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Quality Assurance in Education

Successful Approaches for Improving Quality


in schools, colleges and universities
Kamran Moosa

Introduction
It is not just the quantity but the quality of education which leads a country to rapid growth and
industrialization. In other words, it is not about just the output but about the Outcome of schools,
colleges and universities. The number of graduating students is the output, while the quality of graduates
is the outcome. Quality Assurance (QA) is an important and organized discipline for the academia, as
well as planners and government to ensure appropriate outcome of educational institutions. This is
carried out at two levels. External QA (also called accreditation) is carried out by regulatory/professional
bodies at the national/provincial level to ensure the minimum performance level of educational programs
and institutions. It must be independent and unbiased. The other level, Internal QA, is an internal and
integral part of the institutions administration and management systems. It implements a set of policies,
programs and procedures set-up by an institution to provide confidence and transparency in their
outcomes related to their graduates, teachers, exams, and infra-structure. QA in education does not focus
just on the academic performance, but also on the social and national outcomes. In many countries, the
Quality of Education is not being addressed properly. As a result quality deteriorates at the country level.
This paper identifies and focuses on the fundamental concepts of Quality Assurance and Management in
Education. It is divided into four parts: (1) Objectives of Education and Quality (2) Learning Levels and
Academic Standards (3) Quality Issues in the Basic Education Processes (4) Management of Institutions,
and finally (5) Conclusions and Recommendations

1. Objectives of Education and Quality


The QA framework of any institution is derived from its objectives. Therefore, the right objectives of
education must be set, both at the national as well as institution levels, before designing the QA
framework. The QA framework must try to achieve excellence in these objectives. These objectives may
broadly be classified into the following three categories:

1. Social Excellence. Social norms are the foundation of a countrys culture and provides longevity to
its social values. Many religions and/or political systems attempt to provide such norms. Different
groups/countries have chosen different models for their community affairs and ethics, e.g. Islamic
ethics, Christian Ethics, Hindu Ethics, socialism, etc. The believers of these religions derive their
social norms from their religions.
Many countries measure the social outcome of their institutions at the country levels. Some of the
social performance of the US schools are measured as follows (Ref: Strategic Education Plan of the
USA for 2002-2007 - USA Dept. of Education).:

1. The number of violent crimes experienced at school by students ages 12 through 18 years in the
USA in 2000 = 884,100
2. The number of serious violent crimes experienced at school by students ages 12 through 18 years
in 2000 = 185,000. (Serious violent crime includes rape, sexual assault, robbery, and aggravated
assault.)
3. Drug Use in school by students age 12-17 years: Alcohol = 16%,
Cigarettes = 13%, Marijuana = 7%
4. Percentage of 14-18 years old who believe cheating occurs by half or most students in 2002 =
40%
2. National Excellence. Unity and integrity among the countrymen cannot be taken for granted. It
must be designed, developed and groomed through the educational processes. It can easily be lost
with unplanned and borrowed literature of other countries. For this to be a strong objective, every
mean must be used, including education, media, and the law. The subject of Social Studies taught in
schools is specifically designed to achieve this goad. These values are also normally imbedded in
many other subjects, like Literature. Similarly, many extra-curricular activities are also designed to
achieve this goal, e.g. the morning assembly in schools, the national anthem in all public functions,
national integrity in classes, defense training in schools and colleges, etc. For example, the national
educational policy of Japan focuses on the development of nationalist and ethical Japanese
irrespective of the level, type, or location of education. The Japanese design every curriculum to
ensure this and arrange various activities, e.g. preparedness and readiness for any national disaster
through effective practical training in the courses and an annual day to prove this. Control over
curriculum, national dress, national language, and the right historical perspectives in books, is an allimportant factor to perpetuate the society in the right direction for the right objectives. Most countries
in the West do not encourage books printed in other countries to be used in their schools. One of the
liberal curriculum policies on the rise in some countries is to adopt books from some western
countries in order to raise the level of quality of education in schools/colleges. Although these may
fulfil academic objective in some cases, there are numerous reported cases where these books provide
cultures, heroes, and stories of ethics, which are in total contradiction to local social values and
national integrity of the other country. This includes concepts and stories like drinking bear/liquor as
a heroic act, elimination of local heroes and projection of foreign heroes. All such introductions
generate inferiority complex in people of that country and weaken their nationalism.
3. Academic Excellence. This focuses around academic outcome, i.e. results of academic learning.
This is creation of the right capabilities of the subject matter/discipline, e.g. engineering, medicine,
chemistry etc. Its quality is usually measured by many indicators, including but not limited to
Student Grades. Other measures also include Industry Feedbacks, Employability, Career Progression,
Job Retention Rates, Accessibility, Affordability, and fulfilment of National Economic and Defence
Priorities, etc. University Degrees without ensuring such measures will create an unstable educational
infrastructure in the country. Excellence in Professional education implies relevant and particular set
of knowledge, skills and capabilities that are required by the employers of that country.
QA function for the objective of Academic Excellence includes activities like: employers needs
analysis, designing needs-based courses and academic standards focusing on Application, practical
orientations in schools, research in colleges/universities that leads to the development of industrial
and national requirements, systems which measure the quality and performance of education (both at
an institution and the country levels), process control of the teaching and learning activities to ensure
the quality of faculty, curriculum, students, teaching environment, and placing a system of customer
satisfaction, etc.

