)*&*$6*B$()2*8+*'3)*)/04)66$%2
: $ : > )# "& **C3)4)*!*$6*'3)*#)&"+*&%26'"2'7*

D3%C*'3"'*'3)*4)1"'$%2*8)'C))2*'3)*3"1:E1$:)* & F= *"2#*'3)*#)&"+*&%26'"2'*$6*

& F= $

12 =

"

092

7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
,#-

G103"* 4"#$"'$%2* $6* "2* $%2$6$2B* 4"#$"'$%27* * ./01"$2* C3"'* $6* 5)"2'* 8+* '3)* ')45* '()'%');
<4.'4&'()7

082

7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777

!=3'%*>#$%&'()*-()&')#$%*()*&3$*6(55(?');*@4;$/
===EFNF

H&@I&H

J>AKEB>KL!A#

!"#$%&'()*+,*-./&*0*1()&')#$23
!"#

$%&"'(")*+"%,&*-&-",&.(&,/&+"0-.)"&1/2&,1"&*/%*-0,*/%&3.))"%,& 4&()/4.3"4&56&,1"& ! 7(0),*38"*%&,1"&4"306&/9&)04/%&:0-&;0)*"-&2*,1&,*+"&&<&&=1"&40,0&/5,0*%"4&9)/+&,1"&"'(")*+"%,&*-&-1/2%

5"8/2&(8/,,"4&0-&0&:)0(1&/9&8%&!4#&0:0*%-,&&<

&*5%

7AB<?

>

?>

@>>

@?>

A>>

A?>

B>>

7AE<>
7AE<?
8%*4*5*6&&&&!!!! 7A?<>

7A?<?
7AD<>
7AD<?
7AC<>
!*#

F%&,1"&05/;"&:)0(1&4)02&0&5"-,&9*,&-,)0*:1,&8*%"&9/)&,1"&40,0&(/*%,-<

789

!**#

G",")+*%"&,1"&4"306&3/%-,0%,&/9&)04/%&9)/+&,1"&:)0(1<

7,9

<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<
<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<
<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<
<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<
!***# G",")+*%"&,1"&108978*9"&/9&)04/%<

709

<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<
<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<
<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<
<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<

AAA7@C@

"#$%!&'($

I(E8(I

JBKLMKBL9;8<

!"#$%&'()*+,*-()&')#$./
!"#$%&'()*#$#+&(#,(%&-)./( 78 9& (0&123*(43(&/)$$)"5(2( ! " :+2'$)1-&6
;,<

;)<

=$2$&($%&("2/&(#,($%&(#$%&'(+2'$)1-&($%2$()*(&/)$$&0(0.')"5($%)*(0&1236

0,1

666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666
;))<

>?+-2)"(@%3(2(*2/+-&(#,( 78 9& (&/)$*( ! " :+2'$)1-&* (@)$%(2(!"#$%&'(&%#%!$)%*6

021

666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666
666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666
666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666
;)))< A%&(%2-,:-),&(,#'($%)*(0&123()*(B6C8(*6((D&$&'/)"&($%&(+&'1&"$25&(#,(2(*2/+-&(#,( 78 9& ($%2$
'&/2)"*(2,$&'(2($)/&(#,(EB(*6

031

666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666
666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666
666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666
666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666
666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666
666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666
;)F< D&*1')4&($%&(+'#1&**(#,( ! " (0&123()"($&'/*(#,(G.2'H*6
666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666
666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666
666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666

CCK:ENE

021

M);;)M

N:AOAP=OQ!;#

!"#$%&'()*+,*-()&')#$./
!"#

!$#

%&'$(&)*+&).$-34*-()%&3)&)',-)-./$,."*$0&)/&".12

012

222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
!$$#

3+&) +.4'54$'&) ,') 6*-,(*$7859:) $6) ;<2:) 1&.-62) ) %&/7"&) *+.*) *+&) /&".1) ",(6*.(*) ,'
6*-,(*$7859:)$6) >2<? ! =:!=: 6 != 2

