8.

AGRICULTURAL MANAGEMENT
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Crop Choice
8.3 Water Management at Farm Level
8.4 Tillage and Cultivation Methods
8.5 Correcting Acidity by Liming
8.6 Fertilizer Use
8.7 Crop Protection

8.1 Introduction
Before cropping commences the farmer has to make important decisions which profoundly
affect the subsequent operational management. First he has to choose the crop; the
operational requirements generally follow from this. Such operational requirements at farm
level include:
i. Water management in relation to crop moisture requirements.
ii. Tillage and land preparation.
iii. Liming or acidity control.
iv. Fertilizer use.
v. Crop protection.
This chapter covers many topics because of the intrinsic variability in organic soils, climatic
conditions, crop choice and land utilization policies. Socio-economic factors such as quality
of farm management, capital investment, land tenure and the organization of water
management in drainage, contribute to the complexity of the issues concerned. It is only
possible to highlight information which is generally applicable and useful for practical field
operations, and details relating to conditions that are found only locally in tropical peat soils
are left out. There is therefore no comprehensive discussion on specific crop requirements.
Many standard management practices used on mineral soils are also applicable to organic
soils so they are not discussed in detail. Emphasis is placed on all aspects of agricultural
management specific to conditions prevailing in organic soils.

8.2 Crop Choice

8.2.1 Choice of crop under natural drainage conditions
8.2.2 Choice of crops under improved drainage with water-table at less than 40 cm depth
8.2.3 Choice of crops assuming deep drainage

Crop choice is dependent upon many factors of which suitability of soil is but one. For most
farmers profitability is the overruling factor, but in the case of reclaimed peatswamps there
are a number of factors which influence or limit the freedom of choice and which are beyond
the control of the farmer.

In the case of large peatswamps reclaimed by a Government, or government agency, the

potential land use has been decided early in the scheme. Large-scale reclamation schemes
need careful overall planning and the control of drainage cannot be left to the individual
farmer. However, within the limits set by the controlling body it is possible to have some
influence on water control at the farm level by such means as stop boards, but generally the
margins are small. It is, therefore, the depth to which the groundwater is maintained in the
reclaimed area that largely controls and limits the choice of crop.
In cases where an individual farmer endeavours to reclaim small stretches of swamp, he has
more room for taking his own decisions. However, if his land is part of a much larger swamp
he has the moral, if not legal, obligation not to disrupt farming activities on fields lying
downstream. Such conditions are frequently found in long narrow interior valleys especially
when under private ownership. In such cases it would be sensible to look for more
participants in a concerted reclamation effort which would ensure a balanced development of
the complete swamp. It would be unwise to develop one part of the same swamp for deep
rooting crops demanding a drainage depth of say 90 cm, if on a neighbouring farm attempts
are made to keep the water level at 40 cm for pasture development. Crop choice is also
influenced by independent climatic factors and socio-economic considerations such as
marketability, which are liable to fluctuations.
Peat soils are remarkably versatile in their suitability for crop growth. They have few inherent
qualities which limit growth, although they require intensive and often costly improvement to
natural conditions to make cropping profitable. Profitability is again largely dictated by the
local economy.
Peat is a good stoneless rooting medium, it has large moisture retention capacity and hence
transplanted crops establish themselves much faster than on mineral soils. Cultivations are
easier than on mineral soil, even under exceptionally wet conditions. There are, however,
also serious limitations to cropping:
i. Waterlogged conditions, requiring drainage.
ii. Very low chemical fertility, requiring large applications of fertilizers.
iii. High acidity, requiring liming.
iv. Low trafficability, preventing intensive mechanized farming.
Most of these limitations can be remedied but sometimes only with capital investment. In
some localities improvements are economic but in others the necessary improvements are
prohibitively costly.
Most countries have already developed or should develop their own peat suitability ratings,
adapted to local conditions, taking into account the limitations mentioned and based on local
economic considerations (Chapter 6). A very general guideline, based on experience in
South East Asia, and which can be adopted elsewhere with similar conditions, is to limit
farming to peats which are less than 2 m thick. Greater thicknesses, particularly those with a
low level of management, usually have insurmountable problems. This depth requirement
can be adjusted to fit local situations and where the input levels of water control, fertilization
and crop protection are high deeper peats can be contemplated.
Although factors mentioned play an important role in crop choice, they are specific to a
locality and should be studied and evaluated for each site.
Despite this complexity of factors, it is possible to discuss crop selection by looking at the
various land use options possible under three systems of water-table management; natural
conditions, somewhat improved drainage but with shallow water-tables (less than 40 cm
depth), and with deep drainage (water-tables generally greater than 60 cm depth).

8.2.1 Choice of crop under natural drainage conditions

There is an increasing interest in developing an adapted form of agriculture which leaves the
peatswamps largely in their natural state. Crop selection is directed to finding suitable
swamp-adapted plant species of economic value. This type of farming would to a large
extent solve the problem of subsidence (Shih et al. 1982). The main crops suited to such
conditions are:
Sago
Sago (Metroxylon sagus, a smooth variety, and Metroxylon rumphii, the thorny variety) is
grown in the natural peatswamps of Sarawak and elsewhere in the Malay-Indonesian
archipelago under wild and semi-wild conditions. There is evidence that the crop could give
reasonable returns, and organized production on a large scale could be lucrative. The
produced starch can be used, as a food, by industry and as a raw material for the production
of methanol. As a result of better vegetative dry matter production per day and a longer
period of closed canopy, the sago palm is superior in potential to cassava and rice (Ahmed
and Sim 1976).
Raffia
The raffia palm (Raphia spp.) and papyrus (Cyperus papyrus), indigenous species in African
peatswamps, can be grown commercially provided that local markets are available and the
range of its industrial use can be widened.
Rice
Rice is probably the most swamp-adapted foodcrop. Wild rice (Zizania aquatica and Zizania
palustris), of which a number of varieties are commercially grown in North America, even as
far south as Florida, appears to offer good possibilities under the right climatic conditions in
natural peatswamps. This rice, famed as a gourmet accompaniment for wild duck and game,
also has a ready market as a dietary food because it is a good source of thiamine, riboflavin
and nicotinic acid (Morton et al. 1980). Wild rice needs some regulation of water-tables for
optimum growing conditions although it thrives in waterlogged conditions. Aeration of the
water is however essential and regular flooding with oxygenated water is beneficial. The
optimum pH is between 7.5 and 8.0 which excludes most tropical peats unless they occur
near a brackish water source in the fringe areas between mangroves and freshwater swamp
forest. For a number of reasons the domesticated rice (Oryza sativa) requires very good
water-table control and is therefore not suitable for peatswamps. It is discussed under the
section dealing with conditions of shallow drainage.
Wetland taro
Another starch foodcrop, wetland taro (Colocasia esculenta, var. aquatilis) has many wetland
cultivars. It is grown in and around the Pacific as well as in India and Africa in similar
locations to wetland rice. Larger plantings require field levelling, puddling by ploughing,
disking, harrowing and grading. It is also necessary to have constant water circulation to
avoid footrot. Since many tropical peatswamps, particularly in their centres, have
deoxygenized water, favourable conditions only occur near their edges where peat merges
into mineral deposits. Nutritionally taro is a better choice of crop than rice, as the amino acid
content is as high as in potatoes and the crop should be grown more widely in wetlands.
Miscellaneous crops

Water celery (Oenanthe javanica), water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica), and the Chinese
water chestnut (Eleocharis tuberosus) when grown commercially, require some expertise
and the vegetable crops are limited by location and marketability. Water chestnuts, like rice,
are grown in fields covered with 5-10 cm depth of water. Tubers can be eaten in salads and
soups, the juice has antibiotic uses and the sedge can be made into matting although it is
not very durable.
Most crops, including those mentioned above, require a plentiful supply of oxygen in the
water, and relatively eutrophic conditions for good growth. The true tropical lowland peats of
an oligotrophic nature are often not suitable and the best conditions are found in shallow
peat and in those with an appreciable amount of mineral matter.