Ibn-e-Khaldoon (one of the greatest Sociologists and Anthropologists ever produced by the world) in
his Muqaddimah talks in detail about the habits of those nations which have been ruled by bigger
powers. They all, as he explains, get into a state of inferiority complex due to being ruled by foreign
power. In a quest to come out of any type of slavery, they (the nations being ruled) start adopting the
habits of the rulers. The things they adopt immediately and for long terms are their language, dress,
and social norms (marriages, eating, etc.). He concludes that even after hundreds of years of such
imitation, nations remain under occupation, as none of these were the true reasons to become a
developed and powerful nation. He further studied the powerful nations who dominate as rulers and
described that they differentiate between Knowledge, Skills and Language (which the slave nations
do not). The powerful nations who rule are too selective and concerned for pursuit of mastery over
language, knowledge and industrial skills. He explains that specialized and high quality industrial
knowledge and abundance in skills always drive the industry in the country. This wide industrial
development subsequently uplifts the military power of that country. The military power, no matter
who has it, is always in search of weaker nations as bigger fish eat the smaller ones.
Theoretically, most people usually know and agree (to some degree) with these objectives. The problem
is not with the identification of the objectives and a philosophical discussion on them, but with the
processes which try to achieve them. These processes are not mature enough or are absent all together to
achieve the desired objectives. Every country usually define such objectives in their policy documents
or constitutions, but very few have a system on ground for measuring these objectives through clear
metrices. Furthermore, schools and universities need to be accountable to public for these objectives.
Are the schools, colleges, universities, and madaris producing products that fulfil these objectives? Is
there any mechanism to measure and control their quality, both within and outside the institution? QA is
a set of management activities, which tries to address these questions.
It is therefore important for every institution, board, accreditation body, and government organization
dealing with education to clearly define and lay the foundation of establishing the relevant objectives, as
well as to develop mechanisms for their measurement, control and improvement. Institutions and
government organizations involved in education must all be accountable to the public for achieving such
objectives.

2. Learning Levels, Academic Standards and Performance Measures


Teaching by itself is not and must never end in itself. It must ensure appropriate learning. Before any
Quality Assurance framework is established, it is important to establish the required LEARNING
OUTCOME the quality of the output of the institution . Blooms Taxonomy (Bloom B., Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives, 1956) provides six levels of learning, which should be used for setting standards
in every educational institution. They are in an increasing order of difficulty:
1. Knowledge: recognizing, memorizing and recalling facts/information. The types of questions
asked for this level in exams normally starts with: define, describe, state, etc. For example
define what is a cell
2. Comprehension: This involves understanding and thinking the intend and objectivity of meaning
. The types of questions for this level normally starts with: explain, summarize, generalize, give
reason for etc. For example explain the difference between cell and muscle.
3. Application: The student is able to apply/use the subject in a particular and practical situations.
It involves problem solving to produce some results. Practical habits are formed. Question asked
for this level normally start with: how, why, solve, modify, develop, demonstrate, etc. For
example: how much money you will pay to the shopkeeper if you buy 6 pencils, where each
pencil costs Rs 3?.
4. Analysis: The learner is able to break down an information/idea into its principal parts so that its
organizational structure may be understood. Its questions starts with: give classification of..,