052

222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
!/#

3+&) /&".1) ",(6*.(*) ,') @&(,(5=A;) $6) :2AF; 6 != 2) ) B($*$.441C) .) 6.8D4&) ,') -./$,."*$0&) E.6*&
8.*&-$.4)",(*.$(6)&G7.4)(78H&-6),')6*-,(*$7859:).(/)@&(,(5=A;)(7"4&$2
!$#

I6&)*+&)0.47&6),')*+&)/&".1)",(6*.(*6)$()!"#).(/)!/#)*,)".4"74.*&)*+&)*$8&)*.J&()',-)*+&
-.*$,
(78H&-),')6*-,(*$7859:)(7"4&$
)(78H&-),')@&(,(5=A;)(7"4&$
*,)H&",8&)&G7.4)*,)=2;: ! =:F 2

0,2

222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
!$$#

K7LL&6*)E+1C)$()*+&)4,(L5*&-8C)6*-,(*$7859:)D-&6&(*6).)L-&.*&-)D-,H4&8)*+&()@&(,(5=A;
.6)-./$,."*$0&)E.6*&2

012

222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222
222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222

!67'%*8#$%&'()*-()&')#$%*()*&7$*9(::(;')<*=3<$/

;;A5=>>

@(AB(@

CDEFEBGFH!A#

!"#$%&'()*+,*-()&')#$./
!"#

!$#

%&'"(!"#()*+",(-&,*$./"0(&-&,*(1,)'(&2("/".*,)20(*+&*($3("'$**"4(1,)'(&(25./"53(*+&*($3
"
524",6)$26( ! (4".&78

012

888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888
!$$#

9*&*"(*+"(2&'"()1(*+"($2*",&.*$)2(,"3-)23$:/"(1),(:"*&(4".&78

012

888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888
!$$$# ;"3.,$:"( <+&*( $3( '"&2*( :7( &2( $4-56)7$* 869&'-:$( &24( 3*&*"( *+"( 2&'"( )1( *+"( "=.+&26"
-&,*$./"($2>)/>"4($2(*+"(<"&?($2*",&.*$)28

032

888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888
888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888

AAEIGJJ

$%&"'!(#&

 15

N04/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ0/XX+

(Question B1 continued)
Part 2
(a)

Radioactivity and nuclear energy levels

Define the following terms.

(i)

[1]

Radioactive half-life (T1 )

2

.................................................................
.................................................................
(ii)

[1]

Decay constant (!)

.................................................................
.................................................................

(b)

[2]

Deduce that the relationship between T1 and ! is

2

! T1  1n 2.
2

......................................................................
......................................................................
......................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

8804-6502

Turn over

 16

N04/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ0/XX+

(Question B1, part 2 continued)

Thorium-227 (Th-227) undergoes !-decay with a half-life of 18 days to form radium-223
(Ra-223). A sample of Th-227 has an initial activity of 3.2 s105 Bq.
(c)

Determine, the activity of the remaining thorium after 50 days.

[2]

......................................................................
......................................................................
......................................................................
In the decay of a Th-227 nucleus, a "-ray photon is also emitted.
(d)

(i)

Use the following data to deduce that the energy of the "-ray photon is 0.667 MeV.
mass of Th-227 nucleus
mass of Ra-223 nucleus
mass of helium nucleus
energy of !-particle emitted
unified atomic mass unit (u)

[3]

= 227.0278 u
= 223.0186 u
= 4.0026 u
= 5.481 MeV c
= 931.5 MeV c 2

You may assume that the Th-227 nucleus is stationary before decay and that the
Ra-223 nucleus has negligible kinetic energy.
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
(ii)

Calculate the frequency of the "-ray photon.

[3]

.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

8804-6502

 17

N04/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ0/XX+

(Question B1, part 2 continued)

Although in the decay of a Th-227 nucleus, an !-particle and a "-ray photon are emitted, they
may have different energies to those in (d) (i). However, all the !-particles emitted in the decay
of Th-227 have discrete energies as do the associated "-ray photons. This provides evidence for
the existence of nuclear energy levels. The diagram below represents some of the energy levels
of a nucleus of Ra-223 relative to Th-227.
Th-227

energy

energy levels of Ra-223

(e)

(f)

On the diagram above label

(i)

the arrows associated with !-particles (with the letter A).

