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InternationalRelations[PartIITheStudyofIR]

IITHESTUDYOFINTERNATIONALRELATIONS
Overtime,scholarshavedevelopedanumberofapproachestothestudyofinternationalrelations.Theseapproaches
includerealism,neorealism,idealismandliberalism,neoliberalism,andMarxism.
ARealism
Themostwidelyacceptedapproachtounderstandinginternationalrelationsiscalledrealism.Realistsbelievethatnations
actonlyoutofselfinterestandthattheirmajorgoalistoadvancetheirownpositionsofpowerintheworld.Theideasof
realismcomefromthewritingsofsuchhistoricalfiguresasSunTzuofancientChina,ThucydidesofancientGreece,and
RenaissanceItalysNiccolMachiavelli.Allofthesethinkersarguedthattheleadersofnationsusetheirpowertoadvance
theinterestsoftheirownnationswithlittleregardformoralityorfriendship.Inordertosurvive,realistsbelieveleaders
mustbuildtheirpowerandavoidfeelingsoffriendshipormoralitythatmightmakethemvulnerabletomoreruthless
adversaries.Theybelieveconflictandwarareinevitable.Foronenationtogainsomething,anothermustlose.Thismeans
allianceswithothernationscannotbecountedonandcooperationbetweennationscannotlast.Realistsbelievenations
shouldalwaysbeheavilyarmedandreadyforwar.Friendships,religions,ideologies,cultures,andeconomicsystems
matterlittle.Nationsactselfishlyanddonotanswertoahigherauthority.
Realistsgenerallybelievethattheactionsofindividualnationshavethebiggestinfluenceoninternationalrelations.They
believethatnationsactrationally,notimpulsively,andthatnationsweighthebenefitsanddrawbacksofalltheiroptions
beforechoosingacourseofaction.Theybelievenationsarenotdrivenbypsychologicalorculturalinfluences.Instead,they
actwiththeknowledgethattheyliveinaworldwherethereisnocentralgovernmentoverallnationsthattheycanappeal
toforjusticeorprotection.Withoutthathigherauthority,nationsmustprotectthemselvesandlookaftertheirown
interests.Realistsbelievethatthesecharacteristicshaveappliedtoallnationsthroughouthistory.
Asaresult,realiststhinkthatinternationalrelationsisprimarilyinfluencedbyinternationalsecurityandmilitarypower.
Theyconsidermilitaryforcethemostimportantcharacteristicofanynation.Othercharacteristics,suchaswealth,
population,ormoralbeliefs,matterprimarilybecausetheyaffectmilitarystrength.Theyseeinternationaltradeasa
potentialsourceofnationalpower,becausenationscanaccumulatewealthbycontrollingtrade.Theybelieveanations
relativepowercomparedtoothernationsismoreimportantthanthewellbeingofitscitizens.Inaworldwithanever
presentpossibilityofwar,winningmattersaboveall.
Therealistapproachhasbeencriticizedforbeingtoosimplisticandforfailingtocapturethecomplexitiesofinternational
relations.Becauseanationspowertypicallyisverydifficulttomeasure,realistshavebeencriticizedfortheirbeliefthat
nationsstriveonlytoaccumulatepower.Criticsalsoarguethatanationsactionsresultfromtheconflictingpullsofvarious
interestgroups,constituencies,agencies,andindividuals.Theymaintainthatthenationalinterestofanynationmaybe
impossibletodefinebecausesomanydifferentconstituenciesexist,andanationspursuitofitsinterestsmaybefarfrom
rational.OneglaringexampleisWorldWarI(19141918),whichseemsirrationalbecausealmostallparticipantslostmore
thantheygained.
BNeorealism
Neorealismexplainsinternationaleventsbylookingatthedistributionofpoweramongnationsratherthanthemilitary
mightofindividualnations.Neorealismisalsocalledstructuralrealismbecauseitlooksatthepowerstructureoftheentire
systemofnations.Neorealistsbelievethateventsunfoldaccordingtogenerallawsorprinciples.Neorealistsoftenuse
gametheoryandothermodelstopredictthebehaviorortheparticipantsininternationalrelations.Gametheoryisa
mathematicalanalysisofanyconflictthatcalculatesthebestcourseofactionundergivenconditions.However,neorealism
lackssomeoftherichnessoftraditionalrealism,whichweighsmanycomplexelementssuchasgeography,willpower,and
diplomacytounderstandtherelationshipsbetweennations.