compare and contrast, outline, distinguish, compare, etc: for example what are the main
elements of organizational culture?.
5. Synthesis: Being able to modify, adapt or create a subject to fit into different situations and
conditions, or to deduce new propositions from a set of basic propositions. Questions of this level
are: how would you design the marketing plan of , what are your solutions to deal with
poverty, based on the study of the economic model of Singapore, what is your proposals for the
economic model of Pakistan?.
6. Evaluation: This is the highest level of learning. The learner forms a judgments based on facts,
example and specific criteria. It involves making value decisions about issues, resolving
controversies or differences of opinion, and developing opinions, judgments, or decisions.
Examples of questions: What do you think ? Provide arguments on ?, justify ?, etc. For
example Should teachers be allowed to hit students who misbehave?

Evaluation
Level
Synthesis
Level
Application
Level

Analysis
Level

Comprehension
Level
Knowledge
Level

Figure 1: Learning Levels


In order to develop academic standards and teachers validation program for each subject and for each
class, it is important to establish the desired learning level for each subject and topic. Defining the
subjects learning levels in such a manner will produce Academic Standards. These standards can
become an important component of any QA program. They can also be used for teachers validation and
development purposes; as well as designing examination which evaluate students truly for each level
separately and appropriately (familiarity, comprehension, application, etc.)
For example, the math tables are taught and memorized (Knowledge Level) in early classes, but many
children are found unable to use these tables in every day life (Application Level problem). Similarly,
five time prayers are taught in Islamiat (Knowledge Level), but most students in schools and colleges
cannot pray correctly, and many do not pray at all (Application Level problem). In higher business
education, Leadership is commonly taught as a subject up to Knowledge Level, whereas most students do
not develop leadership skills (Application Level problem) and do not understand what leadership is from
a practical point of view (Comprehension Level problem).

Schools, colleges, universities, and madaris must develop Academic Standards for every subject and
discipline from the point of view of achieving certain level of learning as defined in the Blooms
Taxonomy. Presently, most institutions focus mainly on the Knowledge and/or Comprehension levels at
the most. The minimum need of the industry, employers, parents and community is that of Application
and Analysis levels, focusing on practical skills and problem solving. Unfortunately, the capabilities of
most teachers are also up to the Knowledge and Comprehension levels in the subjects they teach, and are
not up to the required higher levels (Application, Analysis, Synthesis, Evaluation). This is because they
teach without generating practical debate in classrooms, and are not involved with the subject in the
practical world. In most of the cases, the requirement for teachers up-gradation is not in the domain of
further knowledge, but with practical understanding and analytical capabilities. Teachers must be
developed and Certified in the subject matter as well as in the teaching skills to be able to bring their
students to the Application and Analysis levels. Similarly, most examination systems are also not
designed appropriately. They mostly check only to the level of Knowledge and/or comprehension. This is
a serious system deficiency. However, it can partially be overcome at the institutional levels with
effective Quality Assurance programs, while overall national educational focus must change to the
practical world.
Measuring Academic Performance at a Country Level: Academic performance should also be measured at
the country level. For example, the result of Higher Secondary Schools of one Board in 2003 in Pakistan (both
in Pre-medical and Pre-engineering) compared to another city is as shown in the following diagram. Such
analysis leads to problem solving at a city/national level. Presently results of the boards/cities are not monitored
and used effectively for improvement of quality in schools/colleges.
67

70

35

60

25

40

20

23

30

15

14

15

20

30

30

50

10

40

40

10

8.3
0.01
A

1.3

0.38
B

5
F

Board Result of High School City A

1.3
A

Board Result of High School - City B

Figure 2: Comparative result of two Secondary Boards of two different cities

Setting-up Metrices: Establishing performance measures is one of the key neglected areas although it is a core
activity of QA process. Performance indicators are not just school or college results. Some metrics used for
measuring performance are as follows:

Domains of Quality Assurance


Academic Excellence

Metrics (Measurable parameters)


Examination results, college entrance rates, job placements,

Social Excellence

National Excellence

earning levels, duration of employment, unemployment, and


employers satisfaction levels
Compliance with ethics, crime rate of students (e.g. student
smoking rate, cheating rate), and percentage of time spend by
students in social work
Time spend per week in social work (boy scout, community
work, etc.), Time spent in Disaster recovery, emergency and
defence preparedness drills, donations and charities, teamwork,
etc.

