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Data communication
A communication model (elements of data communication)
The fundamental purpose of a communication system is the exchange of data between
two parties. E.g. the exchange of data between server and a workstation over a public
telephone line. Another example is the exchange of voice signals between two telephones
over the same network. The key elements of data communication model are as follows:
• Source: This device generates the data to be transmitted. Examples are of
telephones and personal computers.
• Transmitter: this device transmits the data generated by the source device.
Usually, the data generated by a source system are not transmitted directly in the
form in which the data was generated. Rather, a transmitter transforms and
encodes he data in such a way that data can be transmitted across a transmission
system (media). E.g. a modem takes digital data from a computer and transforms
that digital bit stream into an analog signal that can be handled by the analog
telephone network.
• Transmission system: this is the path the data follows to reach the destination
device. This can be a single transmission line or a complex network connecting
source and destination devices.
• Receiver: the receiver accepts the signals from the transmission system and
converts it into a form that can be handled by the destination device. For example,
a modem will accept analog signals from transmission line (telephone network)
and will convert it into a digital bit stream so that a device such as a computer can
handle it.
• Destination: this device takes the incoming signals from the receiver.
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Advantages of a network
Networks provide the following advantages:
Information sharing
Networks provide the facility of centrally controlling and sharing information.
One or more computers in a network can be used to store the shared
information and have all other computers on the network access that shared
information. The computer or the computers on which the shared information
is stored help centralize the information and maintain control over it. The
computers, which store the shared information, are called servers and special
software and operating systems are used in server computers.
Sharing hardware resources
Computers that are not networked cannot effectively share hardware
resources. For instance, a small office with ten stand-alone computers and one
printer allows only the user with the printer attached to his or her computer to
print. Other users must put their data on floppy disks, transfer it to the
computer with the printer, and print it from there.
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A network allows anyone connected to the network to use the printer. Not just
the individual sitting at the computer to which the printer is attached. Network
computers can also share the following devices:
• Fax modems
• Scanners
• Hard disks
• Floppy disks
• CD-ROMs
• Tape backup units
• Plotters
• Almost any other device that can be attached to a computer
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The type of operating system the computer uses determines each of these
computer roles. Servers use network operating system such as Novell Netware or
Windows NT server. Client computers use client operating system, such as MS-
DOS or OS/2 2.0. Peers run peer network operating system such as Windows 95
or Macintosh operating system. Each of this operating system is optimized to
provide service for the role it plays.
Based on the roles of computers attached to them, networks are divided into three
types:
1. Server based or client-server networks contain clients and
servers that support them.
2. Peer-to-peer or peer networks, which have no servers and use
the network to share resources among independent peers.
3. Hybrid networks, which is a client-server network that also has
peers sharing resources.
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Peer networks
Peer networks are defined by the lack of central control over the network due to the
absence of servers. Since there are no servers in a peer network, therefore users simply
share disk space and resources such as printers and faxes as and when needed.
Peer networks are organized into workgroups. Workgroups have very little security
control. There is no central login process. If a user has logged into one peer computer on
the network, that user can then any resources on the network that are not controlled by a
specific password.
Access to individual resources can be controlled, if the user who shared a resource makes
the resource password protected. Because there is no central security trust, users will
have to remember individual password, which the user wants to access. This can be quite
inconvenient.
Peers are also not optimized to share resources. Generally, when a number of users are
accessing resources on a peer, the user of that peer will notice significantly degraded
performance. Peers also have licensing limitations that prevent more than a small number
of users from simultaneously accessing resources.
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Peer networks are recommended for use in small networks where the number of
computers is less than 10 because administration in a peer network is decentralized due to
the absence of server computers.
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Hybrid networks
Hybrid networks have all three types of computers operating on them and generally have
active domains and workgroups. This means that while most shared resources are located
on servers, network users still have access to any resource being shared by a peer in a
workgroup. It also means that network users do not have to logon to the domain
controllers in order to access the resources of a peer in workgroup.
Advantages of hybrid networks
Hybrid networks have the following advantages:
1. The advantages of server-based networks.
2. Many of the advantages of the peer networks.
3. Ability of users and network administrators to control security
based on the importance of the shared resource.
Network topology
The way in which computer connections are made is called the topology of
the network. The physical layout of cabling is called the topology or the
physical shape of network is called its topology. It is important to select the
right topology for the network. Each topology has its own strength and
weaknesses.
The four most common topologies are as follows:
i. Bus topology
ii. Star topology
iii. Ring topology
iv. Mesh topology
Bus topology
The bus topology is often used when the network installation is small, simple or
temporary.
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A single cable connects all the computers in a bus network. Bus is a passive
topology in which computers only listen or send data. They do not take data
and send it on or regenerate it. So if one computer on the network fails, the
network is still up. Since bus is a passive topology therefore it experiences
signal loss.
When a computer sends a signal on a bus network, all the computers receive
that signal, but only one (the one with the address that matches the one
encoded in the message) accepts the information. The rest disregard or ignore
the message.
Only one computer at a time can send a message, therefore the number of
computers attached to a bus network can significantly affect the speed of the
network. A computer must wait until the bus is free to transmit data. These
factors also affect star and ring networks.
Another important issue in bus network is termination. If a signal gets to the
end of a cable, it bounces back on that cable. When a signal echoes back and
forth along an unterminated bus, it is called ringing. To prevent the signal from
bouncing up and down the cable (ringing), devices called terminators have to
be attached to both ends of the cable. A terminator absorbs an electronic
signal and clears the cable this way so that other computers can send data on
the network. Cables cannot be left unterminated in a bus network. Bus
topology network does go down when the cable gets disconnected between one
of the workstations as shown in the Figure.
Figure 3: a cable break can bring down the entire bus network
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Star topology
In a star topology, all the cables run from the computers to a central location, where they
are all connected to a central device called a hub.
Stars are used in concentrated networks, where the endpoints are directly reachable from
a central location, when network expansion is expected, and when the greater reliability
of star network is needed.
Each computer on a star network communicates with a central hub that resends the
message either to all the computers (in a broadcast network) or only to the destination
computer (in a switched star network). The hub in a broadcast network can be active or
passive whereas switched star networks have intelligent hubs or switches operating on
them.
