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1. What are the sensory æ The sensory nerves for taste
are cranial nerves: the
(7th) and
(9th). P. 372
2. What are the layers of the alimentary tubeæ Alimentary tube has 4
layers: the
c3. What kind of epithelium lines the esophagusæ In the esophagus the
epithelium is
P.376
4. What kind of epithelium lines the stomach and intestinesæ In the stomach
and intestines it is
P.376
5. What kind of serosacdo we have for the esophagus above and below the
diaphragmæ
6.
of fats happens in what part of the GI tractæ
7. Where do
receive blood fromæ P.379
The capillaries of a lobule are sinusoids, large and very permeable vessels
between the rows of liver cells. The sinusoids receive blood from both the
and
. The hepatic artery brings oxygenated
blood, & the portal vein brings blood from the digestive organs and spleen.
10.
Emulsification means that large fat globules are broken into smaller
globules. This is
, not chemical digestion; the fat is still fat but
now has more surface area to facilitate chemical digestion. P. 379
- convert peptides to amino acids.
is the circular folds of the mucosa and submucosa of the
small intestine; increase the surface area for absorption. P. 577
Most absorption of the end products of digestion takes place in the small
intestine. The process of absorption requires a large surface area, which is
provided by several structural modifications of the small intestine such as:
or circular folds are macroscopic folds of the mucosa and
submucosa, somewhat like accordion pleats. The mucosa is further folded
into projections called
, which give the inner surface of the intestine
velvet like appearance.
are the brush border. These folds greatly
increase the surface area of the intestinal lining, for absorption of nutrients
that take place from the lumen of the intestine into the vessels within the
villi. P. 383
#$ "
that can be synthesized by the liver; this
chemical process is called
of amino group (%&$'.
(
that cannot be synthesized by the liver and must
be obtain from proteins in the diet.
1. *
- liver regulates the blood .
Excess glucose is converted to +
) when blood
glucose level is high (controlled by
&
l h.). During
or stress, glycogen is converted to glucose (glycogenolysis)
to raise the blood glucose level (controlled by
& h.).
2. ,
-liver regulates blood levels of aminoacids
based on tissue needs for protein synthesis. .
process is to
form 12 nonessential amino acids. /
± conversion of amino
acids to simple carbohydrate or fat. Excess a. a. are utilized for energy.
3!
± liver forms
(molecules of lipids &
proteins) to transport of fats in the blood to other tissues;
& if excess excretes it into bile to be eliminated in feces; 0 "
process ± for source of energy & cell respiration
are
broken down to smaller molecules.
4.
± liver synthesize
to help
maintain blood volume; produce
for blood clotting
(prothrombin, fibrogen, & Factor 8); synthesize alpha & beta
as
carrier molecules such as fats, in the blood..
5. 1
± old RBCs are phagocytized, & bilirubin is
formed from the heme portion of hemoglobin and put into bile to be
eliminated in feces.
6.
2
(the fixed macrophages or stellate
reticuloendothelial cells of the liver) ± phagocytize & destroy 30* and
, especially bacteria absorbed by the colon removing them from
the blood before blood returns to the heart.
8. /
- liver enzymes change potential poisons to less harmful
substances, such as alcohol, medications, & ammonia absorbed by the
colon. P. 388, 392
The thymus has stem cells that produce a significant portion of the .
. (help recognize foreign antigens and may directly
destroy some foreign antigens by disrupting cell membranes). .
± attacking antigens. (pg 326)
19. * "
6the mechanism of adaptive immunity that
, but rather the destruction of
foreign antigens by the activities of .
/
but is effective against
intracellular pathogens (such as viruses), fungi, malignant cells, and grafts
of foreign tissue. (pg330)
&
(,2, ,
"
): is the
mechanism of adaptive immunity that
and
the destruction of foreign antigens by the activities of 0 , T cells, and
macrophages. Read P. 330
;
: is the exchange of gases between the blood in the
systematic capillaries and the tissue fluid (cells) of the body. P.354
Heart rate (pulse) increases during exercise, and so does stroke volume.