3. Quality in Basic Educational Processes


Quality issues can be classified in the following six basic educational processes:
1. Quality Teacher: A highly qualified teacher does not mean high Quality teacher. Highly qualified
refers to high level of degrees (e.g. MS or PhD, etc.). Whereas, this does not mean he/she can teach the
subject matter effectively. For a teacher to be good, he/she will to build capabilities in many other
fields, in addition to the subject matter.
There are basically four dimensions of an effective (quality) teacher. These are: (1) Academic
Competence (theory plus practical) in the relevant subject which he/she is teaching, (2) Teaching Skills
for the relevant subject (Pedagogy), (3) Good understanding of Student Psychology, and (4)
Commitment and Motivational Skills. Usually teachers are only measured from their academic
credentials, which is by no means sufficient. Excellence is required to be built in all the four
dimensions. Figure 3 shows a chart where the performance of two teachers is plotted on a chart. Their
selection, training, and performance evaluation criteria needs to be broadened to include all the four
dimensions. Academic Competence should be based on the Blooms Taxonomy, i.e. the knowledge,
comprehension, skills, analysis, and synthesis capabilities in the particular subject that one is or would
be teaching. A teacher who himself/herself is not competent in the application/analytical levels would
never be able to build that level in the students. For that level to be good, teachers have to enter in the
practical / professional life, rather than restricting themselves to the academia. Similarly they (teachers)
have to be restricted to the subjects in which they are competent. It is a usual malpractice by many
universities, colleges and schools to allow teachers to teach the subject in which he/she is not qualified.
A teacher who is good in one subject is not necessary good in others. As a result, the same teacher is
teaching one subject effectively and is doing a poor quality of work in the other(s).

Academic
Competence

Commitment
& Motivational
Skills

Teaching Skills
Relevant field
(Pedagogy)

Student
P h l
Figure 3: Four Capabilities of a Teacher

2. Quality Curricula: Curricula is generally divided into three levels: (1) Intended Curricula, i.e. what is
defined at the country, provincial, board, professional or even customer level, (2) Implemented
Curricula, i.e. which is what teachers/school plan to do, and (3) Attained Curricula, i.e. which is
actually taught. Usually internal exams by schools are conducted on implemented or attained curricula.
Whereas, the board/external exams are based on Intended Curricula. As a result, student achieve best
results if exams are made by the same class
Intended Curricula
Implemented Curricula
Attained
Curricula

Internal Exams / Grading


External Exams / Grading

Figure 4: Three levels of Curricula Intended, Implemented and Attained

teacher. If they are made by another teacher from the same school, the results are usually not as good
as the earlier one. When are exams are conducted by the third party (external boards, etc.) the results
are usually the worst. The Quality goal is always to achieve the attained curricula equal to the Intended
Curricula. Quality Assurance of a institution must ensure that the achieved curricula is always equal to
Intended. In this way, there will not be much difference in results between internal/external results.
The Lesson Plans, usually reflect the academic standards and are made/revised at the start of every
semester. Subsequently, effective controls are required to ensure that academic standards have been
achieved.
Choosing the right text book has always been difficult task and requires a lot of efforts and intellectual
capabilities. The Language, style, logic, appropriate logical flow, suitable examples and content for
easy comprehension, format, and even cost are all important matters for selecting the right text book.
Quality of text book and reference books is dependent on the course objectives and the required
academic standards. Wrong selection of textbooks is one of the major problems found in our
educational institutions at every level. High cost or a foreign book does not necessary mean good
quality. Similarly just low cost or local does not mean poor quality. Selection of textbooks is many
times influenced by many superficial biases, such as cost of book, print quality and format of books,
language, country of publication, difficult use of terminology, or even inferiority complex against
foreign books.
3. Quality of Exams and Assessment: There are four main aspects of exams which affect their quality:
(1) Planning ensure compatibility with the Lesson Plans, independence, language, confidentiality, etc.
(2) Reliability & Validity, ensure that exams measure what they are supposed to measure and cover
what they are supposed to cover keeping in view the blooms taxonomy, (3) Management, ensure that it
is conducted effectively, and (4) Analysis of Results with appropriate statistical techniques and
understanding. It is usually taken for granted that teachers know how to make exams. It is not true in
most cases. Quality problems are seen in almost all the four aspects. Therefore, the academic results
are not reliable.
The following figure (Fig 5) shows the results of three sections of the same class taught by three
different teachers. Although the results are different, it does not necessary mean that