CIdealismandLiberalism
Idealistsbelieveinternationallawandmoralityarekeyinfluencesoninternationalevents,ratherthanpoweralone.
Internationallawreferstoprinciplesandrulesofconductthatnationsregardasbinding.Idealiststhinkthathumannature

isbasicallygood.Theybelievegoodhabits(suchastellingthetruthindiplomaticdealingswithothernations),education,
andtheexistenceofinternationalorganizationssuchastheUNtofacilitategoodrelationsbetweennationswillresultin
peacefulandcooperativeinternationalrelationships.Idealistsseetheworldasacommunityofnationsthathavethe
potentialtoworktogethertoovercomemutualproblems.
Idealistswereparticularlyactiveinthe1920sand1930s,followingthepainfulexperienceofWorldWarI.UnitedStates
presidentWoodrowWilsonandotheridealistsplacedtheirhopesforpeaceintheLeagueofNations,aninternational
organizationthatexistedfrom1920to1946topromoteworldpeaceandcooperation.Thesehopesweredashedwhenthe
LeaguefailedtostopGermanandJapaneseaggressioninthe1930s,whichledtotheoutbreakofWorldWarIIin1939.
Realistsblamedidealistsforlookingtoomuchathowtheworldshouldbeinsteadofhowitreallyis.
Althoughthetermidealismfelloutofuse,relatedliberalapproachestointernationalrelationscontinuedafterWorldWarII
endedin1945(seeLiberalism).Liberalsbelieveinternationalrelationsevolvedthroughsmallchangesovertime.Liberals
focusontheinterdependenceoftheworldscountriesandthemutualbenefitstheycangainthroughcooperatingwitheach
other.Unlikerealists,liberalsbelievethatbycooperatingtogether,allnationscouldwin.Theyalsothinkgainingactual
wealthismoreimportantthanacquiringmorepowerrelativetoothercountries.Liberalstendtoseewarnotasanatural
tendencybutasatragicmistakethatcanbepreventedoratleastminimizedbyinternationalagreementsand
organizations.
DNeoliberalism
Neoliberalism,alsocalledneoliberalinstitutionalism,emergedinthe1980sasanewliberalresponsetorealism.
NeoliberalsbelievethattheUNandotherinternationalinstitutionscanplayanimportantroleinresolvingconflictsandthat
itmakesmoresensefornationstocooperateandworktowardlongtermmutualgainsratherthanfocusingonshortterm
individualgains.Neoliberalsagreewithrealiststhatnationsactonlyoutofselfinterest,buttheydonotsharethe
pessimismofrealistsaboutthepossibilityforinternationalcooperation.Instead,neoliberalsbelievenationscancooperate
fairlyoftenbecauseitisintheirbestintereststodoso.
EMarxism
Thetheoriesof19thcenturyGermanphilosopherKarlMarxhaveprovidedalternativestobothrealismandliberalism.
MarxisttheorieshavereceivedmuchlessattentionsincethecollapseofCommunismintheSovietUnionin1991.Marx
focusedontheinequitiesbetweentherichandpoorinsocietyandthetendencyforthewealthy,morepowerfulclassesto
exploitthepoorer,weakerones.Marxistsviewinternationalrelationsasanextensionofthestrugglebetweentheclasses,
withwealthycountriesexploitingpoorer,weakerones.Marxistsmainlystudyimperialismthatis,thepracticeofstronger
nationstocontrolorinfluenceweakerones.Theylookattheunfairandexploitativeaspectsofrelationshipsbetweenthe
worldsrichandpoornations.ThisapproachisrootedinthetheoryofimperialismdevelopedbyVladimirLeninjustbefore
the1917CommunistrevolutioninRussia(seeRussianRevolution).Marxiststendtoseeeconomicrelationshipsasboththe
causeofandpotentialsolutiontotheproblemofwar.
