B.E.

Electrical
Sem I
Industrial Drives & Control

ELECTRICAL DRIVES
System employed for motion control are called drives and may employ and of the prime
movers such as, diesel or petrol engines, gas or steam turbines, steam engines, hydraulic
motors and electric motors, for supplying mechanical energy for motion control. Drives
employing electric motors are known as electrical drives.
ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES
1. They have flexible control characteristics. The steady-state and dynamic
characteristics of electrical drives can be shaped to satisfy load requirements. Speed
can be controlled and, if required, can be controlled in wide limits. Electric braking
can be employed. Control gear required for speed control, starting and braking is
usually simple and easy to operate.
2. They are available in wide range of torque, speed and power.
3. Electric motors have high efficiency, low no load losses and considerable short time
overloading capability. Can be made in variety of designs to make them compatible
with load. Compared to other prime movers they have longer life, lower noise, lower
maintenance requirements and cleaner operation.
4. They are adaptable to almost any operating conditions such as explosive and
radioactive environment, submerged in liquids, vertical mountings, and so on.
5. Do not pollute the environment.
6. Can operate in all the four quadrants of speed-torque plane. Electric braking gives
smooth deceleration and increases life of the equipment compared to other forms of
braking. When regenerative braking is possible, considerable saving of energy is
achieved. These features are not available in other prime movers.
7. Unlike other prime movers, there is no need to refuel or warm-up the motor. They
can be started instantly and can immediately be fully loaded.
PARTS OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES
Electrical drive has the following major parts: load, motor, power modulator, control
unit and source. There are large number of loads and each load has its own specific
requirements. Some common aspects to loads are discussed in Sec. 2.5 and specific
requirements of some common loads in later chapters. Here we examine four parts of
electrical drives; viz. motor, power modulators, sources and unit.

CHOICE OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES

Choice of an electrical drive depends on a number of factors. Some of the important
factors are:
(i)
Steady state operation requirements: Nature of speed torque characteristics, speed
regulation, speed range, efficiency, duty cycle, quadrants of operation, speed
fluctuations if any, ratings.

(ii)
(iii)

(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)

Transient operation requirements: Values of acceleration and deceleration,

starting, braking and reversing performance.
Requirements related to the source: Type of source, and its capacity, magnitude
of voltage, voltage fluctuations, power factor, harmonics and their effect on other
loads, ability to accept regenerated power.
Capital and running cost, maintenance needs, life.
Space and weight restrictions if any.
Environment and location.
Reliability.

STATUS OF dc AND ac DRIVES

(i)
Although squirrel-cage induction motor was cheaper than do motor, the converter
and control circuit of an induction motor drive was very expensive compared to
those for a drive. Therefore, total cost of an induction motor drive was
significantly higher than that of a dc drive.
(ii)
While the technology of dc drives was well established, that of ac was new.
(iii)
as drives were not as reliable as dc.
(iv)
Developments in linear and digital ICs, and VLSIs were helpful in improving the
performance and reliability of ac drives. But then these developments also led to
similar improvements in dc drives.

EQUIVALENT VALUES OF DRIVE PARAMENTERS

Load with Rotational Motion
Let us consider a motor driving two loads, one coupled directly to its shaft and other
through a gear with n and n1 teeth as shown in Fig. 2.4(a). Let the moment of inertia of
motor and load directly coupled to its shaft be J0, motor speed and torque of the directly
coupled load be
and Tl0 respectively. Let the moment of inertia, speed and torque of
the load coupled through a gear be J1,
and Tl1 respectively. Now,
(2.3)
where a1 is the gear tooth ratio.
If the losses in transmission are neglected, then the kinetic energy due to
equivalent inertia must be the same as kinetic energy of various moving parts. Thus
(2.4)
From Eqs. (2.3) and (2.4)
J = Jo +

(2.5)

Fig. 2.4

Loads with Translational Motion

Let us consider a motor driving two loads, one coupled directly to its shaft and other
through a transmission system converting rotational motion to linear motion (Fig.
2.4(b)). Let moment of inertia of the motor and load directly coupled to it be J0, load
torque directly coupled to motor be Tlo, and the mass, velocity and force of load with
translational motion be M1 (kg), v1 (m/sec) and F1 (Newtons), respectively.
If the transmission losses are neglected, then kinetic energy due to equivalent
inertia J must be the same as kinetic energy of various moving parts. Thus

or

J = Jo + M1

(2.10)