Passive hub
The function of a passive hub is simply to receive data from one port of the hub and send
it out to the other ports. For example, an 8-port hub receives data from port 3 and then
resends that data to ports 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8. It is as simple as that.
Active hub (Multi-Port Repeaters)
An active hub provides the same functionality of a passive hub with an
additional feature. Active hubs repeat the data while resending it to all of the
ports. By using active hubs you can increase the length of your network. It is
important to remember that UTP (unshielded twisted pair) Category 5 cabling
can be run a maximum of 100 meters. With an active hub, you can run
Category 5 UTP 100 meters on each side of the hub.
Hybrid hub
A hybrid hub is a hub that can use many different types of cables in addition to
UTP cabling. A hybrid hub is usually cabled using thinwire or thickwire
Ethernet. Hybrid hubs are the most common type of hub. Hybrid hubs are used
to interconnect hubs that are further than the 100-meter.
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Star Bus
If you replace the computers in a bus topology with the hubs from star topology
networks, you get a star bus topology as illustrated in Figure.
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Star Ring
Figure displays a star ring, also called a star wired ring. The smaller hubs are
internally wired like a ring and connected to the main hub in a star topology.
Ring network
In a ring network each computer is connected to the next computer, with the
last connected to the first.
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Some ring networks do token passing. A short message called a token is passed
around he ring until a computer wishes to send data to another computer. That
computer modifies the token, adds the destination device’s address and data
and sends it around the ring. Each computer in sequence receives the token
and passes the token to the next computer until either the address enclosed
with the token matches the address of a computer or the token returns to its
origin. The receiving computer sends a message to the source computer
indicating that the message has been received. The source computer then
creates another token and places it on the network, allowing other computers
to capture the token and begin transmitting. The token circulates in the ring
until a computer is ready to send data.
This all happens very quickly. A token can circle a ring 200 meters in diameter at about
10,000 times a second.
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Mesh topology
The mesh topology is distinguished by having redundant (repeated or more
than one links) links between devices. A true mesh configuration has a link
between each device in the network. This gets unmanageable beyond a very
small number of devices. Therefore most mesh networks are not true mesh
networks; rather they are partial mesh networks, which contain some
redundant links but not all.
Mesh installation
Mesh topology networks become more difficult to install as the number of
devices increase because of the sheer quantity of connections that must be
made. A true mesh network of sic devices would require 15connections
(5+4+3+2+1=15). A true mesh topology of seven devices would require 21
connections (6+5+4+3+2+1=21) and so on.
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Signal transmission
Signaling is the way data is transmitted across the transmission medium. Transmission
medium may be guided (cable media) or unguided (wireless media). In both cases
communication is in the form of electromagnetic waves. With guide media waves are
guided along a physical path; examples of guided media are twisted pair, coaxial cable
and fiber optics cable. Unguided media provide a means for transmitting electromagnetic
waves but do not guide them; examples are propagation through air and vacuum.
Whenever data is to be transmitted along media, somehow the data, or the bits and bytes,
must be represented in such a way that the sender can create a message and the
destination device can understand it. This is done by means of encoding or modulation.
The original signal is altered in a certain way o allow it to represent data.
The information or data to be communicated can exist in either of two forms:
• Analog data
• Digital data
Analog data
Analog data takes on continuous values on some interval. For example, voice and video
are continuously changing patterns of intensity. Most data collected by sensors, such as
temperature and pressure, are continuous-valued (digital). Another example of analog
data is an analog clock. It is always changing its representation of time because the
second hand never stops.
The most familiar example of analog data is audio or acoustic data, which, in the form of
sound waves, can be perceived directly by human beings. Frequency components of
speech may be found between 20Hz and 20 KHz.
Another common example of analog data is video. Here it is easier to characterize the
data in terms of viewer (destination) of the TV screen rather than the original scene
(source) recorded by the TV camera. To produce a picture on the screen, an electron
beam scans across the surface of the screen from left to right and top to bottom. As the
beam scans, the analog value changes. The video image, then, can be viewed as a time-
varying analog signal.
Digital data
Digital data takes on discrete values. It represents either one value or the other not
anything in between, for example, on or off, true or false, 1 or 0 and so on. Text and
integers are familiar examples of digital data. Similarly a digital clock does not shoe the
variation of time between minutes. Its either 12:01 or 12:02, not anything in between.
A familiar example of digital data is text or character strings. While textual data are most
convenient for human beings, they cannot, in character from, be easily stored or
transmitted by data transmission and communication systems. Such systems are designed
for binary data. Thus, a number of codes have been devised by which characters can be
represented by a character of bits. The most commonly used code is the ASCII
(American Standard Code for Information Interchange).
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Signals
In communication systems, data are propagates from one point to another by means of
electric signals. The two signaling methods correspond to the two types of data (digital
and analog):
Digital signaling
Analog signaling
Digital signaling
A digital signal is a sequence of voltage pulses that may be transmitted over a wire
media. Each pulse is a signal element. For example a constant positive voltage pulse may
represent a binary 1, and a constant negative voltage pulse may represent a binary 0.
Digital signals represent discrete states and the state change is practically instantaneous.
Because most computers are inherently digital, therefore most computer networks use
digital signaling. There are many methods of encoding data in a digital signal. These
methods are called encoding schemes. They can be grouped into two general categories,
based on whether the recognition of a given state is triggered by certain voltage level or
by the transition from one state to another:
Current state encoding schemes
In current state encoding strategies, data is encoded by the presence or absence of a signal
characteristic or state. For example, a voltage of +5 might represent a binary 0, while a
voltage of –5 might represent a binary 1.the signal is monitored periodically by network
devices in order to determine its current state. That state then indicates the data. Unipolar
is man example of current state encoding scheme.
Unipolar
Unipolar is an encoding scheme that uses two levels for encoding data. One of the levels
is zero, which could represent a binary 1, and the other level can either be positive or
negative. If a particular implementation of Unipolar is using negative voltages, a –3V for
example, would represent the other value, a binary 0.
Unipolar is not self-clocking, therefore a separate channel has to be used for providing
the clocking.