FOtherApproaches
Inthe1980sand1990s,anumberofnewapproachestointernationalrelationsemerged.Feministtheoriesofinternational
relationsemphasizetheimportanceofgenderrolesamongthepoliticallypowerfulinunderstandinghowforeignpolicyis
developedandwhynationsbehavethewaytheydo.Postmodernapproachescallintoquestionthebasiccategoriesand
methodsbywhichinternationalrelationshastraditionallybeenstudied,arguingthatinternationalrelationsscholarshipisan
arbitrarydisciplineinventedbypowerfulspecialintereststoadvancetheirownagendas.Peacestudiesisan
interdisciplinaryapproachtoquestionsofwarandpeace,openlypromotingpeaceoverwar.Peacestudiesteachthat
scholarscanlearnmoreaboutcertainaspectsofinternationalrelations,suchasdiplomacy,bybecominginvolvedinthem.
Source:
USEncartaEncyclopedia2008
LibraryofCongressCatalog

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I.R.PartIII"ACTORSININTERNATIONALRELATIONS"

IIIACTORSININTERNATIONALRELATIONS
Theparticipantsininternationalrelations,oftencalledactors,haveagreatinfluenceontherelationshipsbetweennations
andonworldaffairs.Themajorparticipantsincludethenationsthemselves,theleadersofthosenations,substateactors
(groupsororganizationswithinanation),transnationalactors(organizationsoperatinginmorethanonecountry),and
internationalorganizations.

ANations
Thenationsthemselvesarethemostimportantactorsininternationalrelations.Anationisaterritorywithadefinedborder
andagovernmentthatanswerstonohigherauthoritythanitsown.Allorpartofthepopulationsharesagroupidentity,
oftenbasedonacombinationofcommonancestry,language,orculture.In1997therewere186recognizednationsinthe
world.Therealsoareanumberofpoliticalentitiessometimesthoughtofasnations.Theseincludeterritoriesthatfunction
independently,suchasTaiwan,whichisofficiallyconsideredaprovinceofChinacolonies,suchasMartiniqueandnations
thatarenotyetrecognized,suchasPalestine.AlsoincludedinthislistisVaticanCity,whichdoesnotfitintoanyofthese
categories.
NationsvaryinsizeandpowerfromtheUnitedStateswitha$7trillioneconomyandChinawithmorethan1billionpeople
tonationswithfewerthan100,000people,suchasAndorraandGreenland.Sizeandpoweraretwoimportantvariablesin
determininganationsrelationshipswithothercountriesanditsinfluenceininternationalaffairs.Thehandfulofthemost
powerfulnationsthatcontrolmostoftheworldsmilitaryandeconomicstrengtharecalledgreatpowers.Thegreatpowers
includetheUnitedStates,GreatBritain,Russia(formerlytheSovietUnion),France,China,Germany,andJapan.These
powersarethemostimportantactorsininternationalrelations.
BLeadersofNations
Themostimportantindividualactorwithinanationisthetopleaderofthatcountry.Thetopleaderisthepersonwhohas
theprimarypoliticalpowerorauthorityincountry.Forexample,thetopleaderinGreatBritainistheprimeminister,who
istheheadofgovernmentandhasthemostpoliticalpower,eventhoughthekingorqueenofthatcountryisconsideredthe
headofstate.ThetopleaderintheUnitedStatesisthepresident.
CSubstateActors
Besidesthetopleaderofanation,thereareothergroupsandindividualswithinthatnationthatinfluenceitsinternational
relationships.Thesedomesticactors,calledsubstateactors,includeparticularindustrieswithdistinctinterestsinforeign
policy(suchastheautomobileortobaccoindustry)andethnicconstituencieswithtiestoforeigncountries,aswellaslabor
unions,cities,andregions.Alloftheseactorsmaybeaffectedbyinternationaleventsdifferentlyfromeachotherorthe
countrywheretheyoperate.Thesegroupscaninfluenceanationsforeignpolicyinseveralways,suchasbylobbying
politicalleaders,donatingmoneytopoliticalcandidatesorparties,orswayingpublicopiniononcertainissues.