Similarly, power at the motor and load should be the same, thus if efficiency of
transmission be

or

(2.11)

Measurement of Moment of Inertia

Moment of inertia can be calculated if dimensions and weights of various parts of the
load and motor are known. It can also be measured experimentally be retardation test.
In retardation test, the drive is run at a speed slightly higher than rated speed and then
the supply to it is cut off. Drive continues to run due to kinetic energy stored in it and
decelerates due to rotational mechanical losses. Variation of speed with time is recorded.
At any speed
, power P consumed in supplying rotational losses is given by

(2.14)

COMPONENTS OF LOAD TORQUES

Load torque Tl can be further divided into following components:
(i)

(ii)
(iii)

Friction torque TF: Friction will be present at the motor shaft and also in various
parts of the load. TF is equivalent value of various friction torques referred to the
motor shaft.
Windage torque, Tw: When a motor runs, wind generates a torque opposing the
motion. This is known as windage torque.
Torque required to do the useful mechanical work, TL: Nature of this torque
depends on particular application. It may be constant and independent of speed; it
may be some function of speed; it may depend on the position or path followed
by load; it may be time invariant or time variant; it may vary cyclically and its
nature may also change with the loads mode of operation.

NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF LOAD TORQUES

Fans, compressors, aeroplanes, centrifugal pumps, ship-propellors, coilers, high
speed hoists, traction etc. are example of the case where load torque is a function of
speed. In fans, compressors and aeroplanes, the windage dominates, consequently, load
torque is proportional to speed squared (Fig. 2.7(a)).

Figure 2.7(c) shows the traction load torque to be function of only speed, because we
have assumed a levelled ground. In actual practice the train has to negotiate upward and
downward slopes. Consequently, a torque due to gravity, which varies with varies with
position is also present. Furthermore, when a train takes a turn the frictional force on wheels
changes substantially. Thus, traction is an example where the load torque also depends on
position or path followed.
Various load torques can be broadly classified into two categories active and passive.
Load torques which have the potential to drive the motor under equilibrium condition are
called active load torques. Such lad torques usually retain their sign when the direction of the
drive rotation is changed. Torque(s) due to gravitational force, tension, compression and
torsion, undergone by an elastic body, come under this category. Load torques which always
oppose the motion and change their sign on the reversal of motion are called passive load
torques. Such torques are due.

STEADY STATE STABILITY

Equilibrium speed of a motor-load system is obtained when motor torque equals the load
torque. Drive will operate in steady state at this speed, provided it is the speed of stable
equilibrium. Concept of steady-state stability has been developed to readily evaluated the
stability of an equilibrium point from the steady state speed torque curves of the
motor and load, thus avoiding solution of differential equations valid for transient
operation of the drive.
In most drives, the electrical time constant of the motor is negligible compared to its
mechanical time constant. Therefore, during transient operation, motor can be assumed
to be in electrical equilibrium implying that steady-state speed-torque curves are also
applicable to the transient operation.

LOAD EQUALISATION
In some drive applications, load torque fluctuates widely within short intervals of time.
For example, in pressing machines a large torque of short duration is required during
pressing operation, otherwise the torque is nearly zero. Other examples are electric
hammers, steel rolling mills and reciprocating pumps. In such drives, if motor is required
to supply peak torque demanded by load, first motor rating has to be high. Secondly,
motor will draw a pulsed current from the supply. When amplitude of pulsed current
forms an appreciable proportion of supply line capacity, it gives rise to line voltage
fluctuations, which adversally affect other loads connected to the line. In some
applications, peak load demanded may form major proportion of the source capacity
itself, as in blooming mills, then load fluctuations may also adversally affect the stability
of source.
Abovementioned problems of fluctuating loads are over come by mounting a
flywheel on the motor shaft in non-reversible drives. Motor speed-torque characteristic is
made drooping (characteristic AC in Fig. 2.10).
Alternatively, by closed loop current control torque is
prevented from exceeding a permissible value
(characteristic ABC in Fig. 2.10). During high load
period, load torque will be much larger compared to
the motor torque. Deceleration occurs producing a
large dynamic torque component (J
).
Dynamic torque and motor torque together are able
to produce torque required by the load (Eq. (2.2)).
Because of deceleration, the motor speed falls. During
Fig. 2.10
light load period, the motor torque exceeds the load torque causing acceleration Speed is
brought back to original value before the next high load period. Variation of motor and
load torques, and speed for a periodic load and for a
drooping motor speed torque curve (AC in Fig. 2.10)