[1]

(ii)

the arrows associated with "-ray photons (with the letter G).

[1]

(iii) the ground state energy level of Ra-223 (with the letter R).

[1]

Use data from (d), to suggest a value for the energy difference between the ground states
of a nucleus of Th-227 and the ground state of a nucleus of Ra-223.

[1]

......................................................................

8804-6502

Turn over

 14

M05/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ1/XX+

(Question B1 continued)
Part 2 Radioactive decay
A nucleus of the isotope xenon, Xe 131, is produced when a nucleus of the radioactive isotope
iodine I-13 decays.
(a)

Explain the term isotopes.

[2]

............................................................................
............................................................................

......................................................................
(b)

Fill in the boxes below in order to complete the nuclear reaction equation for this decay.
131

Im

[2]

131
Xe  ! 
54

The activity A of a freshly prepared sample of the iodine isotope is 6.4 s105 Bq and its
half-life is 8.0 days.
(c)

Using the axes, draw a graph to illustrate the decay of this sample.

[3]

A / Bq

6.4 s105 Bq

5.0

10

15
time / days

20

25

(This question continues on the following page)

2205-6508



 15

M05/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ1/XX+

Question B1, part 2 continued)

(d)

[2]

Determine the decay constant of the isotope I -131.

......................................................................
......................................................................
......................................................................
......................................................................

The sample is to be used to treat a growth in the thyroid of a patient. The isotope should not be
used until its activity is equal to 0.5 s105 Bq.
(e)

Calculate the time it takes for the activity of a freshly prepared sample to be reduced to
an activity of 0.5 s105 Bq.

[2]

......................................................................
......................................................................
......................................................................
......................................................................

Turn over

2205-6508



 10

M05/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ2/XX+

SECTION B
This section consists of four questions: B1, B2, B3 and B4. Answer two questions.
B1. This question is about collisions and radioactive decay.
(a)

(i)

Define linear momentum and impulse.

[2]

Linear momentum: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.................................................
Impulse:

.................................................
.................................................

(ii)

State the law of conservation of momentum.

[2]

.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
(iii) Using your definitions in (a) (i), deduce that linear momentum is constant for an
object in equilibrium.

[2]

.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

2205-6514



 11

M05/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ2/XX+

(Question B1 continued)
A stationary radon-220 ( 220
86 Rn) nucleus undergoes ! -decay to form a nucleus of polonium (Po).
The ! -particle has kinetic energy of 6.29 MeV.
(b)

(i)

Complete the nuclear equation for this decay.

[2]

Rn
Rnm
Rn
mPo
m
PoPo
Po
 

220
220 220
8686 86

(ii)

Calculate the kinetic energy, in joules, of the ! -particle.

[2]

.................................................................
.................................................................
[1]

(iii) Deduce that the speed of the ! -particle is 1.74 s107 m s 1.

.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

Turn over

2205-6514



 12

M05/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ2/XX+

(Question B1 continued)
The diagram below shows the ! -particle and the polonium nucleus immediately after the
decay. The direction of the velocity of the ! -particle is indicated.

! -particle
polonium nucleus

(c)

(i)

(ii)

On the diagram above, draw an arrow to show the initial direction of motion of the
polonium nucleus immediately after the decay.

[1]

Determine the speed of the polonium nucleus immediately after the decay.

[3]

.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
(iii) In the decay of another radon nucleus, the nucleus is moving before the decay.
Without any further calculation, suggest the effect, if any, of this initial speed on the
paths shown in (c) (i).

[2]

.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

2205-6514



 13

M05/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ2/XX+

(Question B1 continued)
The half-life of the decay of radon-222 is 3.8 days and radon-220 has a half-life of 55 s.
(d)

(i)

Suggest three ways in which nuclei of radon-222 differ from those of radon-220.
1.

[3]

..............................................................
..............................................................

2.