DTransnationalActors
UnitedNationsForcesinBosniaThisphotographshowsUnitedNations(UN)peacekeepingforceshelpingtofortifyabuilding
outsidethebesiegedcityofSarajevo,inBosniainAugust,1993.PNI/ChristopherMorris/BlackStar
Organizationsoperatinginmorethanonecountryareknownastransnationalactors.Theyoftenhavespecificinterestsin
internationalissuesthatdifferfromthoseofanynation.Transnationalactorsincludemultinationalcorporations.Theyalso
includenongovernmentalorganizations(NGOs),suchasPlannedParenthoodandtheRomanCatholicChurch,whichpromote
theirinterestsacrossinternationalborders.NGOsoftenalignthemselveswithparticularnationsthatsupporttheirinterests,
andcomeintoconflictwiththosethatshowlackofsupport.Intergovernmentalorganizations(IGOs)aregroupswhose
membersarenationalgovernments.ExamplesofintergovernmentalorganizationsincludetheEuropeanUnion(EU)andthe
IntelsatSatelliteConsortium.Theyareusuallycreatedtopromotecooperationbetweendifferentnationsonaparticular
issueorinaparticulargeographicregion.Nongovernmentalorganizationsandintergovernmentalorganizationstogetherare
calledinternationalorganizations.
EEvaluatingtheInfluenceofActors
Scholarsofinternationalrelationshavedividedthevariousinfluencesoninternationaleventsintodifferentcategories,or
levelsofanalysis.Therearethreewidelyusedlevelsofanalysis:(1)individualactors,(2)domesticinfluences,and(3)
interstateinfluences.Somescholarsalsostudyafourthlevelofanalysis,globalinfluences.
Intheindividuallevelofanalysis,scholarsstudytheconcerns,perceptionsandchoicesoftheindividualpeopleinvolved
greatleaders,crazyleaders,activists,orindividualcitizens.Forexample,iftheassassinofArchdukeFrancisFerdinandin
1914hadbungledthejob,WorldWarImightnothavebrokenoutwhenitdid.
Inthedomesticlevelofanalysis,scholarslookathowinternationalrelationsisinfluencedbydomesticactors,including
specialinterestgroups,politicalorganizations,andgovernmentagencies.Scholarsstudyhowdifferentkindsofsocieties
andgovernmentsbehave,suchasdemocraciesversusdictatorships.Theyalsolookatthepoliticsofethnicconflictand
nationalism,bothofwhichcanleadtointernationalconflictandwar.Thedomesticlevelofanalysisisalsocalledthestate
orsocietallevel.
Intheinterstatelevelofanalysis,scholarsfocusontheinteractionsofstatesthemselves,withoutregardtotheirinternal
makeuportheparticularindividualswholeadthem.Forrealists,thisisthemostimportantlevelbecauseitlooksathowa
nationsrelativepowercomparedwithothernationsaffectsitsbehavior.Theinterstatelevelofanalysisisalsocalledthe
internationalorsystemiclevelofanalysis.
Somescholarsalsolookatthegloballevelofanalysis.Inthisanalysis,scholarsstudyhowglobaltrendsandforces,such
astechnologicalchangeandtheglobalenvironment,affectinternationalrelations.Theyalsostudyhowthelingeringeffects
ofcolonialisminfluenceinternationalrelations.
Source:
USEncartaEncyclopedia2008
LibraryofCongressCatalog

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InternationalRelationsIntroductionLastPart

IVTHEINTERSTATESYSTEM
LastPart
Scholarsstudyinginternationalrelationshipslookattheworldasasystemofnationsthatinteractaccordingtoasetof
welldefinedandlongestablishedrules.Theycallthissystemtheinterstatesystem.Therulesofthesystemgovernhow
nationstreateachother.Therulesarebasedoncommonunderstandingsoftherightsofanation.Forexample,according
tothetraditionsoftheinterstatesystem,onenationshouldnotinfringeuponanothernationsrightfulterritoryorinterfere
inanothernationsinternalaffairs.ManyoftheseruleswerecodifiedinthePeaceofWestphalia,whichendedtheThirty
YearsWar(16181648)inEurope.
Thesystemevolvedbecausenationsrealizeditwasintheirbestinteresttodevelopbasicgroundrulesfordealingwitheach
otherintheabsenceofacentralauthoritythatcouldsetandenforcerulesworldwide.Thelackofacentralauthorityisthe
mostimportantcharacteristicoftheinterstatesystem.Ithasmeantthatnationsmustlookoutforthemselvesfirstandhas
shapedthewaytheyrelatetoeachother.Theycannotrelyonanyhigherpowertoenforcetherulesormakesureother
nationsplayfairly.Instead,theymustenforcetherulesbythemselvesorformallianceswithothernationsandcollectively
enforcethem.Therulesarealsoenforcedbythepowerofworldcensure.