8.2.2 Choice of crops under improved drainage with water-table at less

than 40 cm depth
Pasture
By far the greatest area of reclaimed peatswamps in temperate regions is used for pasture
and these only require the water-table to be lowered to about 40 cm depth. In the
Netherlands a water-table depth of about 40 cm has been maintained for centuries which
has minimized the rate of subsidence. The largest area of peat in the Florida Everglades is
used for pasture, particularly St Augustinegrass (Stenotaphrum secundatum). Apart from
requiring shallow drainage, grassland use does not necessitate intensive mechanization
which is characteristic of large scale vegetable growing. Pastures can be used for direct
grazing but the high water-tables lead to low surface bearing strength and pastures are
unsuited to frequent and heavy traffic. In the tropics pastures on deep oligotrophic peats
require high levels of fertilizer application and therefore the nature of the peat should be
carefully examined and likely improvements considered in the light of local economic
perspectives, before large scale pasture development is contemplated. Conditions will most
likely only be favourable in a few selected localities. The growing of fodder crops such as
Napier grass is probably locally more attractive than grazing. The careful selection of grass
species also counteracts the effects of poaching and in Florida, St Augustinegrass is used
effectively in this capacity.
Rice
Rice (Oryza sativa) has received much attention as being the crop most adapted to swamp
conditions. The cultivation of rice on true tropical peats of oligotrophic nature has a number
of drawbacks of which the most important are sterility, causing empty panicles, and the
crops dependence on good water control. Although the latter is only essential for obtaining
high yields, the former is often the cause of complete failure. The cause of sterility is not
exactly known although copper deficiency probably plays a major role and dressings of
copper can alleviate the problem. Driessen and Suhardjo (1976) suggest that copper
deficiency retards the inactivation of the toxic phenols and causes male sterility. However,
Japanese work by the Central Agricultural Experimental Station and reported upon by
Miyake (1982) indicates that the disorder is caused by harmful substances produced by
delayed and incomplete decomposition of organic materials. He postulates that disorder can
be cured by drainage improvement. Both findings may be complementary, in that it is
possible that retarded decomposition causes the formation of copper-fixing organic
compounds, and thus, by stimulating the decomposition rate by drainage, the same effect
would be obtained as a copper dressing. In both cases good management is required.
Rice fields in peatswamps where water levels are not adequately controlled may be
frequently inundated by undrained rainwater and floodwaters become too high; such periods

may be followed by periods of water shortage causing drought stresses in the crop. Rice
growing on peat, though having some potential, therefore requires good water management
involving both drainage and irrigation, and consequently level fields. The generally low or
very low fertility of the majority of tropical peats, added to the problems of water control and
sterility makes rice growing unprofitable in most countries, unless good management can be
given and well-tried adapted cultivars are used.
Vegetables
In many countries organic soils are highly regarded for vegetable growing because of their
excellent physical properties as a medium for plant growth. The choice of which vegetables
to grow is dictated by many factors some of which (climate and locality) cannot be influenced
by management. The minimum depth of water-table required for maximum yield and quality
also limits the crop choice. Depth of water-table is often standard over large areas. Table 24
and Appendix 3 give indications of vegetable crops which can be grown with shallow
drainage (water-table at less than 60 cm depth). The ultimate choice however often depends
on the demand and price.
Some tropical and sub-tropical crops such as chili, soya bean and tobacco should also be
mentioned here because their method of cultivation is comparable with that of vegetables.
They can also be grown successfully on peat soils with shallow drainage.
Where peatswamps are in areas remote from large population centres, vegetable growing is
not a commercial proposition particularly for rapidly perishable leafy vegetables. Nonperishable crops which can be stored and/or dried can often be grown profitably some
distance from a market.
Horticultural crops
In temperate regions, particularly in the Netherlands, horticultural cropping is favoured on
peat soils. Here the expansion of the horticultural industry was largely based on the excellent
qualities of the local peat soils. Sandy mineral soil, from nearby riverbanks or dunes, is often
mixed with the surface soil further improving the inherently good physical characteristics of
the peat (Hidding 1982). In Japan mineral soil dressing is also practised for wet rice
cultivation (Miyake 1982). Transplanting horticultural crops is easy and successful in peat
because of the good root balls formed by the plants. Horticulture can be profitable in the
tropics on oligotrophic peats, drained to 50 cm depth, assuming a good local market and an
adequate level of management.
Table 24 MINIMUM WATER-TABLE DEPTH FOR MAXIMUM YIELD AND QUALITY OF
CROPS GROWN ON ORGANIC SOILS (source Lucas 1982)
Crop

Florida

Indiana
(Depth in cm)

Minnesota

Beans

45-60

45

Beets (red)

71

Cabbage

45-60

66

60

Carrots

66

Celery

45

60

45

Corn

45-75

75

60

Lettuce

75-90

75

Mint

75

Onions

45-60

75

90

Potatoes

45-60

66

60

Parsley

35-40

Radish

35-40

45

Pasture-sod

30-50

45

Sugar cane

60-75

8.2.3 Choice of crops assuming deep drainage

Deep drainage is defined as greater than 60 cm depth but some crops require a depth
greater than 90 cm (Table 24 and Appendix 3).
Perennial crops
The growing of perennial crops, particularly plantation crops on tropical peats, has been
under study in Malaysia for some time (Kanapathy 1978; Tie and Kueh 1979). One of the
most difficult problems to counteract is the poor root anchorage provided by the soft peat,
especially for crops such as coconut palm (Cocos nucifera), oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) and
rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) (Plates 10 and 11) which become top-heavy when mature. Peat

subsidence, a consequence of intensive drainage, uproots the shallow-rooting trees causing