State-Transition Encoding
State-transition encoding differ from current state methods in that it uses transitions in the
signal to represent data, as opposed to encoding data by means of a certain voltage level
or state. For example a transition occurring from high to low voltage could represent 1,
while a transition from low to high voltage could represent a 0.
Another variation might be that the presence of a transition represents a 1 and the absence
of a transition represents a 0. Manchester is an example of state-transition encoding.
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Manchester
In Manchester encoding, a low to high mid bit transition represents one value, such as a
binary 0 and a high to low transition represents the other, such as the binary 1.Manchester
encoding is used in Ethernet LANs. Due to the mid bit transitions Manchester is self-
clocking.
Advantages of digital signals
In general digital signals provide the following advantages over analog signals:
1. Fewer errors from noise and interference.
2. Uses less expensive equipment.
On the other hand, one disadvantage is that digital signals suffer from greater attenuation
than analog signals over the same distance.
Analog signals
An analog signal consists of electromagnetic waves. An analog signal is a continuously
varying electromagnetic wave that may be propagated (transmitted) over a variety of
media. An analog signal is always changing and represents all values in a given range.
A wave cycle is the change from high to low and back to high (or low to high and back to
low). Three characteristics are used to measure or describe electromagnetic waveforms:
amplitude, frequency and phase.
Amplitude measures the strength of the signal or the height of the wave. Amplitude is
measured in volts for electrical potential, amps for electric current, watts for electric
power and decibels to indicate the ratio between powers of two signals.
Frequency is the amount of time it takes for a wave to complete one cycle. For example,
if a signal takes 1 second to go from high to low and back to high (in other words
complete one cycle), the frequency of the wave is one. Frequency is measured in hertz
(Hz), or cycles per second.
Phase is a different type of measurement than amplitude or frequency in that it requires
more than one wave. Phase is relative state of one wave, when timing began, relative to
another reference wave. Phase is measured in degrees. The easiest phase shift to spot
visually is that of 180 degrees.
Analog signal modulation
All the three characteristics of an analog wave i.e. amplitude, frequency and phase can be
used to encode digital data in an analog signal. There are three main strategies for
encoding digital data in analog signal. The first two amplitude shift key and frequency
shift key are considered current state encoding schemes and the third strategy is
considered state-transition encoding.
Amplitude shift key (ASK)
Amplitude shift key can be used to encode binary data by varying the amplitude of the
signal. For example a stronger voltage could represent a binary 1 and a weaker voltage
could represent a binary 0.
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sender and receiver, their clocks must somehow be synchronized. The following three
methods are used for synchronous timing coordination.
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Coaxial
Coaxial (or coax) cable looks like the cable used to bring the cable TV signal to
your television. One strand (a solid-core wire) runs down the middle of the
cable. Around that strand is insulation. Covering that insulation is a wire mesh
and metal foil, which shields against electromagnetic interference, as
illustrated in Figure. A final layer of insulation covers the wire mesh providing
protection and insulation. Coaxial cable is resistant to the interference and
signal weakening that other cabling, such as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)
cable, can experience. In general, coax is better than UTP cable in connecting
longer distances and for reliably supporting higher data rates with less
sophisticated equipment.
Just because the TV cable is coax does not mean it will work with computer
networks. Coaxial cable comes in different sizes. It is classified by size (RG)
and by the cable’s resistance to direct or alternating current measured in ohms
called impedance, and the attenuation.
The following are some common coaxial cables commonly used in networks:
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Twisted-pair cable
Twisted pair cable uses one or more pairs of two twisted copper wires to
transmit signals. It is commonly use as telecommunication cable.
When copper wires that are close together conduct electric signals, there is a
tendency for each wire to produce interference in the other. One wire
interfering with another in this way is called cross talk. To decrease the
amount of cross talk and outside interference, the wires are twisted. Twisting
the wires allows the emitted signals from one wire to cancel out the emitted
signals from the other and protects them from outside noise.
Twisted pairs are two color-coded, insulated copper wires that are twisted
around each other. A twisted pair consists of one or more twisted pairs in a
common jacket.
There are two types of twisted pair cables: shielded and unshielded.
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Cost
STP costs more than UTP and thin coaxial cable but less than thick coaxial and
fiber optics cable.
Installation
The requirement for special connectors can make STP more difficult to install
than UTP. Because STP is rigid and thick (up to 1.5 inches in diameter), it can
be difficult to work with.
Node capacity
Since only two devices can be connected together by an STP cable, the cable
does not limit the number of computers in an STP network. Rather, the hub or
hubs that connect the cables together limit it.
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Attenuation
STP does not outperform UTP much in terms of attenuation. The most common
limit is 100 meters.
EMI
The biggest difference between STP and UTP is the reduction of EMI> the
shielding blocks a considerable amount of interference. However, since it is
still copper wire, STP still suffers from EMI and is vulnerable to eavesdropping.
Fiber optic-cable
Optical fibers carry digital data signals in the form of modulated pulses of
light. It is enormously more efficient than the other network transmission
media.
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Cost
Fiber-optics cable is slightly more expensive than copper cable, but costs are
falling. Associated equipment costs can be much higher than the copper cable,
making fiber-optics networks much more expensive. Single-mode fiber devices
are more expensive and more difficult to install than multi-mode devices.
Installation
Fiber-optics cable is more difficult to install than copper cable. Each fiber
connection and splice must be carefully made to avoid obstructing the light
path. Also, the cables have a maximum bend radius, which makes cabling much
more difficult.
Bandwidth capacity
Because it uses light, which has a much higher frequency than electricity,
fiber-optics cabling can provide much higher bandwidths. Current technologies
allow data rates from 100 Mbps to 2Gbps.the data rate depends on the fiber
composition, the mode, and the frequency. A common multi-mode installation
can support 100 Mbps of data rates over several kilometers.
Node capacity
Since only two devices can be connected together by a fiber-optics cable, the
cable does not limit the number of computers in a fiber-optics network.
Rather, the hub or hubs that connect the cables together limit it.
Attenuation
Fiber-optics cable has much lower attenuation than copper wires, mainly
because light is not radiated out in the way electricity is radiated from copper
cables. Fiber-optics cable can carry signals over distances measured in
kilometers.