Oneofthemostimportantrulesoftheinterstatesystemisthatnationsshouldrespecteachothersinternationally
recognizedboundaries.AlmostalloftheworldslandfallsunderthecontrolofexistingnationsexceptAntarctica.Underthe
interstatesystem,nonationhastherighttoinvadeortakeoveranothersterritoryorinterferewiththeactionsofa
governmentwithinitsownterritory.Butdefiningthebordersofaterritoryismorecomplicatedthanitmayfirstappear.
Forexample,manyoftodaysbordersresultedfromwarsinwhichwinnersexpandedtheirrulebytakingterritoryfrom
losers.Somenationshavebordersthatwereimposeduponthembyanothernationthatcolonizedthembeforetheygained
independence.Theseborderscancreatemanyproblems.Theycancreateoddlyshapednationsthatlackportsorother
resources.Theycanalsosplituppreviouslyexistingnationsorethnicgroupssothattheyareindifferentnations.This
divisionhasbecomeamajorsourceofconflictandwar.
AMembershipintheInterstateSystem
Anationisconsideredamemberoftheinternationalsystemifothernationsrecognizetheauthorityofitsgovernment.
Othernationscanformallyextendthisrecognitionbyestablishingdiplomaticrelationswiththatnation.Anationcanalso
becomerecognizedbybeingadmittedasamemberoftheUN.Recognitiondoesnotimplythatagovernmenthaspopular
support,onlythatitcontrolstheterritorywithinitsbordersandhasagreedtoassumethenationsobligationsinthe
internationalsystem.Theseobligationsincluderespectingtheinternationallyrecognizedbordersofothernations,assuming
theinternationaldebtsofthepreviousgovernment,andnotinterferingintheinternalaffairsofothernations.
BDevelopmentoftheInterstateSystem
Beforethedevelopmentofthemoderninterstatesystem,peoplewereorganizedintomoremixedandoverlappingpolitical
units,suchascitystates,empires,andfeudalfiefs.ThemoderninterstatesystemaroseinEurope,beginningafterabout
ad1500,whenFranceandAustriaemergedaspowerfulnations.ThesystemgrewtoencompasstheEuropeancontinent
overseveralcenturies,althoughitlongcoexistedwithothersystemssuchastheHolyRomanEmpire.Withthecolonization
ofmuchoftherestoftheworldbyEuropeannations,theEuropeanideaofnationswasexportedglobally.AfterEuropean
coloniesinAfricaandAsiabegantowintheirindependence,theyalsoaspiredtobecomerecognizedasnationsinthe
internationalsystem.Today,thelegalbasisfortheuniversalapplicationoftheseprinciplesisthecharteroftheUN.TheUN
charter,adoptedin1945,explicitlyrecognizesthecentralprinciplesoftheinterstatesystem.
CStructureofRelationships
Throughoutthehistoryoftheinterstatesystem,therelationshipsbetweennationshavebeenstructuredinvariousways,
dependingonhowpowerwasdistributedamongthem.Forexample,powermaybeconcentratedinoneortwonations,
whichthensetandenforcetherulesforothercountries.Thepredominanceofonenationiscalledhegemony.Historical
examplesofhegemonyincludeGreatBritainafter1815andtheUnitedStatesafter1945periodswhenthesenationswere
themostpowerfulintheworld,dominatingtradeandmilitaryrelationships.
Powermayalsobedistributedmoreequallyamongahalfdozengreatpowersandothersomewhatweakernations.Inthis
case,alliancesbetweennationsplayacrucialroleinstructuringtheirinteractions.Powercanalsobedistributedrelatively
equallyamongnationsoralliancesofnations.Thisiscalledabalanceofpower.Somescholarsandpoliticalleadersbelieve
thatpeaceisbestpreservedthiswaybecausenoonenationcanwinawareasily.Theevidenceforthistheory,however,is
notstrong.Theoppositeproposition,calledpowertransitiontheory,hasmoresupport.Thistheorysuggeststhatpeaceis
mostlikelywhenonenationpredominates,orwhentwoopposingbutequallypowerfulnationsdo.Inthistheory,major
warsarelikelywhenachallengerstartstosurpassadominantnationinpower.