them to lean progressively and eventually topple. This problem can be partly alleviated by
using dwarf varieties. Attempts are currently underway to breed a dwarf oil palm for this
purpose (Dolmat et al. 1982).
It is only where the peat is shallow (less than 2 m thick) and contains an appreciable amount
of mineral matter that such crops are feasible. Thus deep oligotrophic peats are unsuited
because of low fertility and poor anchorage though small subsistence farmers may have
marginal success when world prices are favourable.
Fruit trees and horticulture
The yield potential of some promising perennials and previously mentioned annuals grown
on deep oligotrophic peat in South East Asia is shown in Table 25. This potential is only
realized under very good management and with high inputs of fertilizers. The economic
feasibility is therefore low.
Large-scale banana (Musa spp.) growing in the Ivory Coast with drainage at 80-100 cm
depth on acid oligotrophic coastal peat, comparable with the lowland peats of South East
Asia, indicate that yields in the first years are in the range of 25-30 t/ha but could eventually
reach a level of 35-40 t/ha. However, initial investments are higher than on other soils and
banana cultivation on peats is difficult and demands good management (Lassoudire 1976).
In general this is true for most horticultural crops grown on tropical peats. Sarawak sources
(Tie and Kueh 1979) indicate a high potential for mulberry (Morus alba) which, however,
would require the initiation of a local silk industry.
In general many fruit crops, though performing well, are plagued by bird damage, insect
pests, nematode and disease problems. Therefore, these crops also need a high level of
crop protection for success.
Food crops
Root crops require well drained conditions to prevent tuber rot and large inputs of fertilizer.
Under subsistence farming peat burning is traditionally practised to ensure adequate
potassium levels but because this exacerbates wastage it should not be encouraged.
Cassava (Manihot esculenta) or tapioca, yielding up to 50 t/ha with good management, is an
important food crop on well drained deep oligotrophic peat in the tropics.
Miscellaneous field crops
A number of perennial or semi-perennial crops are difficult to place in the categories
mentioned above. Of these pineapple (Ananas comosus) has a very good potential,
because it both flourishes in the acid conditions prevalent in peat soils, and it is relatively low
growing and not susceptible to being uprooted at maturity. The Malaysian pineapple industry
is based predominantly on deep oligotrophic peats.
Sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum) is grown successfully on the Everglade peats in Florida
and on deep coastal peats in southern states of Brazil, the latter for methanol production.
Good management and assured markets are prerequisites to the economic feasibility of
sugar cane growing.
Summary

While drained peats form an excellent growing medium for many crops it is only through the
development and employment of specific technology for each crop that the inherent potential
can be realized. In many countries the capital investment necessary for improvement is too
high and management levels too low to justify reclamation.
Table 25 YIELD OF SOME PROMISING CROPS ON PEAT IN SARAWAK AND WEST
SELANGOR, MALAYSIA (source Tie and Kueh 1979)
Common name

Botanical name

Sarawak

West Selangor

Yield (t/ha)

Pineapple

Ananas comosus

40.0 fresh fruit

40.0 fresh fruit

Tapioca (cassava)

Manihot esculenta

50.0 fresh fruit

49.0 fresh tuber

Tobacco

Nicotiana tabacum

0.7 dry leaf

1.0 dry leaf

Groundnut

Arachis hypogaea

1.0 dry seed

3.5 fresh nuts

Soya bean

Glycine max

1.5 dry seed

Cowpea

Vigna unguiculata

2.1 dry seed

Bambara groundnut

Vigna subterranea

1.5 dry seed

Sorghum

Sorghum bicolor

1.5 dry seed

2.5 dry seed

Sweet potato

Ipomoea batatas

14.0 fresh tuber

24.0 fresh tuber

Castor oil

Ricinus communis

2.5 dry seed

Ginger

Zingiber officinale

15.0 fresh rhizome

15.0 fresh rhizome

Okra

Hibiscus esculentus

6.0 fruit fruit

15.0 fresh fruit

Oil palm

Elaeis guineensis

19.0 fresh fruit bunch

Sago

Metroxylon sagus

Coffee

Coffea liberica

Annatto

Bixa orellana

Mulberry

Moms alba

6.0 dry starch

1.7 fresh berries

2.0 dry seed

13.0 fresh leaf

7.5 dry leaf

8.3 Water Management at Farm Level

8.3.1 Systems of open drains
8.3.2 Subsurface drains
8.3.3 Irrigation

The provision and maintenance of adequate water control systems in peatswamp

reclamation require two distinct types of management; one at the individual farm level and
another for the peatswamp as a whole. The latter is responsible for major constructions such
as dams, dikes, levees, canals and main ditches, whereas the farmers are usually
responsible for the construction and maintenance of farm ditches and/or field drains.
The aim of water control systems is both to provide adequate drainage for optimum crop
yield and to maintain the water-table at an optimum depth to prolong the life of the organic
soil. Initially stagnant surplus water must be drained away, thereafter the water-table should
be lowered to and maintained at a depth where crop growth becomes possible. However, the
peat should never be allowed to dry out to such an extent that irreversible drying will set in.
In tropical areas, where the climate is characterized by a pronounced dry season, drainage
facilities should be supplemented by irrigation, so that in periods of drought water levels can
be maintained at the desired height by infiltration. An adequate source of irrigation water
must therefore be available.
The reclamation of small swamps within a farm or group of farms is usually carried out by
the farmer or farmers concerned. Large swamps are usually reclaimed by public bodies. This
Bulletin describes the reclamation management required at farm level and does not describe
at length the engineering requirements for large reclamation schemes. The problems of coordinating and integrating drainage requirements of many individual farms must not be
underestimated. Further, with regard to swamp drainage on an individual basis, the effects
on groundwater levels and risk of flooding on neighbouring farms, should be borne in mind.

8.3.1 Systems of open drains

The size of open drains is related to the amount of rainfall which must be removed and the
height of the groundwater-table to be maintained. Climate, in particular rainfall, and the

lateral and vertical hydraulic conductivity of the peat are the most important criteria in
drainage design.
Generally, the nearer the water-table is held to the optimum depth for the individual crop, the
better the yield. Tie and Kueh (1979) quote recommendations for drains at 90-150 cm depth
at 100-200 m intervals together with field drains at 50-80 cm depth, placed at right angles to
the main drains at 15-30 m spacing. Tay (1969) describes a similar system used by the
Drainage and Irrigation Department of Malaysia for peat less than 1.5 m thick (Fig. 26). For
thicker peats a system of ring and feeder drains is recommended (Fig. 27). Such systems do
not allow irrigation in periods of drought. In Indonesia a system is used which allows both
drainage and irrigation by utilizing the tidal differences in water levels of the main canals
(Fig. 28). The system works as follows: during high tides water enters the canal system
backing up and raising the fresh water in the system so that parts of the land can be irrigated
by submersion. During low tides the water levels in the system fall, including the main
tertiary and field drains. Owing to the relatively long length of the system, not all of the
drainage water is discharged to the river. To catch this, water tanks are constructed at
strategic points to be filled during the next tide. This water is conveyed to the system when
the next fall in water level reaches its minimum at the bottom of the tertiary drains. In
practice, serious siltation occurs in the tanks, but where the silt load in rivers is low the
system is feasible. However, it is only through the provision of structures such as tidal gates,
sluices and pumps that good use can be made of a combined irrigation and drainage system
in coastal lowlands. As a means of water control at field level stop-boards are widely used in
tertiary drains. The height of the water-table can then be easily adjusted within limits to suit
the need of the individual crop and growing period.
Figure 26. Drainage system for relatively shallow (<1.5 m) peat (source Tay 1969)

The land is divided by main drains (1.5 m deep, 1.2 m wide) into rectangular blocks of 200 x
600 m. Within each block, secondary (1.2 m deep, 0.9 m wide) and field (0.9 m deep, 0.6 m
wide) drains are constructed.