# of
Students

10

20

30

40

Sec C

Sec B

Sec A

50

60

Fig 5: Examples of Results of three sections of the same class

70

80

90

100

the learning is achieved best in Section C. Teacher of class C may have been lenient, or may have
given hints and clues to exam questions without pushing actively for in-depth learning. Similarly, it
looks that the result of Section A is worst, but it may be possible that there had been best learning in
this section. The teacher of Section A may have covered more and taught the complete curriculum
with comprehension/application level. Unless the exam is designed to measure comprehension, it will
not be able to detect such a difference.
4. Quality of Research: Research is mainly carried out at the Masters and PhD levels. Its Quality is
dependent on: (1) The Research Need - to be compatible with the industry or national needs, (2) The
Sponsor of the Research - who should support for the resources required in the research, (3) Agreement
between the Researcher and Sponsor - on the proprietary/intellectual rights, (4) The Criteria for the
research i.e. research standard, (5) The Research Process and Methodology to ensure appropriate
depth, (6) Inputs and Databases -which are required for the research and accessibility to information,
(7) Research Output - or the form in which the research output is acceptable or useful to the sponsor,
and (8) Validation of the Results - to ensure the credibility of the research. Very few universities
formally measure the quality of research carried out in their universities. Every Quality Assurance
program must endeavor to establish the measures the quality in research.
5. Quality of Communication:
Communication is process which takes into
account the Medium of Instruction,
Language of books, compatibility of
vocabulary between the book-teacherstudent, compatibility of logical complexity
between the book-teacher-student, and the
skills of reading, writing, listening and
speaking of both the teachers and students. It
is not just the language but also the logical
complexity of the text as well as teacher
which makes the communication effective or
ineffective. Unfortunately, very few teachers
and text books are measured from this angle
and subsequently improved through some
organized process. The example of a page of
class 7 English text book shows the
translation made by a student who stood 10th
position in a class. With this level of
translations, how can he understand the
logic, content, and language. Due to such
break down students get frustrated and not
just lose their learning but also their interest,
motivation, and self study.
Quality
Assurance program of any institutions must
measure the quality of communication in
every class.

Fig 6: Example of a Communication Problem

6. Quality of Students and Parents: Learning is a two way process. Students need to be developed in
six areas: Intellectual Capability, Intellectual Capacity, Learning Attitude, Interest/motivation, Effort,
and Values. At the entrance exams, the only thing checked is usually the intellectual capability of
students. All other things are neglected. Due to variation in each of these aspect among students,
learning outcomes vary considerably even within and among the students of every class, even though

students belong to the same strata of academic entrance grades. The following diagram shows the basic
measures required to check the student as a whole. Measures other than the intellectual capability are
not well understood, recorded or taken into account by majority. Student counseling must be a regular
process to be performed by qualified counselors. Similarly, the approach of parents who are supporting
students also matters. Their involvement and right attitude in the learning process is equally important.
Intellectual
Capability

Intellectual
Capacity
Values

Learning
Curve/Attitude
Effort

Interest

Fig 7: Six dimensions of a quality student

4. Quality of Management
In addition to setting the right educational processes, it is equally important to build Management capabilities
and practices within universities, colleges and schools. There are four aspects of management which affect the
overall quality of institutions. These are as follows:
1. Institutional Leadership: This includes the abilities of teachers and academicians to conceive the
vision of quality. This aspect is not just for the principals and/or vice chancellors or deans, but also
required in teachers to provide the leadership in their classrooms. It is an attribute and way of working
of teachers and administrators who make long terms goals for improving quality of their
institutions/classes, measure their process and are committed to their quality goals. Every teacher and
head of institution must be made accountable to the quality of his/her work. This sort of leadership can
not be developed or sustained by teachers and administrators without teamwork, long term quality
goals, concerted efforts, appropriate training, right policies, and strong commitment.
2. Quality of Administration: Administration function is important at two levels; i.e. Institutional and
Classroom. The institutional administration is managed by the principals or registrars whereas the
classroom administration is done by teachers. Administration Quality includes:

size of class room (20 is usually considered good- but depend on way of teaching and teaching
skills of the teacher also),
Cleanliness of classrooms, building, bathrooms, playground, desks, etc.
Maintenance of the institution building, desks, library, labs, etc.
Student/parent councelling
Discipline and code of ethics of both the teachers as well as students
Conformance to teaching schedule
Documentation of Standard Operating Procedures and Institutions Policies