DFutureoftheInterstateSystem
CheeringtheEndoftheBerlinWallAmansittingontheBerlinWall,whichdividedEastandWestGermanyfrom1961to
1989,raisesafistandcheersthedismantlingofthewall.ThewallwasasymboloftheColdWarthestrugglebetweenthe
UnionofSovietSocialistRepublics(USSR)anditsallies,whichincludedEastGermany,andtheUnitedStatesanditsallies,
whichincludedWestGermany.TheColdWardominatedinternationalrelationsfromjustafterWorldWarII(19391945)
untiltheearly1990s.CORBISBETTMANN/PaulTurnley
Today,manyofthefoundationsoftheinterstatesystemarebeingchallengedbychangesintechnologyandinternational
norms.Theideaofterritorialintegrityandanationssovereigntythatis,itsabsoluteauthorityoveritsowninternal
mattersarebeingundermined.Neitherballisticmissilesnortelevisionsignalsrespectborders.Television,themass
media,telephones,andtheInternetareerasingtheboundariesbetweennations,blendingoncedistinctculturestogether
andexpandingtransnationalconnections.Masscommunicationisalsodrawingworldwideattentiontodomesticissuesthat
inthepastwereoflittleconcerntoothernations,suchashumanrights,thestatusofwomen,environmentalpractices,and
democracy.Inaddition,theterritoriesofnationsarechanging.Somenationsarebecomingintegratedintolargerentities
forexample,theEuropeanUnion.Othersarefragmentingintosmallerunits,asdidtheSovietUnion.
Thesechangeshaveledtoadebateamongscholarsaboutwhethertheinterstatesystemwillsurviveinitscurrentformor
evolveintoanothersystemthatdoesnotyetexist.Somescholarsbelievenationswiththeirdifferentculturalidentities,
boundaries,andgovernmentsarebecomingobsolete.Theybelieveeconomicsisbecomingthedrivingforcein
internationalrelations,encouragingincreasedcooperationamongnations.Theybelievethatcooperation,alongwith
technologicalchanges,willcontinuetoblurthedistinctionbetweennationsandtheimportanceofnationalborders.Other

scholarsthinkthattheinterstatesystemwillendurebecausenationshavemilitaryforce,andmilitaryforcestilldetermines
whathappensintheworldandalwayswill.Botharerighttosomeextent.Theinterstatesystemofnationsremainsintact,
butitisincreasinglyoverlaidwithnewforcesandrealitiesthatrespectneithertheideaofsovereigntynorborders.
Source:
USEncartaEncyclopedia2008
LibraryofCongressCatalog
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BestbooksforscholarsinterestedinstudyofInternationalRelations

Aoadearfellowmembers!
ThefollowingtextIfoundveryusefullinthestudyofInternationalRelationsatintroductoryormediumlevelscholarseither
pursuingtostudyIRforcompetitiveexamsorforstudyingeneral.IfyouareinLahore,,,andwanttohaveacopyofyour
own....youmaygetgenuineeditionsofthesetextsfromRegalchowkVanguardbookstoreonorderandacoupleofones
nearbyonorderelsethesemaybelocatedinthecentrallibraryofyourhometownortheUniversityLibraryIRorPolitical
ScienceorHistorysectionorelseifyouhaveaccesstoHECDigitalLibraryyoumaysearchandfindfromthereaswell.
PS:ThoughIamaCSEgraduatebuthaveinterestinthesubjectofIR.AndI'meagertodoamastersdegreeinIR
sometimesinfutureInshaALLAHfromauniversity(withgoodranking)ofInternationalstanding.
IfInstituteofStrategicStudiesIslamabad(whoseheadisTanvirAhmedKhan)startedofferingdegreecoursesinfutureI'll
bethefirsttotakeadmissionthereotherwisehavetotrytogoabroadtofulfillmydesireforknowledgeandaMasters
DegreeinIRInshaALLAH.AtpresentmyknowledgeinIRislimitedtointroductorytextsandEncartaEncyclopedia.
regards,
Noman!

Carter,Jimmy.TalkingPeace:AVisionfortheNextGeneration.Dutton,1996.Formerpresident'sstrategiesforachieving
peaceandensuringhumanrights.