..............................................................
..............................................................

3.

..............................................................
..............................................................

(ii)

Define half-life.

[2]

.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
(iii) State the expression that relates the activity At at time t of a sample of a radioactive
material to its initial activity A0 at time t = 0 and to the decay constant !. Use this
expression to derive the relationship between the decay constant ! and the half-life T1 .
2

[3]

.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
(iv) Radon-222 emits " -particles. The activity of radon gas in a sample of 1.0 m3 of air
is 4.6 Bq. Given that 1.0 m3 of the air contains 2.6 s1025 molecules, determine the
ratio
number of radon-222 atoms in 1.0 m3 of air
.
number of molecules in 1.0 m3 of air

[4]

.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
.................................................................
(This question continues on the following page)
Turn over

2205-6514



 14

M05/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ2/XX+

(Question B1 continued)
(e)

Suggest whether radon-222 or radon-220 presents the greater hazard to people over a
long period of time.
......................................................................
......................................................................

2205-6514



[1]

 27

M06/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ1/XX+

(Question B3 continued)
Part 2 Radioactive decay
(a)

Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope and is produced in the atmosphere by neutron

bombardment of nitrogen. The equation for this reaction is
14
7

N  01 n m 146 C  X .

Identify the particle X.

[1]

.......................................................................
(b)

Living trees contain atoms of carbon-14. The activity per gram of carbon from a living
tree is 9.6 disintegrations per minute. The activity per gram of carbon in burnt wood
(charcoal) found at an ancient campsite is 2.1 disintegrations per minute.
(i)

A living tree continuously takes in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Suggest
why the activity of the carbon from the charcoal is less than that of the living
wood.

[3]

..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
(ii)

The half-life of carbon-14 is 5500 years. Calculate the decay constant for carbon-14
and use this value to estimate the age of the carbon found at the campsite.

[5]

..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

Turn over

2206-6508

2736

 28

M06/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ1/XX+

(Question B3, part 2 continued)

(iii) Suggest one reason why radioactive dating of carbon samples that are more than
20 000 years old is unreliable.
..................................................................
..................................................................

2206-6508

2836

[1]

 29

N06/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ0/XX+

(Question B4 continued)
Part 2
(a)

Radioactivity

State what is meant by the term

(i)

isotopes.

[2]

..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
(ii)

decay constant.

[1]

..................................................................
..................................................................
(b)

Complete the nuclear reaction equation for the decay process indicated below.
42
19

[2]

K m 20 Ca 

(This question continues on the following page)

Turn over

8806-6502

2930

 30

N06/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ0/XX+

(Question B4, part 2 continued)

One isotope of potassium is potassium-42  42
19 K . Nuclei of this isotope undergo radioactive
1
decay with a decay constant 0.0555 hour to form nuclei of calcium. At time t  0, a sample
of potassium-42 contains N0 nuclei.

(c)

(i)

On the graph below, label the x-axis with values to show the variation with time
t / hours of the number N of potassium nuclei in the sample.

[2]

N0
N

0
0
(ii)

(d)

t / hours
The isotope of calcium formed in this decay is stable. On the graph above, draw a
line to show the variation with time t of the number of calcium nuclei in the sample.

[1]

Use the graph, or otherwise, to determine the time at which the ratio
number of calcium nuclei in sample
number of potassium-42 nuuclei in sample
is equal to 4.0.

[2]

.......................................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................

8806-6502

3030

 33

M07/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ1/XX+

B4. This question is in two parts. Part 1 is about using plutonium as a power source. Part 2 is
about the orbital motion of a satellite.
Part 1

Plutonium as a power source

The alpha decay of plutonium-238 is to be used as a power source. Plutonium-238

decays by emission of an !-particle to form an isotope of uranium (U).
(a)

238
94

Pu

Write down the nuclear equation for this decay.

[2]

.......................................................................
(b)

The nuclear masses of the isotopes and the !-particle in this decay are
Plutonium
Uranium
!-particle
(i)

237.9979539 u
233.9904441 u
4.0015050 u.

Deduce that the energy released in this reaction is 8.9 s1013 J.