The
5
, which states that the more the cardiac muscle fibers are stretched,
the more forcefully they contract. P. 283
During exercise, more blood returns to the heart; this is called
. Increased venous return stretches the myocardium of the
ventricles, which contract more forcefully and pump more blood, thereby
increasing stroke volume (Starling¶s Law). P.288, 307
The blood in the pulmonary capillaries, which has just come from the body,
has a low PO2 and a high PCO2. Therefore, in external respiration, oxygen
diffuses from the air in the alveoli to the blood, and carbon dioxide diffuses
from the blood to the air in the alveoli. The blood that returns to the heart
now has a high PO2 and a low PCO2 and is pumped by the left ventricle
into systemic circulation. P. 355
.
has
<$
and *<$. The body cells and tissue fluid have low PO2 and high
PCO2 because cells continuously use oxygen in cell respiration (energy
production) and produce carbon dioxide in this process.
29. Impulses from the are transmitted by what
æ
The impulses from taste buds are transmitted by the
and
() and 7 cranial) nerves to the taste areas in the
"
= .
30. What are the steps in
2
æ
The kidneys form urine from blood plasma. Blood flow through the kidneys
is a major factor in determining urinary output.c
Ý
is the
in urine formation. Glomerular
filtration-takes place from the gomerulus to Bowman¶s capsule. Filtration is
not selective in terms of usefulness of materials; it is selective only in terms
of size. High blood pressure in the glomeruli forces plasma, dissolved
materials, and small proteins into Bowman's capsules; the fluid is now
called renal filtrate.c
Filtration is selective only in terms of size; blood cells and large proteins
remain in the blood.c
GFR is 100 to 125 mL per minute. Increased blood flow to the kidney
increase GFR; decreased blood flow decreases GFR.c
Reabsorption takes place from the filtrate in the renal tubules to the blood
in the peritubular capillaries.c
.
takes place from the blood in the peritubular capillaries
to the filtrate in the renal tubules and can ensure that wastes such as
creatinine or excess H+ ions are actively put into the filtrate to be excreted.
Secretion of H+ ions helps maintain pH of blood.c
+.&' in the (parathyroid glands) ± increases
reabsorption of Ca+2 ions from filtrate to the blood and excretion of
phosphate ions into the filtrate.
,
+,%) - (atria of the heart) ±
reabsoption of %? ions, which remain in the filtrate. More sodium and
water are eliminated in urine.
Waste products remain in the renal filtrate and are excreted in urine. P.427-
428 &436; Table 18-1
Hormone from the adrenal cortex helps regulate water output
by increasing the reabsorption of Na+ ions by the kidney tubules and water
from the renal filtrate follows the Na+ ions back to the blood.c
1. During atrial diastole, blood from the superior vena cavae and the coronary
sinus enters the RA right atrium.
2. RA right atrium fills and distends, pushing the tricuspid valve open and the
RV fills.
3. Same sequence occurs a split second earlier in the left side, LA receives
blood from the 4 pulmonary veins (2 from the right lung and 2 from the left),
leaflets of the mitral valve open as the left atrium (LA) fills and blood flows in
the LV left ventrivle.
Ventricles are 70% filled before the atrial contraction and an additional 30%
during atrial contraction.
5. The SL semilunar valves close and the heart then begins a period of
ventricular diastole during which the ventricles begin to passively fill with blood
and both atria and ventricles are relaxed.
Semilunar valves: pulmonic and aortic valves prevent backlow of blood from
the aorta and pulmonary arteries into the ventricles during diastole.
As the heart dark red blood returning from the body flows into the
right atrium (RA). This blood is deoxygenated from the superior vena cava
(from the head and upper extremities), inferior vena cava (from the lower
body) and the coronary sinus (from the intracardiac circulation) and is laden
with carbon dioxide, which is produced by body tissues. When the RA
contracts, it propels oxygen-poor blood through the tricuspid valve into the
RV. In turn, the RV pumps blood into the pulmonary artery. From there, it
flows into the lungs where it picks up oxygen and returns to the
+!,'+ blood from the lungs) via right and left
.
When it contracts, the LA pumps the now bright red oxygenated blood through
the mitral valve into the LV, which pumps it into the aorta, from which it is
distributed to other arteries to nourish cells, tissues, and organs. Then the
cycle begins again. P. 277,278, 279, Chapter 12 ± handout.
1. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body tissues
2. The right ventricle then pumps the blood into the pulmonary artery
3. Oxygenated blood returns to the pulmonary veins.
4. The left ventricle then pumps a volume of blood into the aorta.
The system of blood vessels that carries blood to the lungs and back is
called the
. All other blood vessels in the body are
collectively known as the
. The
(
) prevent backflow of blood during
ventricular
+ ). The
and
valves open
during systole, then close during diastole to prevent backflow of blood. In
the following sequence, the heart fills with blood, excitation of the cardiac
muscle occurs and the ventricles contract to expel a single stroke volume
into the circulation.
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::@@4 are the chemicals that dissolve in water and
dissociate into their positive and negative ions. Most electrolytes are the
,
and found in all body fluids.
Electrolytes are part of the food and beverages we consume, are absorbed
by the Ý; into the blood, & become part of body fluids (
).
The
help maintain
by filtering
electrolytes from blood, returning some electrolytes, and excreting any
excess into the urine. Thus, the
help maintain a between
daily consumption and excretion.
P. 425, 427, 428
+
'6
#,
± renal tubule use ATP to transport most of the useful
materials from
(glucose, AA, vitamins, & cations).
$
± many of the
that are returned to the blood
are reabsorbed following reabsorption of
because unlike charges
attract.
3.<
± reabsorption of H2O follows the reabsorption of minerals,
especially sodium Na+ ions.
@
± small proteins are too large to be reabsorbed by active
transport; they are engulfed by proximal tubule cells.
,
+,%) or ,%&
the excretion of Na+
ions by the kidneys and lowers the blood sodium level. By increasing the
elimination of Na+ & H2O, ANP lowers blood volume and blood pressure.
.&and *
regulate the blood levels of
+*) and
+&<@"$'. .&
the reabsorption of these minerals
from bones, & increases their absorption from food in the small intestine
(vitamin D is also necessary). *
promotes the of calcium
& phosphate from the to form
.
*
#8,
6 most of absorption of the end products of
digestion takes place in the
. The absorption of nutrients
takes place from the of the
into the
. Water-soluble nutrients are absorbed into the blood in the capillary
networks. Water is absorbed by
following the absorption of
minerals, especially sodium (Na).
Please read chapters 16, 18(P. 425, 427, 428, Table 18-1, Figure 18-5);
19(P. 445, 446, Table 19-2; Box 19-2);
34. What are the factors that influence your
æ
&
3
means that heat from the body is transferred to cooler objects
; much as a radiator warms the contents of a room
(radiation starts to become less effective when the environmental
temperature rises above ((1).
*
is the loss of heat to cooler air or objects, such as clothing,
that
. P. 397
36. The substances that may cause a fever are called
.
include bacteria, foreign proteins, and chemicals released during
inflammation (endogenous pyrogens). chemically affect the
hypothalamus and A
B of the hypothalamic thermostat; it
stimulate body to raise body temperature to this higher setting. P. 399
37. ,
is
of body cells and substances from
nutrients. ,
means synthesis or ³
B reactions, the
bonding together of smaller molecules to form larger ones (hemoglobin by
red bone marrow cells; synthesis of glycogen by liver cells). Such reactions
, usually in the form ,. (adenosine triphosphate).
*
is
of body cells or substances, releasing
energy and carbon dioxide. Catabolism means
, the
breaking of bonds of larger molecules to form smaller molecules. Cell
respiration is a series of catabolic reactions that food
molecules to CO2 & H2O. During catabolism, is often and
used to synthesize ATP. The ATP formed during catabolism is then used
for energy-requiring anabolic reactions.
Ý
is the first stage of the cell respiration of glucose, in which
glucose is broken down to two molecules of pyruvic acid and ATP is
formed;
+ <$
'; takes place in the
of
cells. P.564
The liver can synthesize most of the fatty acids needed by the body. Two
exceptions are
acid and
, which are essential fatty
acids and must be obtained from the diet. P.408
41. C
are what kind of chemicals vs.