Evans,Graham,andJeffreyNewnham.PenguinDictionaryofInternationalRelations.Penguin,1999.Handyreference
forconcepts,terms,events,andorganizations.
Goldstein,JoshuaS.InternationalRelations.4thed.AddisonWesley,2001.Introductorytextoninternationalrelations
Huntington,SamuelP.TheClashofCivilizationsandtheRemakingofWorldOrder.Simon&Schuster,1997.Harvard
historiantheorizesthatculturaldivisionswillbethemajorsourceofconflictamongnationsincomingyears.
Keylor,WilliamR.TheTwentiethCenturyWorld:AnInternationalHistory.4thed.OxfordUniversityPress,2001.
Thoroughstudyofinternationalpolitics.
Kissinger,HenryA.Diplomacy.Simon&Schuster,1995.Theroleofdiplomacyandabalanceofpowerinshapingthe
worldwelivein.
Morgenthau,Hans.PoliticsAmongNations:TheStruggleforPowerandPeace.6thedition.McGrawHill,1985.
Landmarktreatiseonthenatureofinternationalpoliticsfirstpublishedin1948.
Rich,Norman.GreatPowerDiplomacy:18141914.McGrawHill,1992.Exploreshowstatesmenconductedforeignpolicy.

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TreatyOfLisbonatGlance.

On13December2007,EUleaderssignedtheTreatyofLisbon,thusbringingtoanendseveralyearsofnegotiationabout
institutionalissues.
TheTreatyofLisbonamendsthecurrentEUandECtreaties,withoutreplacingthem.ItwillprovidetheUnionwiththe
legalframeworkandtoolsnecessarytomeetfuturechallengesandtorespondtocitizens'demands.
AmoredemocraticandtransparentEurope,withastrengthenedrolefortheEuropeanParliamentandnationalparliaments,
moreopportunitiesforcitizenstohavetheirvoicesheardandaclearersenseofwhodoeswhatatEuropeanandnational
level.
AstrengthenedrolefortheEuropeanParliament:theEuropeanParliament,directlyelectedbyEUcitizens,willsee
importantnewpowersemergeovertheEUlegislation,theEUbudgetandinternationalagreements.Inparticular,the
increaseofcodecisionprocedureinpolicymakingwillensuretheEuropeanParliamentisplacedonanequalfootingwith
theCouncil,representingMemberStates,forthevastbulkofEUlegislation.
Agreaterinvolvementofnationalparliaments:nationalparliamentswillhavegreateropportunitiestobeinvolvedin
theworkoftheEU,inparticularthankstoanewmechanismtomonitorthattheUniononlyactswhereresultscanbebetter
attainedatEUlevel(subsidiarity).TogetherwiththestrengthenedrolefortheEuropeanParliament,itwillenhance
democracyandincreaselegitimacyinthefunctioningoftheUnion.
Astrongervoiceforcitizens:thankstotheCitizens'Initiative,onemillioncitizensfromanumberofMemberStateswill
havethepossibilitytocallontheCommissiontobringforwardnewpolicyproposals.
Whodoeswhat:therelationshipbetweentheMemberStatesandtheEuropeanUnionwillbecomeclearerwiththe
categorisationofcompetences.
WithdrawalfromtheUnion:theTreatyofLisbonexplicitlyrecognisesforthefirsttimethepossibilityforaMember
StatetowithdrawfromtheUnion.
AmoreefficientEurope:withsimplifiedworkingmethodsandvotingrules,streamlinedandmoderninstitutionsforaEU
of27membersandanimprovedabilitytoactinareasofmajorpriorityfortoday'sUnion.
Effectiveandefficientdecisionmaking:qualifiedmajorityvotingintheCouncilwillbeextendedtonewpolicyareasto
makedecisionmakingfasterandmoreefficient.From2014on,thecalculationofqualifiedmajoritywillbebasedonthe
doublemajorityofMemberStatesandpeople,thusrepresentingtheduallegitimacyoftheUnion.Adoublemajoritywillbe
achievedwhenadecisionistakenby55%oftheMemberStatesrepresentingatleast65%oftheUnionspopulation.