8.3.2 Subsurface drains

In Florida an increasing use is made of corrugated plastic tubing to replace field drains. This
is easier to install than clay tiles, although it may be more expensive. Drain pipes should be
10-30 m apart depending on the permeability of the peat, the rainfall and the cropping
system. Observations of water levels at about 2 m intervals between the pipes give

information on the efficiency of the subsurface drains. These dipwells can be made out of
1.5 m long by 10 cm diameter downspouts with a stabilizing collar placed 30 cm from the top
(Lucas 1982).
The disadvantages of tile drainage are their vulnerability to silting up with either organic or
iron oxide compounds, the cost and their possible disruption by tree roots. Mole drainage is
an alternative method but its effectiveness depends on the nature of the peat. In finelydivided materials mole channels soon close up and become ineffective. An advantage of
underdrainage is that the tiles can be used to irrigate in times of drought by reversing the
direction of water flow in the main open ditches or canals, but its success depends on soil
permeability and the smoothness of the field surfaces.
Figure 27. Drainage system for deep peat (> 1.5 m) (source Tay 1969)

A large circular drain is constructed round the land with feeder drains proceeding inwards to
the centre.
Figure 28. Combined drainage and irrigation system using tidal differences (source
ESCAP 1978)

8.3.3 Irrigation
The amount of water available to plants at critical periods in their growth is crucial to
obtaining good yields. For optimum growing conditions it is therefore necessary to monitor
moisture conditions in the peat soil. Neither excess nor insufficient water should be present
in the rooting zone. This is particularly so for high-quality vegetable crops that demand large
investment of capital and labour for optimum production. The peat surface should never be
allowed to dry out and frequent watering may be necessary in dry periods. Where this
cannot be maintained manually, overhead sprinkler devices, drip irrigation or surface
flooding is necessary. Subsurface irrigation, as explained above, is generally favoured
because of low costs and there are no problems with the quality of water sources (low
alkalinity or salinity hazards). Overhead irrigation is necessary wherever fields are not level.
A great many systems, catering for many varied local conditions, are in use, each with merits
and handicaps. The factors to be considered when choosing equipment are labour costs,
ease of handling, damage to crops, water distribution patterns and field puddling. Water
used for irrigation should preferably have a conductivity of less than or 750 mmho/cm (650
ppm of salt).

8.4 Tillage and Cultivation Methods

Good tillage on peat avoids breaking down the peat particles to dust. Too much tillage leads
to wind erosion of the fine particles and rapid dessication in dry spells.
Organic soils are inherently loose structured and require little power to cultivate, although
variations occur because of the relative proportions of mineral particles and wood. Too many
wood fragments prevents good ploughing and large fragments have often to be removed by
hand. Deep ploughing is often carried out in temperate countries, particularly in the
Netherlands, to mix the peat with underlying mineral soil, frequently sand. This mixing of

sand and peat creates an excellent medium for plant growth and also increases the bearing
capacity. If the mineral subsoil is clayey it is more difficult to obtain a good mixture, but clay
admixtures have greater adsorption power for fertilizers. In Japan the system of topsoil
dressing of deep peat soils with mineral materials is well established for padi cultivation.
The physical characteristics of peat often require adjustments to conventional ploughing
equipment. Peat can be too loose for ploughing so that it is pushed by the plough rather than
inverted.
In the tropics, high wood content and hummocky peat surfaces are often the main obstacles
in preparing a good seedbed. Mechanization is difficult because of the lack of levelling
equipment and manual tillage is therefore often practiced. Perennial crops or those requiring
root stock propagation are therefore favoured by the tropical subsistence farmer rather than
crops produced from seed.
In temperate regions, farming on peat soils is highly mechanized, while in developing
countries conditions are generally unsuited to mechanized farming. Large-scale mechanized
farming is often not cost-effective on the majority of tropical peats and much of the
mechanized equipment is not discussed here.
It is common practice to plant on ridges or raised beds, particularly in the case of vegetables.
Damage from waterlogging after heavy rains coupled with inefficient drainage can be
avoided in this way. The danger of desiccation is however enhanced and in certain climates
the soil surface has to be irrigated frequently (Plate 1).
To overcome the problem of uprooting with top-heavy perennial tree crops or palms, the
crops in Malaysia are planted by the double hole, or hole-in-hole method. A hole of 1 m2 and
30 cm deep is dug in the freshly reclaimed and drained peat. Within this large hole an oil
palm seedling is planted in a normal size planting hole of 45 cm diameter and 35 cm deep.
As the surface of the peat subsides because of shrinkage and compaction, the base of the
young palm becomes level with the peat surface. By this method the impact of the first rapid
and intensive subsidence of about 40 cm in two years can be cushioned. Subsequent
subsidence is rather slow and of less significance.
There has been very little research on cultivation techniques on tropical peats, probably
because most peats appear to be economically unsuited for large-scale cultivation. The
exception is for pineapples but apart from this there has been little stimulation to research.

8.5 Correcting Acidity by Liming

8.5.1 Lime requirements
8.5.2 Materials used

The acid or very acid condition of many tropical peat soils does not suit most commercial
crops. Liming is therefore a prerequisite for most agricultural enterprises. The relationship
between acidity and base exchange characteristics in peats has been described in Section
4.2.
Many crops require a pH of over 4.5 for optimum growth. A few, such as pineapple and sago,
like the low pH of peat soils. The amount of lime required depends on the natural acidity of
the peat and the specific requirement of the crop. It is impossible to indicate here specific

lime requirements for the great variety of crops which can be grown on peat soils. However,
some general points can be made.

8.5.1 Lime requirements

Many soil testing laboratories use buffer solutions to help estimate lime requirements. Some
of these solutions are not suitable for organic soils as they were developed for mineral soil
with different exchange characteristics. Mehlich (1942) developed a suitable test using a pH
6.6 buffer containing triethanolamine, acetic acid, ammonium chloride and sodium
glycerophosphate. Liming was recommended if soil in the buffer was less than pH 5.5
(Lucas 1982). It should be added that lime recommendation also depends on the crop
grown.
Natural pH values and optimum CaCO3 content of peat for agriculture is confusing because
the type of peat is rarely given when results are discussed. The amount of lime required per
unit change of pH varies for different soils depending on exchange characteristics. The
proportion of mineral matter and the amount of exchangeable Al are both important.
Generally a pH rise of 0.1 can be achieved by thoroughly mixing 0.7 t/ha of limestone to a
depth of 15 cm. Lassoudire (1976) reports that an application of 5 t/ha of lime raised the pH
one unit in coastal peat of the Ivory Coast. Similarly in Sarawak an application of 5 t/ha
raised the pH from 5.7 to 6.6. However, the depth to which the pH increase is effective is
also important as indicated in Table 26, based on liming studies with blanket bogs in Ireland
which are chemically similar to oligotrophic peats in the tropics.
Table 26 EFFECT OF LIME AND FERTILIZER ON THE NUTRIENT STATUS OF THE SOIL
(source OToole 1968)
1