EMI
Fiber-optics cable is not subject to electrical interference. In addition, it does
not leak signals, so it is also immune to eavesdropping. This type of cable is
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Network Models
Connecting two or more computers together to exchange information is a
relatively simple concept, but there is a lot that must happen behind the
scenes to make it a reality. Designing networking into an operating system or
developing a network standard is quite an undertaking.
All the network hardware designers, software programmers, and operating
system architects don’t want to reinvent the wheel each time they develop a
new piece of hardware, have an idea for a new protocol, or want to create the
latest greatest operating system. To facilitate the design and operation of
networking components, network models were created to provide a
framework. All popular, open network standards are based on the models
discussed in this chapter. Understanding these models and how they relate to
various network standards will give you a better understanding of how networks
work.
Network Models
Network models provide a standard framework to use when designing complex
communication systems. Since all networks carry out many of the same
functions, industry players have devised network models to simplify their
design.
Models outline standard issues associated with network design and allow the
designer to solve each issue separately, modularizing the solution. Rather than
developing a solution from top to bottom, from the operating systems to the
interface cards and wires on the network, a network model allows the
designers to relegate different parts of the design to different people. It also
allows them to use a proven design, rather than developing their own.
Keep in mind that a network model is a framework to use, not a concrete
method. It is up to the implementers to decide which parts of the model are
relevant to accomplish their goals.
Network Communication Basics
Network communication has one very simple goal: to send 1s and 0s from one
computer to another, quickly and without error. While this may seem easy
enough from the surface, look under the covers and you’ll see it is a complex
process. Network communications have to take into account many variables to
work reliably.
Representing and Transmitting Data
When actually sending information across a network, there are many ways to
send the data. Computer data is nothing but 1s and 0s, and it is always sent
one bit at a time. But different computers look at those 1s and 0s in
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When data is fragmented, it is important to ensure that all the pieces make it
to the other end in the right sequence. If they are not in order, it is sometimes
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possible to resequence the data into the right order. If the data can’t be put
back into the right order, then it must be resent. Steps must be taken before
transmission to label data fragments before sending them so the receiving end
can figure out what order they belong in.
Error Checking
We all know that we don’t live in a perfect world, and imperfection carries
straight down into computer networks. Imperfections in network transmissions
can result in corrupted, useless data on the receiving end. When sending data
across a network, error checking can be used to ensure that the data received
is identical to the data that was sent originally. Error checking can happen at
many different levels of the communication process.
A basic method of checking for errors with transmitted data is the use of a
parity bit. Before sending data, the numbers of individual bits that make up
the data are counted. If there are an even number of bits, a parity bit is set to
one and added to the end of the data so that the total of the bits being sent is
odd. If there are an odd number of bits, the parity bit is set to zero and added
to the end. The receiving computer adds up the bits received and if there are
an even number of bits, the computer assumes that an error has occurred. The
parity method is not foolproof, since if an even number of bits is corrupted,
they will offset each other in the total.
The checksum is a form of error checking that simply counts the number of bits
sent and sends this count along. On the receiving end, the bits are once again
counted and compared with the original count. If they match, it is assumed the
data was received correctly.
Another type of error checking is the cyclical redundancy check (CRC). This
involves running a byte or group of bytes through a mathematical algorithm to
produce a single bit or byte to represent the data (a CRC). The CRC value is
transmitted with the data. When the data reaches its destination, the receiver
runs it through the same mathematical algorithm. The results are compared
with the original CRC, and if they match, the receiving computer assumes that
data is correct. If they do not match, the receiver must discard the data and
try again.
Sometimes the integrity of the data is checked at each step along the way
(connection-oriented). At other times, there is no error checking on the
network (connectionless); instead, the error checking is left up to the software
sending the data.
OSI Model
The most common network model used in PC networks is the Open Systems
Interconnect (OSI) model. The OSI model was developed from the late 1970s to
its current form in the mid-1980s by the International Standards Organization
(ISO). Both Microsoft, Novell, and all the major PC networking giants use the
OSI model as a basis for network design.
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The OSI model consists of seven layers. They cover all aspects of networking,
from the topmost issues (“How do I print to the network printer?”) all the way
down to the lowest technical issue (“What voltage at what frequency do I apply
to which wire?”). The seven layers help break down the aspects into
manageable units that interact with one another. The layers are, from top to
bottom:
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Processing
A common mnemonic to help you remember the layers from top to bottom is,
“All People Seem To Need Data Processing.” There are many more phrases,
and you can always invent your own.
All the layers in the OSI model work in a hierarchy. If a computer is sending
data, each layer receives the data from the layer above it, performs any
applicable work on that data, and adds on its own information regarding that
data. The layer then sends the data on down to the next layer.
When a computer is sending data, each layer receives the data from the layer
beneath it, processes it, and sends it to the layer beneath it. The opposite
occurs on the receiving computer. In Figure 2-1, the Application Layer on
Computer 1 communicates with the Application Layer on Computer 2, going
down the hierarchy, and then back up.
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As data is sent down the hierarchy, each layer appends its own information to
the data for processing by the same layer on the destination computer. Each
layer adds a header as the data travels down through the OSI layers, and the
associated layer on the receiver removes the headers.
Figure 2-2 demonstrates how each layer adds information to the data as it is
sent, and conversely how that information is removed as the data is received.
The seven layers can be broken into two groups to help further understand
their basic functions. The first three layers (Application, Presentation, and
Session) are primarily used by applications. The four lower layers (Transport,
Network, Data Link, and Physical) are concerned with data transport, or simply
getting data from one network device to another.
Functions of the Layers
Each layer has specific functions that it defines. Some functions are defined in
more than one layer (such as error control and flow control). While this seems
redundant, it does not mean that these functions must be implemented at both
layers, no matter what. Don’t forget the OSI is a model. One designer may use
error control at one layer; another may use it at a different layer. It all
depends on the designer’s goals.
While it is very easy to memorize the various layers of the OSI model from top
to bottom, it is a bit easier to learn about what these layers do by taking a
bottom-to-top approach.
Physical
The bottom layer of the OSI hierarchy is only concerned with moving bits of
data onto and off of the network medium. The Physical Layer does not define
what that medium is, but it must define how to access it. This includes the
physical topology (or structure) of the network, the electrical and physical
aspects of that medium used, and encoding and timing of bit transmission and
reception.