Amorestableandstreamlinedinstitutionalframework:theTreatyofLisboncreatesthefunctionofPresidentofthe
EuropeanCouncilelectedfortwoandahalfyears,introducesadirectlinkbetweentheelectionoftheCommissionPresident
andtheresultsoftheEuropeanelections,providesfornewarrangementsforthefuturecompositionoftheEuropean
ParliamentandforasmallerCommission,andincludesclearerrulesonenhancedcooperationandfinancialprovisions.
ImprovingthelifeofEuropeans:theTreatyofLisbonimprovestheEU'sabilitytoactinseveralpolicyareasofmajor
priorityfortoday'sUnionanditscitizens.Thisisthecaseinparticularforthepolicyareasoffreedom,securityandjustice,
suchascombatingterrorismortacklingcrime.Italsoconcernstosomeextentotherareasincludingenergypolicy,public
health,civilprotection,climatechange,servicesofgeneralinterest,research,space,territorialcohesion,commercial
policy,humanitarianaid,sport,tourismandadministrativecooperation.
AEuropeofrightsandvalues,freedom,solidarityandsecurity,promotingtheUnion'svalues,introducingtheCharterof
FundamentalRightsintoEuropeanprimarylaw,providingfornewsolidaritymechanismsandensuringbetterprotectionof
Europeancitizens.
Democraticvalues:theTreatyofLisbondetailsandreinforcesthevaluesandobjectivesonwhichtheUnionisbuilt.
ThesevaluesaimtoserveasareferencepointforEuropeancitizensandtodemonstratewhatEuropehastoofferits
partnersworldwide.
Citizens'rightsandCharterofFundamentalRights:theTreatyofLisbonpreservesexistingrightswhileintroducing
newones.Inparticular,itguaranteesthefreedomsandprinciplessetoutintheCharterofFundamentalRightsandgivesits
provisionsabindinglegalforce.Itconcernscivil,political,economicandsocialrights.
FreedomofEuropeancitizens:theTreatyofLisbonpreservesandreinforcesthe"fourfreedoms"andthepolitical,
economicandsocialfreedomofEuropeancitizens.
SolidaritybetweenMemberStates:theTreatyofLisbonprovidesthattheUnionanditsMemberStatesactjointlyina
spiritofsolidarityifaMemberStateisthesubjectofaterroristattackorthevictimofanaturalormanmadedisaster.
Solidarityintheareaofenergyisalsoemphasised.
Increasedsecurityforall:theUnionwillgetanextendedcapacitytoactonfreedom,securityandjustice,whichwill
bringdirectbenefitsintermsoftheUnion'sabilitytofightcrimeandterrorism.Newprovisionsoncivilprotection,
humanitarianaidandpublichealthalsoaimatboostingtheUnion'sabilitytorespondtothreatstothesecurityofEuropean
citizens.
Europeasanactorontheglobalstage:ItwillbeachievedbybringingtogetherEurope'sexternalpolicytools,both
whendevelopinganddecidingnewpolicies.TheTreatyofLisbonwillgiveEuropeaclearvoiceinrelationswithitspartners
worldwide.ItwillharnessEurope'seconomic,humanitarian,politicalanddiplomaticstrengthstopromoteEuropean
interestsandvaluesworldwide,whilerespectingtheparticularinterestsoftheMemberStatesinForeignAffairs.
AnewHighRepresentativefortheUnioninForeignAffairsandSecurityPolicy,alsoVicePresidentoftheCommission,will
increasetheimpact,thecoherenceandthevisibilityoftheEU'sexternalaction.
AnewEuropeanExternalActionServicewillprovidebackupandsupporttotheHighRepresentative.
AsinglelegalpersonalityfortheUnion:ItwillstrengthentheUnion'snegotiatingpower,makingitmoreeffectiveon
theworldstageandamorevisiblepartnerforthirdcountriesandinternationalorganisations.
ProgressinEuropeanSecurityandDefencePolicy:ProgressinEuropeanSecurityandDefencePolicywillpreserve
specialdecisionmakingarrangementsbutalsopavethewaytowardsreinforcedcooperationamongstasmallergroupof
MemberStates.
__________________

Sweatinpeacewilllessenthebloodinwar.

TheFollowing2UsersSayThankYoutoMuhammadAliAwanForThisUsefulPost:
ASPZIA(Saturday,November07,2009),pisceankhan(Monday,October26,2015)
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