[3]

..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
(ii)

The plutonium nucleus is at rest before the decay. Explain why most of the energy
in (b)(i) is kinetic energy of the !-particle.

[2]

..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

Turn over

2207-6508

3337

 34

M07/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ1/XX+

(Question B4, part 1 continued)

(c)

The half-life of plutonium is 88 years.

(i)

Explain why over a period of six months the activity of a sample of plutonium-238
may be considered to be constant.

[2]

..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
(ii)

The activity of the sample of plutonium-238 is 4.1 s1013 Bq. Calculate the rate at
which energy is released.

[2]

..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
(iii) The mass of the sample of plutonium-238 in (c)(ii) is 65 g. Using your answer
to (c)(ii) calculate the rate at which the temperature of the plutonium sample
is increasing. Assume that no energy is lost from the sample. (The specific
heat capacity of plutonium is 150 J kg1 K1.)

[2]

..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

2207-6508

3437

 35

M07/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ1/XX+

(Question B4, part 1 continued)

(d)

As the temperature of the sample in (c) rises the plutonium will eventually melt.
Describe and explain, in terms of atomic behaviour, the processes of
(i)

the temperature rise of plutonium.

[3]

..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
(ii)

the phase change of plutonium.

[3]

..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

Turn over

2207-6508

3537

 31

M07/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ2/XX+

B4. This question is in two parts. Part 1 is about radioactive decay. Part 2 is about friction.
Part 1 Radioactive decay
(a)

The nucleon number (mass number) of a stable isotope of argon is 36 and of a radioactive
isotope of argon is 39.
(i)

State what is meant by a nucleon.

[1]

..................................................................
..................................................................
(ii)

Outline the structure of nucleons in terms of quarks.

[2]

..................................................................
..................................................................
(iii) Explain, in terms of the number of nucleons and the forces between them,
why argon-36 is stable and argon-39 is radioactive.

[4]

..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

Turn over

2207-6514

3134

 32

M07/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ2/XX+

(Question B4, part 1 continued)

(b)

Argon-39 undergoes B decay to an isotope of potassium (K). The nuclear reaction

equation for this decay is
39
18

(i)

Ar m K  B  x .

State the proton (atomic) number and the nucleon (mass) number of the potassium
nucleus and identify the particle x.
Proton number:

[3]

...................................................

Nucleon number: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Particle x:
(ii)

...................................................

The existence of the particle x was postulated some years before it was actually
detected. Explain the reason, based on the nature of B energy spectra,
for postulating its existence.

[3]

..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
(iii) Use the following data to determine the maximum energy, in J, of the B particle
in the decay of a sample of argon-39.

[3]

Mass of argon-39 nucleus = 38.96431 u

= 38.96370 u
Mass of K nucleus
..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

2207-6514

3234

 33

M07/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ2/XX+

(Question B4, part 1 continued)

(c)

The half-life of argon-39 is 270 years.

(i)

State what quantities you would measure to determine the half-life of argon-39.

[2]

..................................................................
..................................................................
(ii)

Explain how you would calculate the half-life using the quantities you have stated
in (i).

[3]

..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................
..................................................................

(This question continues on the following page)

Turn over

2207-6514

3334

M08/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ2/XX+

A2. This question is about radioactivity.

(a)

Outline a method for the measurement of the half-life of a radioactive isotope having a
half-life of approximately 109 years.

[3]

.......................................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
(b)

A radioactive isotope has a half-life T1 . Determine the fraction of this isotope that remains
2
in a particular sample of the isotope after a time of 1.6 T1 .
2

[2]

.......................................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................