Ca, P and K as ppm in wet peat

OToole (1968) showed that generally very large amounts of limestone are required to
substantially increase the pH throughout the rooting depth. Tropical oligotrophic peats where
the pH is between 3.5 and 4.0 require at least enough lime to raise the pH one unit for most
field crops including vegetables. Corn and alfalfa need a pH of 4.6-5.0 and onions require a
pH of at least 4.3. In Sarawak, Tie and Kueh (1979) indicate that maize, groundnut and
tapioca (cassava), grown on peat limed to a pH of 4.6, yielded significantly better than crops
grown on unlimed peat of pH 3.2.
Several factors modify the critical pH for good plant growth, including the crop sensitivity to
active calcium content. In general, organic soils with low Fe and Al contents can have an
optimum pH value as low as 4.5 for certain crops, whereas peat soils containing appreciable
amounts of Fe and Al have an optimum pH value approaching 5.0 for the same crops.
Liming to neutral state is expensive and unnecessary. It may affect the availability of trace
elements and over-liming may influence denitrification, producing toxic levels of nitratenitrogen. OToole (1968) showed that where an adequate supply of nitrogen fertilizer is
applied to pasture the pH can be maintained at lower levels than where no applications are
given. The influence of liming on the dry matter output of a mixed grass-clover sward is
shown in Figure 29. Comparison with data in Table 26 illustrates that the best results are
obtained when 2.5 t/ha of calcium carbonate is applied which raises the pH to 4.8.
Figure 29. Effect of calcium carbonate on dry matter output from a surface seeded
grass-clover sward (source OToole 1968)

Liming an acid peat to a pH of over 5.2 appreciably depresses the phosphate recovery and
large quantities of calcium, and in the case of dolomite application also magnesium, may
interfere with the absorption of potassium by the plants. It is sometimes alleged that liming
increases the rate of decomposition of peat but the results of research give variable results
and are inconclusive. The type of peat probably plays an important role (section 7.3;
subsidence).
Tie and Kueh (1979) give general recommendations for liming deep oligotrophic lowland
peats of South East Asia based on the work of several researchers in Malaysia. They
indicate that pineapple and sago need no liming, as does tapioca (cassava) if the initial pH is
above 4.0 but at pH 3.5 and below, 5.0-7.5 t/ha of ground dolomite is recommended. Most
other crops, like sweet potato, maize, groundnut, soya bean, sorghum, coffee and napier
grass require between 5 and 10 t/ha of ground dolomite. This order of application is very
costly, particularly as to maintain the pH at the required level necessitates an annual
application of about 1.25 t/ha.
In many cases, therefore, liming is a prerequisite for profitable farming. The optimum pH
values and rates of application to achieve this vary considerably from crop to crop and
between different types of peat. When assessing adequate levels of liming local
experimentation is important as optimum pH levels are partly dependent on local economic
factors.

8.5.2 Materials used

There are two main materials used for liming; limestone, which is relatively pure CaCO 3 with
less than 1 percent MgO, and dolomite, a CaCO3 and MgCO3 mixture containing over 15
percent MgO. The pure materials act faster to raise the pH than the dolomitic ones though
the latter supply magnesium which is deficient in many peats. Proximity to source and
transport costs of these bulky materials often determine the local choice of materials.
Occasionally marl, which usually has admixtures of mineral material, and coral lime are used
locally. In all cases to be effective, the limestone and related materials need to be finely
ground to pass through a 100 mesh sieve.
Lime when applied to peat soils is relatively immobile and a thorough mixing to the required
depth is therefore important. This is laborious to achieve manually and even with
mechanized means several diskings will be necessary. In the tropics, the low level of
mechanization leads to inefficient liming at the field scale. Where deep mixing is necessary,
split applications can be given, one half ploughed under, the other top dressed after
ploughing. Split applications also allow the use of both pure and dolomitic limestone.

8.6 Fertilizer Use

8.6.1 Introduction
8.6.2 Burning
8.6.3 Basic principles
8.6.4 Nitrogen requirements
8.6.5 Phosphorus requirements
8.6.6 Potassium requirements
8.6.7 Calcium and magnesium requirements
8.6.8 Micro-nutrients or trace element requirements
8.6.9 Conclusions

8.6.1 Introduction
One of the most important factors that has prevented large scale use of peat soils in the
tropics is the very low chemical fertility. Oligotrophic peats, which areally are the most
important in the tropics, are inherently poor in all plant nutrients. Eutrophic or mesotrophic
peats, which are locally important, contain more nutrients than oligotrophic peats but they
also need manuring or artificial fertilizers for commercial farming. This section concentrates
on oligotrophic peats since their nutrient requirements have been studied in the tropics,
particularly in Malaysia and Indonesia.
Studies of the chemical fertility and nutrient deficiencies of peats have received more
attention than either the more important physical changes of peat soils upon drainage, and
the water management of drained peats. Nutrient deficiencies are easier to remedy than
some of the detrimental physical changes caused by reclamation. The interest in the nutrient
requirements of peats probably reflects the parallel interest in the case of mineral soils
where it is often the most important constraint to improvement.

8.6.2 Burning
Reclaimers and settlers of peatswamps realized the importance of fertilization of peat soils
from the beginning. They initially fertilized by burning the peat, and this practice survives
among traditional farmers employed in shifting cultivation. Kanapathy (1976 and 1977) has
shown that burning is beneficial in increasing the pH value from 3.5 to occasionally over 5
which is desirable for food crops such as maize. Burning also adds potassium to the soil and
changes unavailable phosphorus, stored in the organic compounds of the peat, into
available forms.
Other added benefits of burning include the increase in rate of decomposition caused by the
rise in pH, producing an increase in nitrogen stored in the peat. Polak and Supraptohardjo
(1951) demonstrated that heating peat to between 105 and 128C produced a flux of
ammonia, to which maize showed a marked response. Finally, burning releases copper
compounds, usually fixed in peat, causing these soils to be frequently deficient in copper for
most crops.
The beneficial effects of peat burning are, however, short-lived and after only two years
another burn is needed to support cropping. Regular burning leads to a rapid lowering of the
peat surface, causing problems of waterlogging and often ultimately to abandoning
agricultural activities. Where sustained agriculture is the aim, burning should be stopped,
though at present it is often the only means available for the poor traditional farmer to
maintain his subsistence agriculture. The regular use of fertilizer is the only way to sustain
agriculture on these soils but ultimately however the peat will disappear (Chapter 7).

8.6.3 Basic principles

Each crop has individual nutrient requirements and it is therefore difficult to discuss specific
details. Instead an attempt is made to provide general fertilizer guidelines and principles for
peat soils. Rates of fertilizer-use depend on both the cropping and type of peat present.
Where there is no local research work available, the peat type needs to be identified and the
specific requirements of the crop reviewed. Then it is possible to apply the results of
research work done elsewhere to the local circumstances.
Most information on fertilizer-use on tropical peats has either been carried out in the
Everglades, Florida (eutrophic and mesotrophic peats), or on the oligotrophic coastal peats

of Malaysia and Indonesia. Basic research on oligotrophic peats in temperate climates,

particularly that on nitrogen, can also be applied to tropical peats.
Admixtures of mineral material, which can be up to 50 percent of organic soils (Histosols)
can have profound effects on the behaviour of peat soils. Extrapolation of research findings,
particularly on fertility status, should never be attempted if the research results are not
accompanied by an accurate analysis of the soils in question.