are shown in Fig. 2.11. It shows that peack torque

required from the motor has much smaller value than
the peak load torque. Hence, a motor with much
smaller
rating than peak load can be used and peak current
drawn by motor from the source is reduced by a
large
amount. Fluctuations in motor torque and speed are
Calso reduced. Since power drawn from the source fluctuates
Fig. 2.11
very little, this is called load equalisation.
In variable speed and reversible drives, a flywheel cannot be mounted on the
motor shaft, as it will increase transient time of the drive by a large amount. It motor is
fed from a motor generator set (Ward-Leonard Drive), then flywheel can be mounted on
the shaft of the motor generator set. This arrangement equalises load on the source, but
not the load on motor. Consequently, a motor capable of supplying peak-load-torque is
required.
Moment of inertia of the flywheel required for load equalisation is calculated
as follows:
Assuming a linear motor-speed-torque curve in the region of interest (drooping
characteristic AC of Fig. 2.10)
(2.31)

Induction Motor Drives

BRAKING

Regenerative Braking
The power input to an induction motor is given by
Pin = 3VIs cos s
where
. is the phase angle between stator phase voltage V and the stator phase
current Is. For motoring operation
. If the rotor speed becomes greater than
synchronous speed, relative speed between the rotor conductors and air-gap rotating field
reverses. This reverses the rotor induced emf, rotor current and component of stator
current which balances the rotor ampere turns. Consequently, and s becomes greater
than 90o and power flow reverses, giving regenerative braking. Magnetizing current
required to produce air-gap flux is obtained from the source. Equations (6.1)-(6.13) are
applicable, except that slip is negative. The nature of speed-torque characteristic is
shown in Fig. 6.13.

Plugging or Reverse Voltage Braking

When phase sequence of supply of the motor running at a speed is reversed, by
interchanging connections of any two phases of stator with respect to supply terminals,
operation shifts from motoring to plugging as shown in Fig. 6.14. Plugging
characteristics are actually extension of motoring characteristics for negative phase
sequence from quadrant III to II. Reversal of phase sequence reverses the direction of
rotating field. If the slip for plugging is denoted by sn, then
(6.27)

Motor performance can be calculated from Eqs. (6.4)-(6.10) when s is replaced by sn or

(2 - s). Since at the instant of switchover to plugging, slip can be upto 2, the rotor
induced voltage can be twice of its value at zero speed. Consequently, motor current is
large, although braking torque is low. In case of wound-rotor motors, a resistance equal
to twice the starter resistance is inserted in the rotor to limit braking current to starting
value. This also increases braking torque as shown by curve 2 (Fig. 6.14).

Fig. 6.14
As shown in Fig. 6.14, torque is not zero speed. When used for stopping motor, it is
necessary that the motor should be disconnected from supply at or near zero speed. This
makes it necessary to use an additional device for detecting zero speed and disconnecting
motor from supply. This braking is suitable for reversing the motor. As motor is already
connected for operation in reverse direction and torque is not zero at zero or any other speed,
motor smoothly decelerates and then accelerates in the reverse direction.

Dynamic (or Rheostatic) Braking

(a) ac Dynamic Braking
ac dynamic braking is obtained when the motor is run on a single phase supply by
disconnecting one phase from the source and either leaving it open (Fig. 6.15(b)) or
connecting it with another machine phase (Fig. 6.15(c)). The two connections of
Figs. 6.15(b) and (c) are, respectively, known as two and three lead connections.
When connected to a 1 phase supply, the motor can be considered to be fed by
positive and negative sequence three-phase set of voltages. Net torque produced by
the machine is sum of torques due to positive and negative sequence voltages. When
rotor has a high resistance, the net torque is negative and braking operation is
obtained. The motor analysis for two and three lead connections is done as follows:

SINGLE-PHASE FULLY-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER CONTROL OF

dc SEPARATELY EXCITED MOTOR
The drive circuit is shown in Fig. 5.26(a). Motor is shown by its equivalent circuit. Field
supply is not shown. When field control is required, field is fed from a controlled
rectifier, otherwise from an uncontrolled rectifier. The ac input voltage is defined by

In a cycle of source voltage, thyristors T1 and T3 are given gate signals from to ,
and thyristors T2 and T4 are given gate signals from (
) to 2 . When armature
current does not flow continuously, the motor is said to operate in discontinuous
conduction.