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Data Link
The Data Link Layer handles many issues for communicating on a simple
network (The Network Layer discussed in the next section performs the
functions necessary to communicate beyond a single physical network.) This
layer takes the frames generated by the upper layers and takes them apart for
transmission. When receiving messages from the network, it reassembles this
information back into frames to send to the upper layers. This layer actually
does a lot more than just break apart and put together frames.
The 802 model breaks the Data Link Layer into two sub layers: logical link
control (LLC) and media access control (MAC). The LLC layer starts and
maintains connections between devices. When sending data from your
workstation to a server on the same network segment, it is the LLC sublayer
that establishes a connection with that server. The MAC layer allows multiple
devices to share the media. Most LANs have more than one computer (of
course!), and the MAC sublayer determines who may speak and when.
Another important job of the Data Link Layer is addressing. The MAC sublayer
maintains physical device addresses for communicating with other devices
(commonly referred to as MAC addresses). Each device on the network must
have a unique MAC address, otherwise the network will not know exactly where
to send information when a node requests it. For example, how would the
postal service know where to send your bills without your address?
Most network interface cards (NICs) in a computer provide the MAC address as
an address burned into the interface card. Some older network cards even
required an administrator to set the address manually using switches. Even
with a permanent MAC address burned into the card, some protocols allow you
to define this address via software, although this is unusual.
The MAC address is used to communicate only on the local network. When
transmitting to a server on the same LAN segment, the protocol uses the MAC
addresses to communicate between the two computers. If the server is located
on another network segment across a WAN, the MAC address of the nearest
router (routers are discussed later in this chapter) is used to send the
information, and it is up to the router to send the data further on.
Finally, the Data Link Layer manages flow control and error correction
between devices in a simple network. In more complex internetworks, it is up
to the Network Layer and other upper layers to perform these functions.
Network
The Network Layer is one of the most complex and important ones. The
Network Layer manages addressing and delivering packets on a complex
internetwork. Devices known as routers, which utilize routing tables and
routing algorithms to determine how to send data from one network to
another, join internetworks.
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The Network Layer also allows the option of specifying a service address on the
destination computer. All modern operating systems (UNIX, Windows NT, OS/2,
etc.) run many programs at once. The service address allows the sender to
specify which program on the destination the data being sent is for. Service
addresses that are well defined (by networking standards, for example) are
called well-known addresses. Service addresses are also called sockets or ports
by various protocols.
Transport
The Transport Layer works hard to ensure reliable delivery of data to its
destinations. The Transport Layer also helps the upper layers (Application,
Presentation, and Session) communicate with one another across the network
while hiding the complexities of the network.
The Transport Layer also interacts with the Network Layer, taking on some of
the responsibilities for connection services.
One of the functions of the Transport Layer is segment sequencing. Sequence
switching is a connection-oriented service that takes segments that are
received out of order and resequences them in the right order.
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Half-duplex dialogs allow data to flow in two directions, but only one direction
at a time. With half-duplex dialogs, replies and acknowledgements are
possible. But this isn’t always the most efficient method. If an error is detected
early on in transmission, the receiver must wait for the sender to finish before
any action can be taken. A CB radio is an excellent example of a half-duplex
dialog.
Full-duplex dialogs let data flow in both directions simultaneously. This method
allows more flexibility, but also requires more complex communication
methods. A telephone is a prime example of full-duplex communication.
When a session is established, there are three distinct phases involved.
Establishment is when the requestor initiates the service and the rules for
communication are established. Once the rules are established, the data
transfer phase may begin. Both sides know how to talk to each other, what the
most efficient methods are, and how to detect errors, all because of the rules
defined in the first phase. Finally, termination is when the session is complete
and communication ends in an orderly fashion.
Presentation
It is up to the Presentation Layer to make sure that data sent by the
Application Layer and received by the Session Layer is in a standard format. As
discussed earlier, different types of computers can interpret identical data
differently.
A network standard defines the proper format for any data as it is transmitted.
When the Presentation Layer receives data from the Application Layer to be
sent over the network, it makes sure the data is in the proper format and if
not, it converts the data. On the flip side, when the Presentation Layer
receives data from the Session Layer from the network, it makes sure the data
is in the proper format, and once again converts it if not.
Application
The Application Layer provides a consistent, neutral interface to the network.
Many people confuse the Application Layer with an actual software package,
such as a word processor. This is not the case. The Application Layer provides a
consistent way for an application to save files to the network file server or
print to a network printer.
An example of this is how Windows 95 makes it just as easy to print to a
network printer, as it is to print to a locally attached printer. This is the
Application Layer in practice.
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Figure 3: Repeater
linking two physically
separate networks
Functions
A repeater simply
receives frames,
regenerates them, and
passes them along. It
performs no processing
of the frames or the
data they contain.
Because it is not
performing much
processing, repeaters
are simpler in design, and therefore less expensive than other devices used to
connect networks, like bridges and routers.
Figure 2-3 shows a repeater linking Network 1 to Network 2. Any data sent out
on Network 1 is picked up by the repeater and sent out over Network 2 with no
changes. The opposite happens when transmitting on Network 2. As far as all
the devices on each network are concerned, there is only one network.
Relation to OSI Layer Functions
Because repeaters operate at the Physical Layer, they do not need any
addressing data from the frame. Repeaters do not even look at the frames they
are forwarding, passing along even damaged frames. This can be especially
problematic if one segment malfunctions and begins a broadcast storm. The
repeater forwards all those erroneous broadcasts faithfully!
Examples
Repeaters are primarily used to extend a LAN beyond physical limitations. In a
manufacturing setting, a computer on the plant floor may be further from the
rest of the network than the physical limits of the media allow. Inserting a
repeater between the computer and the rest of the LAN could allow the
computer access to the network.
Repeaters can also join networks that use the same frame type but different
types of cabling. Suppose the Marketing and Accounting departments each have
their own LAN, both using the 802.3 frame type. Marketing uses twisted-pair
Ethernet cabling and accounting uses thin coaxial cabling. If the two
departments want a simple, inexpensive way to join their LANs, they can use a
repeater, despite the different cabling. If Marketing uses a Token Ring network
scheme and Accounting uses Ethernet, they cannot use a repeater because of
the different frame types.