Turn over

2208-6514

0531



M09/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ1/XX+

B4. 7KLVTXHVWLRQLVLQtwoSDUWVPart 1LVDERXWWKHGHFD\RIUDGLXPDQGPart 2LVDERXW

GLIIUDFWLRQDQGUHVROXWLRQ


Part 1

D

'HFD\RIUDGLXP

7KHQXFOHDUUHDFWLRQHTXDWLRQIRUWKHGHFD\RIUDGLXP5DPD\EHZULWWHQDV
226
88

L

6WDWH WKH YDOXH RI WKH SURWRQ QXPEHU DQG QHXWURQ QXPEHU RI WKH LVRWRSH RI
UDGRQ5Q
[1]






5D  5Q  A

3URWRQQXPEHU                                                     
1HXWURQQXPEHU                                                   


LL &RPSDUHZLWKUHIHUHQFHWRWKHQXFOHDUUHDFWLRQLQDWKHELQGLQJHQHUJ\RI5D
ZLWKWKDWRI5Q
[2]









E 7KHIROORZLQJGDWDDUHDYDLODEOH













6KRZWKDWWKHHQHUJ\UHOHDVHGLQWKHGHFD\RID5DQXFOHXVLV0H9









PDVVRI5D
PDVVRI5Q
PDVVRI

X
X
X









[2]

(This question continues on the following page)

2209-6508

2630



M09/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ1/XX+

(Question B4, part 1 continued)



F

$QSDUWLFOHRIHQHUJ\0H9HPLWWHGLQWKHGHFD\RID5DQXFOHXVWUDYHOVDGLVWDQFH
dLQDLUEHIRUHFRPLQJWRUHVW

L

6KRZWKDWWKHLQLWLDOVSHHGRIWKHSDUWLFOHLV154 s10 PV  

[3]














LL 6WDWHWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQWKHPDJQLWXGHRIWKHDYHUDJHIRUFHFDFWLQJRQWKH
[1]
SDUWLFOHWKHFKDQJHLQNLQHWLFHQHUJ\ $EK DQGWKHGLVWDQFHd


LLL 8VH\RXUDQVZHUWRFLLWRFDOFXODWHFJLYHQWKDW d   s10  P 

[2]









[4]

LY (VWLPDWHWKHWLPHWKDWLWWDNHVWKHSDUWLFOHWRFRPHWRUHVW













(This question continues on the following page)

Turn over

2209-6508

2730



M10/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ1/XX+

B3. 7KLVTXHVWLRQLVLQtwoSDUWVPart 1LVDERXWQXFOHDUGHFD\DQGLRQL]DWLRQPart 2LVDERXW

UDGLRZDYHV


Part 1

1XFOHDUGHFD\DQGLRQL]DWLRQ

D

$ QXFOHXV RI UDGLXP  226

 Ra  XQGHUJRHV DOSKD SDUWLFOH GHFD\ WR IRUP D QXFOHXV RI
UDGRQ5Q

,GHQWLI\WKHSURWRQQXPEHUDQGQXFOHRQQXPEHURIWKHQXFOHXVRI5Q

3URWRQQXPEHU                                                         

1XFOHRQQXPEHU                                                        

E ,PPHGLDWHO\ DIWHU WKH GHFD\ RI D VWDWLRQDU\ UDGLXP QXFOHXV WKH DOSKD SDUWLFOH DQG WKH
UDGRQQXFOHXVPRYHRIILQRSSRVLWHGLUHFWLRQVDQGDWGLIIHUHQWVSHHGV

L

radon

2XWOLQHWKHUHDVRQVIRUWKHVHREVHUYDWLRQV













[2]

[3]

LL 6KRZWKDWWKHUDWLR
LQLWLDONLQHWLFHQHUJ\RIDOSKDSDUWLFOH
LQLWLDONLQHWLFHnHHUJ\RIUDGRQDWRP

LVDERXW

[3]












(This question continues on the following page)

2210-6508

2229



M10/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ1/XX+

(Question B3, part 1 continued)



F

7KH LQLWLDO NLQHWLF HQHUJ\ RI WKH DOSKD SDUWLFOH LV 0H9  $V WKH DOSKD SDUWLFOH
SDVVHV WKURXJK DLU LW ORVHV DOO LWV NLQHWLF HQHUJ\ E\ FDXVLQJ WKH LRQL]DWLRQ RI  s105 
DLUPROHFXOHV

L

[1]