THREE-PHASE FULLY-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER CONTROL OF dc

SEPARATELY EXCITED MOTOR
Three-phase fully-controlled (6 pulse) rectifier fed separately excited dc motor drive is
shown in Fig. 5.32(a). Thyristors are fired in the sequence of their numbers with a phase
difference of 60o

by gate pulses of 120o duration. Each thyristor conducts for 120, and two thyristors conduct
at a time one from upper group (odd numbered thyristors) and the other from lower group
(even numbered thyristors) applying respective line voltage to the motor.
Transfer of current from an outgoing to incoming thyristor can take place when the
respective line voltage is of such a polarity that not only it forward biases the incoming
thyristor, but also leads to the reverse biasing of the outgoing when incoming turns-on. Thus,
firing angle for a thyristor is measured from the instant when the respective line voltage is
zero and increasing. For example, the transfer of current from thyristor T5 to thyristor T1 can
occur as long as the line voltage vAC is positive.
CHOPPER CONTROL OF SERIES MOTOR
Motoring
Chopper circuit and va and ia waveforms will be same as shown in Fig. 5.41. Va is given by
Eq. (5.113). However, e is not constant but varies with ia. Due to saturation of magnetic
circuit, relationship between e and ia is non-linear. The approximation described in Sec. 5.15
by Eqs. (5.105) through (5.108) is applicable. Consequently, motor performance can be
calculated following the sequence of steps described in Sec. 5.15. The nature of speed torque
curves is shown in Fig. 5.46.

Regenerative Braking
With chopper control, regenerative braking of series motor can also be obtained. Power
circuit of Fig. 5.42(a) is employed. During regenerative braking, series motor functions as a
self-excited series generator. For self excitation, current flowing through field winding
should assist residual magnetism. Therefore, when changing from motoring to braking
connection, while direction of armature current should reverse, field current should flow in
the same direction.

VARIABLE FREQUENCY CONTROL OF MULTIPLE SYNCHRONOUS

MOTORS
A drive operating in true synchronous mode is shown in Fig. 7.9. Frequency command f*
is applied to a voltage source inverter through a delay circuit so that rotor speed is able to
track the change in frequency. A flux control block changes stator voltage with
frequency to maintain a constant flux below rated speed and a constant terminal voltage
above rated speed. This scheme is commonly used for the control of multiple
synchronous reluctance or permanent magnet motor in fiber spinning, textile and paper
mills where accurate speed tracking between the motor is required.

EXAMPLE 7.3
A 6 MW, 3-Phase, 11 kV, Y-connected, 6-pole, 50 Hz, 0.9 (leading) power factor
synchronous motor has Xs = 9 W and and Rs = 0. Rated field current is 50 A.
Machine is controlled b variable frequency control at constant (V/f) ratio up to the
base speed and at constant V above base speed. Determine
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Torque and field current for the rated armature current, 750 rpm and 0.8 leading
power factor.
Armature current and power factor for half the rated motor torque, 1500 rpm and
rated field current.
Armature current and power factor for regenerative braking power output of 4.2 MW
at 750 rpm and rated field current.

(iv)

Torque and field current for regenerative braking operation at rated armature current,
1500 rpm and unity power factor.
Solution
At rated operation
3VIs cos
or

= Pm

0.9

10

6350.85

= 7723.4 j2834.2 = 8227

or Is = 349.9 A

9 90

349.9

- 20.15o

For operation at 750 rpm

50

Frequency =
V=

37.5 Hz
.

4763 V

Xs = 0.75

6.75
4763

349.9

= 6180 j1889.2 = 6462.3

0.8

- 17o
6170.25 V

At rated field current and 750 rpm E = 8227

.

Field current

50

6.75 90

52.37 A

Power input = 3VIs cos

or

Pm = 3

4763

349.9 cos 36.87o = 3999.6 kW

Motor speed =

78.54 rad/sec

Torque =

50924.4 N-m

(ii) At 1500 rpm

Frequency =

50

13.5 W

Xs =

E at rated field current = 8227

75 Hz

12340.5 V

V = rated voltage = 6350.85 V

0.9