8.6.4 Nitrogen requirements

The nitrogen status of peat soils is discussed in section 4.2, where it is shown that the total
nitrogen content ranges widely because of differences in both the nature of peats and their
decomposition rate. Generally, total N contents are high when compared with mineral soil.
However, the amount of N available to the plant is important. While available N is indirectly
determined by factors influencing the total N content other factors such as temperature,
moisture, aeration and acidity play a role. The latter three affect the activity of soil organisms
responsible for the breakdown of the organic compounds. The effect on soil N of liming Irish
blanket bog soils decreased after a short time (OToole 1968). Chew et al. (1976a and b), in
a study of the effect on nitrogen of liming oligotrophic peats under napier grass in Malaya,
discovered an almost identical decrease in response to liming in the uptake of soil N. The
availability of N is also affected in time by liming. This is because the easily decomposed
nitrogenous components of the peats are mineralized first and relatively quickly after liming,
leaving the less easily decomposed forms of organic N (Hardon and Polak 1941). Liming has
the primary effect of raising the pH and any other effect on nitrogen liberation may be shortlived.
The carbon/nitrogen (C/N) ratio of peat is important in assessing the available N content. In
tropical organic materials C/N values lower than 16 are commonly regarded as indicative of
soils where nitrogen stress will form a constraint to crop growth. However, temperature also
plays a role. In temperate or colder regions available N varies with the season because of
changing microbial activity.
Available N content is also considerably influenced by drainage depth. In the Netherlands a
drainage depth of 50 cm requires N-fertilization for good pasture growth whereas this is not
necessary with deeper drainage. Likewise trials in the USA also indicated that no response
to N fertilizer was found with deep drainage as opposed to a 10-67 percent yield increase,
dependent on crop type, experienced when shallow drainage is practised (Table 27).
It should be noted that nitrification proceeds rapidly under high temperatures and nitrite
poisoning may affect forage crops. These, when consumed by ruminants, may in turn be
responsible for nitrite poisoning and death of the animals.
Table 27 AVERAGE YIELD RESPONSE TO NITROGEN DRESSINGS ACCORDING TO
DEPTH OF WATER-TABLE (source Lucas 1982)

Crop

Corn

Years in
test

Water-table at 40
cm

% Yield increase Water-table at

60 cm

Water-table at 80
cm

43

Potatoes

67

Onions

23

Peppermint

10

General recommendations for the application of the nitrogen on peat soils to fit all conditions
are difficult to give. Rates in the USA vary from 0-200 kg/ha. Generally more emphasis is
given to phosphorus and potassium fertilization.
From experimental work in Malaysia and Indonesia on many crops, it is agreed that nitrogen
is required in quantity by all crops except legumes. A range of rates are specified but Tie and
Kueh (1979) give the following rates of nitrogen application for oligotrophic lowland peats of
South East Asia:
Vegetables including long beans, French beans, green pepper and chilli - 280 to 560 kg/ha,
cucumber - 560 kg/ha.
Soya bean, groundnut and cowpea - 45 to 78 kg/ha.
Maize - 180 kg/ha (on shallow peat with 20 percent mineral matter).
Tapioca - 200 kg/ha.
Tobacco - 140 kg/ha.
Pineapple - 280 to 420 kg/ha (depending on variety).
Oil palm appears to be negatively affected if ammonium sulphate is applied in dressings
greater than 5 kg per tree. This quantity would also stimulate a high uptake of phosphate
which is detrimental to the plant (Kanapathy 1978).
Cattle manure or slurry is traditionally used as a fertilizer on pastures in the Netherlands. In
Japan the application of farmyard manure or compost appears beneficial (Miyake 1982). In
general, rice on peat soils receives rates of 40 kg/ha of nitrogen as it is assumed that the
fertilizer acts as a starter in the initial growth stage and that large amounts of ammonium
nitrogen will be released from the peat under submerged conditions (Miyake 1982).
In conclusion, the application of nitrogen fertilizers to crops grown on peat is dependent on a
great many variable factors. For each situation and type of peat rates should be carefully
assessed by trial. However, it is important to note that, without adequate nitrogen the
response to other supplied elements will be small. This is particularly the case with
oligotrophic peats.

8.6.5 Phosphorus requirements

The total phosphorus (P) content of tropical peat is generally low, but as is the case with
nitrogen, we are more concerned with its availability. In oligotrophic peats in the tropics,
available phosphorus content is generally larger than in upland soils. This is mainly caused
by the low phosphate fixation experienced in these peats due to very low levels of Al and Fe.
Most phosphorus is present in the organic form and upon mineralization this becomes
readily available. Peats which have been drained and farmed for some time may
increasingly develop phosphate-fixing powers upon decomposition, because of a relative
accumulation of Al and Fe compounds in the mineral admixture. For this reason added
phosphate may become partly fixed.
Available phosphorus values in peat soils are difficult to determine. This is an analytical
problem inherent to the characteristics of organic soils. It is important to realize that each
type of peat may require its own specific interpretation dependent on the extraction method
used. The experience with oligotrophic peats in South East Asia indicates that phosphate
requirements for most crops are not high. There can be considerable difference between
deep and shallow peats. Perennials planted on peats less than 1 m thick may find their
phosphorus source in the mineral subsoil. Type and depth of peat are therefore important
variables.
General recommendations are again difficult to make because of the large variability in
conditions and crop demand, for example, pineapple requires less than one tenth of the
amount of phosphorus than it requires of nitrogen that is 14-28 kg/ha. Tapioca one quarter of
the demand for nitrogen, thus 50 kg/ha, whereas vegetables require more than half the
nitrogen requirement. Table 28 gives the general phosphorus recommendations used for
organic soils in the USA.
Table 28 PHOSPHORUS FERTILIZER RECOMMENDATIONS FOR A RANGE OF CROPS
BASED ON AVAILABLE SOIL PHOSPHORUS (source Lucas 1968)

ppm of available soil phosphorus 1

Phosphorus recommended
(kg/ha)

112

10

90

10

20

67

20

30

45

10

30

40

34

10

20

40

50

22

20

30

50+

60+

17

30+

40+

Blueberry

Alfalfa

Cabbage

Broccoli

Buckwheat

Asparagus

Carrot

Cauliflower

Clover

Barley

Cucumber

Celery

Grass

Bean

Endive

Onion

Oat

Corn

Lettuce

Tomato

Rye

Mint

Parsnip

Soya bean

Pea

Potato

Pasture

Radish

Pumpkin

Sudan grass

Spinach

Turnip

Sugar beet

Wheat

Table beet

11

Extracted with 0.018-N-acetic acid, using one part air dried soil (by weight) with 10 parts of
extracting solution
1