æ
C
are
molecules needed in very small amounts for normal
body functioning. C
is an
molecule needed in small
amounts by the body for normal metabolism or growth. P.588
are simple
chemicals and have a variety of functions.
P.408.
is an
element or compound; many are
needed by the body for normal metabolism and growth. P.571
42. What is the metabolic activity of vs. the metabolic activity
of æ
@@!
6
3 * is the outermost tissue layer of the kidney, it is made of renal
corpuscles and convoluted tubules (parts of nephron). P. 421
3
± The renal medulla consists of wedge-shaped pieces
(the triangular segments) called renal pyramids. The tip of each pyramid is
its apex or papilla. P 421
3
± The kidneys are embedded in adipose tissue that acts as a
cushion and is in turn covered by a fibrous connective tissue membrane
called the
, which helps hold the kidneys in place. P. 421
The space between the inner and outer layers of Bowman¶s capsule
contains renal filtrate, the fluid that is formed from the blood in the
glomerulus and will eventually become urine. P 424
The pressure in Bowman¶s capsule is very low, and its inner, prodocyte
layer is very permeable, so that about 20% to 25% of the blood that enters
glomeruli becomes renal filtrate in Bowman¶s capsules.
%
is the structural and functional unit of the kidney that forms urine;
consists of renal corpuscle and a renal tubule. P. 572
6 all parts of the renal tubule are surrounded by
peritubular capillaries which arise from the efferent arteriole. The
peritubular capillaries will receive the materials reabsorbed by the renal
tubules. P. 424
Ý13 -
is the amount of renal filtrate formed by
the kidneys in 1 minute, and averages 100 to 125 mL per minute. GFR
may be altered if the rate of blood flows through the kidney changes. If
blood flow increases, the GFR increases, and more filtrate is formed. If
blood flow decreases (as may happen following a severe hemorrhage), the
GFR decreases, less filtrate is formed, and urinary output decreases. P424
& 423
D
!. :8"4988"(46
:8
:
; changes in the diameter of arteries have effects on blood
pressure. These vessels have to be slightly
+
) to maintain normal diastolic blood pressure. Greater
vasoconstriction will increase BP; vasodilation will decrease BP. P. 308
:(
is the result of
, the presence of
The bacteria and damaged tissues release
that cause vasodilation and extensive
.
:7!
is the name for
.
Similar to plasma, but more WBCs are present, and has less protein.
Lymph must be returned to the blood to maintain blood volume and blood
pressure. P.322, 338 !
: the water found within lymphatic vessels. P.
569
@9 ,
p.327 Are chemical markers that identify cells. Human cells
have their own antigens that identify all the cells in an individual as A B
+ &!,
>0*' When antigens are foreign or A" B they
may be recognized as such and destroyed.
@# ,
AKA called
+;' or
are proteins shaped somewhat like the letter (Y). Antibodies do not
themselves destroy foreign antigens, but rather become attached to such
antigens to A B them for destruction. Each antibody produced is
specific for only one antigen. Antibodies bond to the foreign antigen to label
it for phagocytosis (
). P.332
,
: a protein molecule produced by plasma cells that is specific for
and will bond to a particular
. P.550
@$ ,
means clumping, and this is what happens when
antibodies bind to bacterial cells. The bacteria that are clumped together by
attached antibodies are more easily phagocytized by macrophages. p.334
,
: clumping of blood cells or microorganisms; the result of an
antigen-antibody reaction. P.548
@: %
is the vertical plate made of bone and cartilage that
. P.572
The 2
are within the skull, separated by the
,
which is a bony plate made of the ethmoid bone and vomer. P. 344
For alveoli walls not to stick together because of the surface tension of
water (this problem) is overcome by
, a lipoprotein
secreted by alveolar type II cells, also called
. Surfactant mixes
with the tissue fluid within the alveoli and
,
. p. 347
47. What is the content of the air we æ The exhaled air contains
about #8E and @4E
and some nitrogen (78% of
the atmosphere is nitrogen). p354
48. What is
æ .
C ²the amount of air involved in
one normal inhalation and exhalation. The average tidal volume is 500 mL,
but many people often have lower tidal volumes because of shallow
breathing. (Average 400-600 mL) P.353
49. What is
+ 3C)æ 3C²
88/
P.372
/
is the bone-like substance that forms the inner crown and the roots
of a tooth. P. 558
67.