6WDWHZKDWLVPHDQWE\LRQL]DWLRQ





LL (VWLPDWHLQMRXOHVWKHDYHUDJHHQHUJ\QHHGHGWRLRQL]HDQDLUPROHFXOH

[2]









G 2XWOLQHZK\DEHWDSDUWLFOHKDVDORQJHUUDQJHLQDLUWKDQDQDOSKDSDUWLFOHRIWKHVDPH
[3]
HQHUJ\













(This question continues on the following page)

Turn over

2210-6508

2329



M10/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ2/XX+

A2. 7KLVTXHVWLRQLVDERXWUDGLRDFWLYHGHFD\DQGELQGLQJHQHUJ\


D

'HVFULEHZKDWLVPHDQWE\UDGLRDFWLYHGHFD\

[2]









E $QXFOHXVRISRWDVVLXP.XQGHUJRHVUDGLRDFWLYHGHFD\WRDQXFOHXVRIDUJRQ

$U,QWKHUHDFWLRQHTXDWLRQEHORZLGHQWLI\WKHSURWRQQXPEHUZRIDUJRQDQGWKH
SDUWLFOHx
[2]
40


.m

40
Z

$U  E   x

Z 



x 



F

7KHPDVVRID.QXFOHXVLV0H9F2'HWHUPLQHWKHELQGLQJHQHUJ\SHUQXFOHRQ
[4]
RI.















G 6WDWHZK\WKHELQGLQJHQHUJ\RI$ULVJUHDWHUWKDQWKDWRI.





2210-6514

0422

[1]



M09/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ1/XX+

(Question B1, part 2 continued)

1XFOHDUVSHFWUD


F

$ QXFOHXV RI WKH LVRWRSH ELVPXWK XQGHUJRHV GHFD\ LQWR D QXFOHXV RI DQ LVRWRSH
RIWKDOOLXP$UD\SKRWRQLVDOVRHPLWWHG

'UDZDODEHOOHGQXFOHDUHQHUJ\OHYHOGLDJUDPIRUWKLVGHFD\

G 7KH DFWLYLW\ RI D IUHVKO\ SUHSDUHG VDPSOH RI ELVPXWK LV 280 s1013 %T   $IWHU
13 
[4]
PLQXWHVWKHDFWLYLW\LV 113 s 10 %T 'HWHUPLQHWKHKDOIOLIHRIELVPXWK











2209-6508

1430

[2]



M10/4/PHYSI/HP2/ENG/TZ2/XX+

(Question B1 continued)


Part 2

D

5DGLRDFWLYHGHFD\

7KHDOSKDSDUWLFOHVSURGXFHGLQDOSKDGHFD\KDYHGLVFUHWHHQHUJLHV6XJJHVWKRZWKLV
REVHUYDWLRQ SURYLGHV HYLGHQFHIRUWKHH[LVWHQFHRIQXFOHDUHQHUJ\OHYHOV
[2]









E $QXFOHXVRIWKHLVRWRSHXRULQHGHFD\VLQWRDQXFOHXVRIR[\JHQE\WKHHPLVVLRQ
RIDSRVLWURQDQGQHXWULQR2XWOLQHKRZWKHQDWXUHRIWKHGHFD\HQHUJ\VSHFWUXPRI
[3]
XRULQHVXJJHVWVWKHH[LVWHQFHRIWKHQHXWULQRLQYROYHGLQWKHGHFD\











F

$ IUHVKO\ SUHSDUHG VDPSOH RI XRULQH KDV DQ DFWLYLW\ RI 0%T  ,WV DFWLYLW\
IRXU KRXUV ODWHULV0%T

L

6KRZWKDWWKHGHFD\FRQVWDQWIRUXRULQHLVKU1

[3]











LL &DOFXODWHWKHKDOIOLIHRIXRULQH

[1]





G 7KHHQHUJ\RIDEHWDSDUWLFOHLQWKHGHFD\RIWKHVDPSOHLQFLV s1015-6KRZWKDW

WKHGH%URJOLHZDYHOHQJWKRIWKLVSDUWLFOHLV s1012P
[2]








Turn over

2210-6514

1122