8.6.6 Potassium requirements

Most peat soils, particularly the oligotrophic types, are deficient in potassium (K). While
much of the K found in peat soils is readily available, once it is used up, K deficiency
becomes severe. Traditional subsistence farmers try to supply the required potassium for
food cropping by burning. As is the case with nitrogen, insufficient drainage affects

potassium uptake. Shallow drainage aggravates the deficiency, and responses to K fertilizer
are good. Experience in temperate climates with most crops grown on peat soils indicates
that potassium is the most important nutrient for crop production.
There are a number of important properties of potassium in relation to organic soils:
i. K fixation, which is noticeable in many mineral soils, is absent.
ii. Peat soils, although having a high cation exchange capacity, do not readily adsorb
exchangeable K.
iii. A large proportion of the total available K is always present in the soil solution and is
therefore strongly mobile and prone to leaching. Losses therefore, can be substantial
particularly under waterlogged conditions.
It appears unwise to try to build up the K content of a soil by saturating the exchange
complex as is often practised in mineral soils. In tropical peats, with high rainfall, potassium
will be strongly leached. Tests for potassium requirement are therefore difficult, since
potassium mobility appears to be much greater when high rates of K are applied to soils that
test high in potassium. Fertilizer recommendations based upon soil tests must be modified to
correct leaching, heavy rainfall or flood conditions. Some recommendations for vegetables
on USA peat soils are given in Table 29.
Table 29 POTASSIUM FERTILIZER RECOMMENDATIONS FOR A RANGE OF CROPS
BASED ON AVAILABLE SOIL POTASSIUM (source Lucas 1968)

ppm of available soil potassium 1

Potassium recommended
(kg/ha)

80

560

200

448

80

320

359

80

160

440

269

80

200

300

580

179

50

200

300

410

690

112

150

285

390

490

780

67

250

345

450

550

840

34

300

400

500

600

900

Barley

Bean

Alfalfa

Broccoli

Blueberry

Clover

Asparagus

Cauliflower

Grass

Corn

Cabbage

Onion

Oat

Mint

Carrot

Potato

Rye

Pea

Cucumber

Sugar beet

Pasture

Soya bean

Lettuce

Table beet

Wheat

Sudan grass

Parsnip

Tomato

Sweet corn

Radish

Turnip

Spinach

Celery

Extracted with 1-N-neutral ammonium acetate (1 part soil to 20 parts extract)

It should be noted that potassium requirements in temperate regions vary considerably with
the crop. This is also the case in tropical crops, of which, particularly, tobacco, pineapple and
legumes are highly demanding, and frequently in excess of nitrogen requirements.
Because of the high potassium content in both the ash from fruit bunches of oil palm and
from plant debris of crops such as sugar cane, it is good practice to return these materials to
the land as a source of potassium fertilizer. Such materials also raise the pH. The liberal use
of dolomitic limestone for correcting acidity increases the need for potassium to counteract
the effect of high levels of magnesium. In such cases purer forms of limestone should, if
possible, be used for liming.

8.6.7 Calcium and magnesium requirements

Usually, calcium and magnesium are not deficient in tropical peats. Calcium deficiency is
unlikely wherever the total Ca exceeds 0.5 percent. However, high levels of K, Na and/or
NH4 can induce Ca and Mg deficiencies. The Ca/Mg ratio can also influence deficiency, and
even when the lower threshold value of 0.5 percent is surpassed, calcium deficiency can still
develop. In coastal peats of South East Asia, where the magnesium contents are relatively
high, this aspect is particularly important.
Experimental evidence indicates that the benefits from liming are more a result of the
increase in pH and the de-acidifying effects of this than to rectification of any calcium or
magnesium deficiencies. This is certainly the case with maize which requires a much higher
pH than the usual value of 3.5 found in tropical oligotrophic peats. The relative growth of
maize is therefore not a good indicator of the nutrient status of organic soils, although it is
often used as such for mineral soils. Lim et al. (1973) advocate the use of grasses as
indicators of nutrient status in organic soils though grasses can be insensitive to deficiencies
in micro-nutrients.

8.6.8 Micro-nutrients or trace element requirements

Copper, iron, boron, manganese, molybdenum and zinc have been shown to be deficient in
organic soils for many crops.
Copper
Copper (Cu) deficiency, especially in cereals, has been reported to occur on peat soils
throughout the world and tropical peats are no exception. The reclamation disease found in
oats and rye grown on freshly reclaimed peat soils in Germany and the Netherlands in the
late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries is well known. A similar failure to produce grains
was found to occur in Indonesia and Malaysia (Polak 1941; Coulter 1957; Driessen and
Sudewo 1977). Remarkably, only wet rice appeared to be affected and not dry rice. The
cause of sterility is still not fully understood. Driessen and Sudewo (1977) tentatively
attribute it to the presence of certain organic compounds, notably polyphenolic lignin
degradation products, which hinder directly or indirectly (through copper fixation) one or
more essential enzyme-catalyzed carbohydrate transformations. The fact that dry rice seems
to be unaffected even when growing on the same peat on which wet rice shows severe
deficiency, coupled with findings from Japan where drainage tends to cure the sterility
(Miyake 1982), may indicate that wet conditions somehow appear to be related to the
release of such toxic organic compounds. Ennis and Brogan (1968), have shown that humic
acids are likely toxic compounds.
In Malaysia, other crops as well as cereals, are prone to copper deficiencies; notably oil
palm, sugar cane, tapioca and coconut (Kanapathy and Keat 1970). Green die-back
commonly encountered in pineapple appears to be caused by Cu deficiency. The different
response of plants to Cu is associated with the type of enzyme in the plant. Cereals respond
to Cu because of the ascorbic acid oxydase which requires Cu in order to function in
photosynthesis, whereas in forage crops the relationship between Cu and molybdenum
content is important for livestock feeding. Molybdenum is taken up in toxic amounts when
the Cu content is low and the molybdenum is higher than 3.0 ppm.
It is difficult to assess the need for copper by soil analysis. Much depends on the method of
extraction and total copper values are poor indicators. The need for copper can be predicted,
to an extent, by the Cu content of the foliage. Under deficient conditions the content of the
plant is usually less than 6 ppm (Lucas 1982).