P. 372
Erosion of the enamel and dentin layers by bacterial acids (dental caries or
cavities) may result in bacterial invasion of the pulp cavity and a very
painful toothache.
87
P.372
The parotid glands are the pair of salivary glands just below and in front of
the ears.
70.
P.372
,2,
are at the posterior corners of the mandible.
71.
are below the floor of the mouth.
Each of these 3 glands (exocrine glands) have the same function ± has at
least one duct that
.
72.
is the
, which breaks
down starch molecules to shorter chains of glucose molecules, or to
maltose, a disaccharide. P.372
73. !+
). At the junction with the stomach,
the lumen (cavity) of the esophagus is surrounded by the
(LES or
), a circular
. The LES relaxes to permit food to enter the stomach, then
contracts to prevent the backup of stomach contents. If the LES does not
close completely, gastric juice may splash up into the esophagus; this
painful condition we call heartburn, or gastroesophangeal reflux disease
(Ý3/). P. 373
74.
5 ± The nerve networks in the submucosa of the
alimentary tube layer; are called Meissner¶s plexus or submucosal plexus,
and they innervate the mucosa to regulate secretions. Parasympathetic
impulses increase secretions, whereas sympathetic impulses decrease
secretions. P. 376
5
± the autonomic nerve plexus in the submucosa of the
organs of the alimentary tube; regulates secretions of the glands in the
mucosa of these organs (aka
).
77. *
± Chief cells secrete
, an inactive form of the
enzyme pepsin. (Stomach) P. 377
*
the cells of the gastric pits of the stomach that secrete
pepsinogen, the inactive form of the digestive enzyme pepsin.
78.
± Parietal cells produce hydrochloric acid (HCl); these
cells have enzymes called proton pumps, which secrete H+ ions into the
stomach cavity. The H+ ions unite with Cl- ions that have diffused from the
parietal cells to form HCl in the lumen of the stomach. HCl converts
pepsinogen to pepsin, which then begins the digestion of proteins to
polypeptides, and also gives gastric juice its pH of 1 to 2. This very acidic
pH is necessary for pepsin to function and also kills most microorganisms
that enter the stomach. The parietal cells also secrete intrinsic factor, which
is necessary for the absorption of vitamin B12 P. 377
Parietal cells the cells of the gastric pits of the stomach that secrete
and the
. P.575
80 0
± the digestive function of bile is accomplished by bile
salts, which
fats in the small intestine. Emulsification means that
large fat globules are broken into smaller globules. This is mechanical, not
chemical, digestion; the fat is still fat but now has more surface area to
facilitate chemical digestion. P. 379 The emulsifying or fat-separating
action of bile salts increase the surface area of fats so that lipase works
effectively.
Bile salts are necessary for the efficient absorption of fatty acids and the
fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K).
81. *
± the hepatic duct unites with the cystic duct of
the gallbladder to form the common bile duct, which takes bile to the
duodenum. (Liver) P. 379
*
the duct formed by the union of the hepatic duct from
the liver and the cystic duct from the gallbladder, and joined by the main
pancreatic duct; carries bile and pancreatic juice to the duodenum. P.556
82.
± Secretion of pancreatic juice is stimulated by the hormones
secretin and cholecystokinin, which are produced by the duodenal mucosa
when chyme enters the small intestine.
stimulates the production
of bicarbonate juice by the pancreas, and
stimulates the
. P. 381
is a hormone secreted by the duodenum when food enters;
stimulates secretion of bile by the liver and secretion of bicarbonate
pancreatic juice. P.581
*
a hormone secreted by the when food
enters: stimulates contraction of the gallbladder and secretion of
pancreatic juice. P.554
84. .
6 Trypsinogen is an inactive enzyme that is changed to active
in the duodenum. Trypsin digests polypeptides to shorter chains of
amino acids. P. 379
.
is a digestive enzyme that breaks down proteins into polypeptides;
secreted by the pancreas. P.586
*
is a small fat globule formed by the small intestine from
absorbed fatty acids and glycerol. P.555
c