3. Quality Assurance (QA) Program: This revolves around three basic functions: Quality Planning,
Measuring Quality and Quality Control, and Initiatives for Improving Quality. Main activities in
educational institutions include: establishing indicators for performance measurement, collecting such
data and analyzing it, collecting and analyzing the root-cause of

Process
Outcome

EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES
Teacher
Student

Curricula
Comm. Exams

Implemen
ting
Solutions

Student Outcomes

Problem
Solving

Research

Students
Outcome

3
Performance
Measure

Root
Cause
Analysis

Data
Collection
& Reports

Processes Outcomes

Customer
Outcome

Customers
Satisfaction

Academic
Standards &
Quality
Objectives

Customer
Outcomes

Figure 8: Quality Assurance Model in Education


quality problems, setting processes to rectify root-causes, changing/upgrading and revising procedures
to improve quality, peer reviews and internal quality auditing, producing academic standards,
documentation of systems, human resource management of teachers and institutional staff, and
reward/award programs. The following three types of Quality Models are globally popular:
1. Accreditation Models. Many countries have set-up independent and professional accreditation
agencies. Laws are made to ensure compliance to the accreditation criteria set by these agencies.
Such agencies are mostly in the private sector in the developed countries, in the semi-government
domain in the rapidly developing countries, and in the government sector in the third world
countries. They provide criteria of accreditation based on customized models of QA. For
example, ABET (in USA) for engineering universities, and Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) of
UK, EQUIS for MBA business schools in Europe, etc.

2. Educational Excellence Award Models. These are programs for motivating performers and those
who implement Total Quality Management (TQM). They provide a complete framework for
implementing Total Quality Management in educational institutions. The objective is not just to
give awards, but to promote the process of QA and TQM. For examples. Baldrige in the USA, the
European Quality Award in Europe, Rajev Gandhi National Quality Award in India, and the
Deming in Japan.
3. Management Standards. These are quality management systems based on third party certification
schemes. The most popular standard is ISO 9000 which sets the basic requirement for a quality
management system. A number of our universities are using this Standard in their universities. All
good institutions in the world are following one or more of the above models, which provide solid
foundation programs to measure, control and improve performances. Unfortunately, only a handful
of institutions have adopted these programs in Pakistan effectively.
Institutional Culture: A joyful, healthy, and ethical culture is an
important ingredient of any education institution. Co-curricular
activities, students health problems, teachers politics, students
politics, vulgarity, cheating in exams, mental stress, etc. are all
elements of institutional cultures.
Organizational Behavior
addresses the culture of organization. The study of Organizational
Behavior (especially formal and informal groups) is necessary for
principals and senior management of universities. The top
management and teachers mainly drive a culture. Their own
values matter the most. They must develop a vision and then
develop action plans to form and sustain a culture with values
which must be adhered to by every one. Role models must be
developed through teachers. Ethical Policy, both for teachers and
students, is necessary to be defined, discussed, agreed by all
stakeholders, and practiced. Students should also be given
courses/lectures on Code of Ethics in their respective disciplines.
Code of Ethics for teachers must also be defined. A few years
ago World Council for Total Quality and Excellence in Education has been running annual convention
of Students Quality Control Circles in various countries. Students of every grade take part in it and
demonstrate the use of Quality techniques to solve problems of their schools. Such events are also very
healthy in building a Total Quality Culture in schools.
Conclusion
In order to address QA effectively in the education sector, the following areas need special attention and
improvements:
1. It is not just the quantity (output) but the quality (outcome) of education which leads a country to
rapid growth and industrialization.
2. The objectives of education must be clearly understood and imbedded into the policies. These can
be divided into three domains: Social Excellence, National Excellence and Academic Excellence.
3. There are six key educational processes where quality gets affected: Teacher, Curricula, Exams,
Research, Communication and Students/Parents.
4. There are four aspects of Management Processes which affect quality:
Leadership,
Administration, Quality Assurance Program, and Institutional Culture.
5. Every institution should look seriously into Quality Assurance and should prepare an action
program to deal with it effectively.

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