Copper deficiency can be corrected by several copper compounds but copper oxide and
copper sulphate are mainly used in agriculture. Lucas (1982) recommends the use of about
10 kg/ha for low- and medium-response crops and 20 kg/ha for highly responsive crops.
Oligotrophic peats in the tropics require larger quantities up to 35 kg/ha but this dosage will
last for at least 5 years as the residual effect is good. The best method of application for wet
rice is uncertain. Spraying of Bordeaux mixture (CuSO4-solution) in the generative phase of
the wet rice is however promising.
Iron
Iron (Fe) deficiencies arise in peats with a notably low Fe content. Its occurrence appears to
depend partly on the crop. In many wet mineral soils Fe-content can become excessive due
to reducing conditions but generally the oligotrophic peats in the tropics are so low in iron,
particularly the centres of the peat domes, that iron deficiency is common in a range of crops
including pepper, coffee, tapioca, grasses and legumes. Severe chlorosis is the common
symptom. Iron deficiency can be overcome easily by foliar sprays of ferrous sulphate
solution (0.5-1.5 percent w/w). Drilled iron sulphate at the rate of 50-100 kg/ha prevents
chlorosis in cereal crops (Lucas 1982).
Boron
Boron (B) deficiency occurs in both alkaline and acid peats. It is commonly found in highly
sensitive temperate vegetables such as cauliflower, beet and celery, but in the tropics boron
deficiency is not so common. Alfalfa appears to be affected as also does oil palm and boron
deficiency has been noticed in coffee (Tie and Kueh 1979). Deficiencies can easily be
corrected by foliar sprays (sodium borate) of not more than 0.1-0.4 kg/ha of boron. Soil
application of tetraborate effectively controls boron deficiency in oil palm.
Manganese
Manganese (Mn) deficiency in tropical peats is rare, because it very much depends on soil
reaction. It is usually found only in eutrophic peats with a pH of over 5.5. Most tropical peats
are oligotrophic, with a pH of less than 4.5, and frequently 3.5. Generally, manganese
deficiency will therefore only occur after heavy liming. If this happens, it is easily corrected
by applying manganese bearing materials as a foliar spray or mixed with other nutrients and
broadcast at rates not exceeding 5 kg/ha of manganese. Another option is to acidify the soil
with a sulphur compound.
Molybdenum
Molybdenum (Mo) deficiency is associated with soils of low pH (less than 5.5). Soils rich in
free oxides are often deficient in available molybdenum. There are no reports on
molybdenum deficiency on tropical peats in the literature studied. This may reflect the facts
that tropical peats are commonly low in Fe and crops usually grown on peat soils are not
Molybdenum-sensitive.
Zinc
Zinc deficiency is normally only apparent in soils with a pH greater than 6.5 or on peat soils
which have been heavily limed. Large applications of phosphorus fertilizer and poor drainage
can also induce zinc deficiency. As is the case with molybdenum there is no evidence that
zinc deficiency is a problem in tropical peats.

8.6.9 Conclusions
Trace element requirements are most pronounced for copper (nearly always) and iron
(frequently). Although levels of other trace elements present few problems there is little
detailed information and it is possible that, when more tropical peat is brought under
cultivation and the crop range is extended, deficiencies not observed at present may
develop. The likelihood of such development will depend largely on liming practices and
fertilizer use. Over-liming should be avoided, a pH of 4.5-5.0 is adequate for most crops.
Nitrogen and phosphorus applications should not be excessive.

8.7 Crop Protection

8.7.1 Weed control
8.7.2 Pest and disease control

8.7.1 Weed control

Weeds enjoy the excellent growing conditions in peat soils and their abundance is a
nuisance, particularly in freshly reclaimed peats. Weeds compete for space, light, moisture
and nutrients and also act as hosts for pathogens, insects and nematodes. They reduce the
quality and yield of crops and interfere with harvesting. Weed control therefore needs
attention.
In temperate regions weeds are removed either mechanically or by herbicides. Manual
removal is costly, but in some cases it is necessary because either the crop is too dense to
allow machinery or herbicides affect the quality of the crop. This is particularly the case with
vegetable growing where yields of leafy vegetables may be affected by broadleaf
weedkillers. Some of the most effective weedkillers are highly toxic which influences not only
the crops grown but also the broader environment. Peat absorbs chemicals readily and
undesirable toxicity can accumulate. The choice of effective weed controls is thus very much
for the individual farm manger to decide, because the economics of each particular
technique depends on local conditions and crop.
In the tropics heavy weed infestation is also common. Wee, quoted by Tie and Kueh (1979),
reports that weed infestation of pineapples on peat soils in Malaya decrease yields by 20-40
percent. For non-vegetable crops many weedkillers are effective but their use is often limited
by economics. Crops on organic soils require larger applications of chemicals than those on
mineral soils (2 to 3 times the amount given on mineral soils is not uncommon). The choice
of the herbicide is important because many are short-lived. Pre-emergence types are more
effective than incorporative ones.
In most tropical countries, even in Malaysia where labour costs are relatively high, it is still
cheaper to carry out weed control by hand than by other means.

8.7.2 Pest and disease control

The control of soil-borne pests and diseases is particularly desirable on peat soils. In their
natural state organic soils usually have low populations of anaerobic micro-organisms
tolerant of the inherent acid conditions. Once the soils are drained, limed and fertilized an
excellent medium is created for the rapid spread of new soil fauna and flora. Tie and Kueh

(1979) indicate that many crops in the South East Asian peats are affected by fungal collar
rot, root rot, white root and serious nematode attack. Bacterial wilt is common in crops such
as chilli, tomato and ginger.
There are several methods of controlling soil-borne diseases and pests. Fumigation and
sterilization by gasses or steaming are used in the Netherlands in intensive systems of
horticultural cropping (vegetables, potplants and flowers). High costs are a disadvantage and
steaming and some fumigants such as dichloropropene, methyl bromide, methyl
isothiocyanate and chloropicrin destroy a large proportion of the soil micro-organisms
responsible for supplying available nitrogen to the plant. More nitrifying bacteria are killed
than the ammonifiers and therefore a build up of ammonia can occur after fumigation, which
retards some crops, particularly vegetables.
Crop rotation, including a clean fallow, can be effectively used against soil-borne pests such
as nematodes. The use of flooding to combat soil pests was studied in Florida (Genung
1976) with remarkably good results. Table 30 illustrates the effect flooding had on important
arthropods and oligochaetes. Both prolonged clean fallow and flooding caused evident
reductions of populations of all the organisms including such predatory forms as Carabidae,
Dermaptera, Formicidae and Chilopoda. Flooding under the 4-2-4 weeks alternation shows a
much larger reduction of both soil pests and predators as well as oligochaetes than did
either of two clean fallow treatments.
The key factor in controlling pests by flooding appears to be the length of inundation. Soilborne pests and diseases in tropical peats can probably be effectively controlled by flooding.
Water control is one of the most important aspects of the agricultural management of peat
soils and it is therefore often possible to artificially create floods to control pests. It is
relatively cheap, highly effective, also eradicates some weeds, and unlike fallow systems no
land has to be taken out of production.
Table 30 INFLUENCE OF FLOODING AND CLEAN FALLOW ON ERADICATION OF
MAJOR SOIL-BORNE PESTS (source Genung 1976)

CWW = Corn wireworm

CW = Cutworms

Cbd. = Carabidae

Swbg. = Sowbugs

SPWW = Sou. potato

wireworm

Cyd. = Cydniade

Dmpa. =
Dermaptera

Pred. Dip. =
Predatory Diptera

W.Gbs. = White grubs

Ten.
= Tenebrionidae

Cent. = Centipedes Olig. = Oligochaetes

White grub (Bothynus subtropicus Blatchley) mortality percentages under simulated

flooding in a replicated and randomized laboratory trial was as follows: 0 hrs flooded (check)
5%, 24 hrs flooded 7.5%, 48 hrs flooded 25%, 72 hrs flooded 65%, 96 hrs flooded 95%
1