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Bridges can not join dissimilar networks. If you have an Ethernet network and a
Token Ring network, you cannot use a bridge; you must use a router. However,
a bridge can join networks that use the same frame type but different media,
just like a repeater.
Relation to OSI Layer Functions
Bridges work with the MAC sublayer of the Data Link Layer. Remember that the
Data Link Layer is concerned with communicating on the local network only.
Bridges use information from the MAC sublayer to make decisions on whether a
packet is destined for the same network or another network. The MAC address
is used by bridges to determine first if the destination is local or not, then to
choose which connected network it must go to.
Examples
Bridges are usually used to minimize network traffic. As a company’s network
grows, it becomes busier and slower. An inexpensive way to minimize these
growing pains is to segment the LAN using bridges.
Suppose the Marketing and Accounting departments described previously,
linked via a repeater, continue to grow. Suddenly you, the network
administrator, are receiving complaints from both departments that the
network is very slow. A quick and simple way to fix this problem is to replace
the repeater with a bridge. Now, anytime someone in the Marketing
department accesses the Marketing server, their network traffic won’t cross
over the Accounting department’s network. But if that same person wants to
send email to accounting, that message will go right through.
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Figure 2-4 shows how routers send data between a workstation and a server
across a relatively simply internetwork. When the workstation sends its data to
the server, it first goes to Router A, then on to Router B. At this point, Router B
must make a choice. There are two links to Router C and the network that the
server resides on. One link is a fast T1, the other a comparatively slow modem
link. Router B must decide which link to use given the current conditions, and
send the data down that link. Router C receives the data and drops it onto the
server’s local network.
Table 2-2 shows all the OSI layers and the various functions they perform.
Application • Provides services on network, such as file/print, email, databases, etc.
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• File syntax translation – File formats that differ (Mac file forks vs.
PC flat files)
Session
• Half-duplex –Two-way data transfers, but data can only flow in one direction at a time
• A session is a formal dialog between a requestor and provider and must have
three phases:
• Data transfer – Due to rules, each side knows what to do, operates efficiently, and
detects errors.
• Allows upper layers to communicate with network while hiding network complexities.
• Takes on some responsibility for connection services and interacts with Network
Layer’s connection-oriented and connectionless services.
• Error control – Detects and takes care of corrupted, duplicated, or lost segments.
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Network
• Packet switching – Messages divided into smaller packets that contain addressing
information, and can be sent through switches rapidly without being stored. Two types of
packet switching:
• Datagram – Each packet treated independently, and they can travel different paths
getting to destination.
• Virtual Circuit – A well-defined path through the network is negotiated, and remains in
effect until communication is done. Network looks like a physical circuit, even though
none exists.
• Connectionless – Internal nodes along path do not deal with error correction and flow
control.
• When two networks are too different; a gateway is used to connect the
networks.
• Logical link control (LLC) – Starts and maintains links between devices.
• Provides flow control and error control for single links between devices.
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Network Connectivity
Expansion within a single network is called network connectivity. To expand a
single network without breaking it into parts, one of the following devices can
be used:
Repeaters
A repeater is probably one of the conceptually simplest devices on a network.
Repeaters, although not necessary for functionality, enable your network to
span a greater distance.
Function
All transmission media attenuate (weaken) the electromagnetic waves that
travel through them. Attenuation, therefore limits the distance any medium
can cover. Repeaters allow you to extend your network beyond the physical
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bridge, it passes them across the bridge. Since the only information the bridge
knows about the packet is the MAC address of the destination, the bridge is
said to reside in the Data Link Layer of the OSI Model.
Switches
Switches have become an increasingly important part of our networks today. As
network usage increases, so do traffic problems. As a systems engineer, you
will be faced with this problem on an almost continuous basis. A common
solution to traffic problems is to implement switches.
Multi-Port Bridging
Switches also referred to as multi-port bridges, automatically determine the
MAC addresses of the devices connected to each port of the switch. The switch
then examines each packet it receives to find its destination MAC address. The
switch then determines which port the packet is destined for and sends it out
to that port only.
Network Performance Improvement with Switching
The primary benefit of implementing switching technology is that network
performance will be improved a great deal. It is important to note that if you
are not having traffic problems on your network, adding a switch will probably
not change your network’s performance. If your network is having traffic
problems, switching, when implemented properly, can greatly increase your
performance.
Switching is a fairly involved process, as illustrated in Figure 10-4. Computer A
transmits a packet to Computer C. The packet enters the switch from Port 1
and then travels a direct route to Port 3. From Port 3 the packet is transmitted
to Computer C. During this process, Computer B is unaware of the traffic
between Computer A and C because there was a direct path within the switch
and no shared bandwidth.
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segment of the network, if it determines that the packet is not destined for an
IP address located on the other side of the router, it is sent to the gateway
address. If the destination IP address is connected to one of the other ports of
the brouter, the packet is bridged to the other port instead of being routed. If
a brouter determines that a packet received from one segment is not destined
for a port of the brouter it will be routed. If the packet is destined for a port of
the brouter, it will be bridged to that port.
Bridging vs. Routing Protocols
Routing protocols are quite different from bridging protocols. Bridging
protocols are designed to combine packets from multiple physical networks and
consolidate them into one virtual network. Routing protocols are designed to
separate a physical network into multiple virtual networks.
The manner in which bridging and routing protocols operate also varies. A
bridging protocol allows all traffic to cross that is not destined for the local
network. A routing protocol allows traffic to cross that is destined for networks
on the other side of the router.
OSI Network Layer
Routers and brouters operate by using the IP address to calculate if the packet
should be routed. Since the IP address is needed, routers and brouters are said
to reside in the Network Layer of the OSI Model.
Gateways
A gateway is a device that enables two dissimilar systems that have similar
functions to communicate with each other.
Connecting Dissimilar Systems
Dissimilar systems are defined as two systems that have similar functions, but
are unable to directly communicate with each other. For example, two Token
Ring networks and Ethernet qualify under this definition.
In Figure 10-6, the PC on the left is able to use data and applications that are
on the Mainframe on the right. As packets cross the gateway from the
Mainframe to the PC, the Gateway converts them to a format that is
understandable by the PC. The opposite operation occurs when the PC sends
packets to the Mainframe. In this figure, PC and Mainframe are dissimilar
systems.
Figure 6: Gateways connect two dissimilar systems and allow them to share
data.
Wide Area Networks (WANs)
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One of the best known wide area networks (WANs) is the Internet. It grew out
of ARPANET, a government defense research project for connecting sites in
order to share radar data. The WAN technology that grew from there is
different than traditional local area network (LAN) technology because it must
allow for data transfer over a distance that is greater than the limitations of
LAN physical media. For instance, the limit of 100BaseT over Category 5 cabling
is 100 meters. This removes the possibility of connecting a New York office to a
Los Angeles site via 100BaseT over Category 5 cabling.
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Fourth, the carrier signal must have some path to travel between the DCEs.
Transmission media, or the carrier, provides the path. A Carrier Service
provides the transmission media. Carrier services are traditionally telephone
companies. They offer their existing telephone wires as the path between the
DCEs. Keep in mind, though, that a carrier service can also be a satellite
service using wireless transmission, a cable company using their existing cable
network, or even a network using another media perhaps installed just for data
transmission.
When using an analog line, the DCE must translate the digital data to an analog
signal. The digital signal must be modulated before it is sent over the wire.
When it gets to the remote DCE, the analog signal must be demodulated into a
digital signal that the remote DTE will understand. The word modem,
therefore, is shorthand for Modulator Demodulator.
Analog Carriers
Analog carriers are traditionally telephone company lines, or the Public
Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). Carrier services, other than the
telephone company, that offer data networks usually create digital networks
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also called public data networks (PDNs). The types of WAN connections that
may use the PSTN include:
Dial-up lines
Leased lines
Switched 56
T-1 to T-3 lines (known as T-carrier lines)
ISDN
Of these WAN connection types, the dial-up lines are usually analog. Leased
lines, switched 56, T-carrier, and ISDN connections are usually digital.
Dial-up or Switched lines
Why are dial-up lines also switched lines? Because the public telephone
network is a switched service, and dial-up lines use those wires and circuits to
create a connection. The telephone network is set up so that a signal travels to
the local Central Office, one of which is usually located somewhere within a
few miles of any telephone. A pair of wires that create the electrical current
needed for stable communication wires each phone to the central office. The
area code and the exchange of the phone number identify which central office
is used. The exchange is the first three numbers of the seven-digit phone
number.
Leased lines can use different framing protocols. Framing protocols occur at
the Data Link Layer of the OSI protocol stack. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP),
discussed later in this chapter, is a typical leased line protocol, as is High-level
Data Link Control (HDLC), which is not discussed.
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The first disadvantage of leased lines is cost. The line is being paid for all the
time, whether or not data may be flowing between the two sites, and whether
or not full bandwidth is being utilized. There is a certain point of bandwidth
utilization called the break-even point. It is the point midway between where a
dial-up line is cheaper than a leased line and where a leased line is cheaper
than a dial-up line. Figure 11-3 illustrates this cost comparison.
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high-speed
media
T-4 DS-4 4032 274.76 Mbps Fiber or other
high-speed
media
Table 1: T-Carrier Rates and Media
T-1
AT&T developed T-1 for digital transmission. It uses time-division multiplexing
to allow 24 separate channels to combine for a total bandwidth of 1.544 Mbps.
Each channel is 8 bits wide. T-1 adds a synchronization bit every 193 bits. This
is the clocking mechanism for the data flow. T-1 is not dependent on the
physical media used.
Since it uses time-division multiplexing (TDM), the T-1 carrier signal is sampled
and interleaved, and then converted into a digital data stream. TDM is a
synchronous system that interleaves fragments of slower channels into a single
faster channel. TDM is the only system that can be used on a baseband line.
Figure 11-4 illustrates a four-channel TDM system.
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T-1 line. Most common are 128-Kbps or two channels, and 256-Kbps or four
channels.
T-3
T-3 is larger than T-1. As a result, it is more expensive. T-3 transmits DS-3-
formatted data at 44.736 Mbps over optical fiber or microwave lines. The DS-3
is the framing specification. T-3 is the equivalent of 672 DS-0 channels.
Switched 56
Switched 56 is the low end of WAN point-to-point services. Switched 56 is a
something of a misnomer. Although it is commonly sold as 56 Kbps, some areas
offer 64 Kbps, although that is more common in Europe. The reason that US
services offer 56 Kbps is due to the management overhead of the line. It is also
a digital service.
Switched 56 is called that, since it is an on-demand dial-up line. It is still based
on a T-1 channelized system. When the customer dials up the line, one of the
channels is switched into the customer’s link. This means that the costs are
based on the actual usage. Most carrier services offer a dedicated 56-Kbps
service, as well. Switched 56 is an excellent backup link, providing fault
tolerance for other higher speed lines.
ISDN
ISDN means Integrated Services Digital Network. Originally created by the
International Telecommunications Union Telecommunication Standardization
Sector (ITU-T), ISDN is a project to upgrade the existing PSTN to be able to run
digital services and provide digital connectivity between video, terminals,
telephones, computers, voice mail, etc. Because it uses the existing telephone
network, ISDN uses copper wire.
ISDN components are illustrated in Figure 11-5 and include:
TE1 (terminal equipment type 1) ISDN terminals
TE2 (terminal equipment type 2) Terminals that predate ISDN.
NT1 (network termination type 1) Equipment that connects the subscription
four wires to the two-wire local loop, is provided by the customer in the US,
but provided by the carrier in other countries.
NT2 (network termination type 2) Performs protocol functions of the OSI
protocol stack Data Link and Network Layers.
TA (terminal adapter) Used with a TE2 in order to adapt it to ISDN, and can
be either internal or external.
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Table 11-2 lists the carrier types and their access method and bandwidth.
Carrier Type Switched or Dedicated Bandwidth
Dial-up lines Switched Up to 56 Kbps
Leased lines Dedicated 56 Kbps to 1.544 Mbps
Switched 56 Switched 56 Kbps
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Flow control was a necessity once modems with differing capabilities needed to
communicate with each other. Since one modem in a connection was capable
of sending data much faster than the other could receive, flow control was
created to be able to pause the sending modem while the receiving modem
caught up. The varieties of flow control are:
Software XON/XOFF flow control
Hardware request to send/clear to send (RTS/CTS) – flow control
With software flow control, when the receiving modem indicates that a pause
is needed, it sends a certain character, usually Ctrl-S. Since the Ctrl character
is typically sent, these commands are sometimes called control indicators.
When the receiving modem is ready for more data, it sends another control
indicator, such as Ctrl-q. The advantage of software flow control is that it can
use a serial cable with only three wires. One disadvantage is that line noise can
sometimes inadvertently create control indicators, pausing or restarting
transmissions at inappropriate times. Another disadvantage lies in the fact that
since binary files contains control characters, they should never be sent using
software flow control.
Hardware, or RTS/CTS, flow control bases its pause and resume features on
whether the RTS or CTS wires in the modem cable send a bit of data. In the
case of an internal modem, this feature is within the modem hardware itself.
Hardware flow control tends to be faster and more reliable than software flow
control.
National Semiconductor created the first UART called INS-8250. This was
upgraded to a faster 16450. Both of these UARTs had a one-byte buffer, which
meant that if information was traveling too fast for the CPU to handle, it was
overwritten. Because of today’s faster modem speeds, the UART was upgraded
to 16550A. The 16550 have a 16-byte buffer, so that a busy CPU can catch up
after dealing with other tasks.
Internal vs. External
An internal modem and an external modem perform the same function. An
internal modem is either built into the motherboard of a PC or laptop, or the
internal modem is an additional adapter card within the computer. If the
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computer being used is older, say a 386, the serial port UART is most likely the
16450, which means that the PC can only handle up to a 2400-bps external
modem connected to that serial port. A UART is built into an internal modem,
so using a faster modem requires an internal modem, or upgraded serial port
card. Another advantage to internal modems is that they are cheaper, since
there are no case or indicator lights that have to be included in the product.
The advantages of using an external modem lie in the ability to use the
external serial port, and not have to use up an additional interrupt within the
PC. An external modem is easily installed, and can be transferred between PCs
with little or no trouble. If an external modem gets “stuck” in communications,
perhaps due to a software flow control error; it is easily reset since it has its
own on/off button. Rebooting the PC is the only way to reset an internal
modem. An external modem usually has indicator lights that can help
troubleshoot communication problems.
Connectors: RJ-11 and Serial
A connector is the part of a cable that plugs into a port or interface in order to
connect one hardware device to another. Connectors are either males where
they consist of one or more exposed pins, or female where they contain
openings into which the male connector can be inserted.
A standard PC serial port is called an RS-232. The Electronics Industry
Association (EIA) developed that standard for serial communication. In an RS-
232 serial port, one pin is used for transmitting data and another for receiving
data. There are other pins used to establish and maintain communications
between the two serial devices. Standard serial connectors come in two sizes:
25 pins or 9 pins. Each pin represents a type of data signal to be sent. Because
the type of data is restricted to certain pins, a cable must be wired so that it
transmits or receives the same data across that pin as is expected.
Table 11-3 lists the RS-232 pin assignments.
9-Pin 25-Pin Symbol Signal sent on that pin Input/Output
Connector Connector data
1 8 DCD Data carrier detect Input
2 3 RX Receive data Input
3 2 TX Transmit data Output
4 20 DTR Data terminal ready Output
5 7 Signal ground
6 6 DSR Data set ready Input
7 4 RTS Request to send Output
8 5 CTS Clear to send Input
9 22 RI Ring indicator Input
- 1 Protective ground
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As long as the basic 9-pin signals are maintained, serial cables can be wired
that have a 25-pin connector at one end and a 9-pin connector at the other.
The RS-232 cable connectors are meant for communication between two serial
port devices: a modem and a serial port. The connector between the modem
and the telephone line is different. It is usually an RJ-11 connector, although
more often upgraded telephone wiring is now using an eight-wire RJ-45 female
connector that is backwards compatible for a male RJ-11 connector. This is
being done in anticipation for further services to become available via the
telephone network.
The RJ-11 connector is shorthand for Registered Jack-11. It is either a four-
wire or six-wire connector used primarily to connect telephone equipment in
the United States. Modems connect with an RJ-11 cable into the RJ-11 female
port that leads to the PSTN. In the standard six-wire configuration, the wires
are configured as
Pin Function
1 CTRL In
2 Ground
3 Data Out
4 Ground
5 Data In
6 CTRL Out
Modem Standards- Hayes and ITU V Standards
The ITU-T is responsible for the V series of modem standards for modulation,
data transfer, and data compression protocols. In the early days of modems,
Bell created modulation standards, such as Bell 103 and Bell 212A, that were
prevalent in the United States. The ITU-T (which was the CCITT at the time)
was responsible for creating international standards.
Some V series modem type descriptions are followed by a “bis” or “ter.” That
suffix represents a secondary or tertiary V. series standard. For instance when
comparing a V.32 modem with a V.32bis modem, the bits per second rate is
significantly different; V.32 = 9600bps and V.32bis = 14,400bps, even though
the base modem standard is the same.
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and error correction abilities. MNP class 5 has been popular in the past because
it offers data compression, effectively doubling the modem bps rate.
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In synchronous data transmission, data is sent via a bit stream, which means
that a group of characters is sent at once without start and stop bits
interrupting them. For synchronous communication, the groups of characters
are gathered into a buffer of the DCE, where the DCE formats the data to be
sent as a stream. To prevent garbling, synchronous DCEs must be in precise
synchronization. They accomplish this by sending control codes, called
synchronization, or SYN characters. Once the DCEs are in synchronization, they
transfer the bit stream of data.
Synchronous transmission sends both text and binary data the same as
asynchronous, but it uses bandwidth much more efficiently since it can send
large blocks of data instead of a single character at a time. In order to be able
to transmit data in blocks, there must be some method of synchronizing the
transmission between the sending and receiving DCEs without framing each
character. Either the synchronizing signal can be contained in the frame around
the data, or the synchronizing signal can be constantly transmitted separately.
The SYN character is one method of accomplishing this.
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Figure 8: Where PPP and SLIP fit with the OSI protocol stack
The PPP frame consists of 6 fields: Flag, Address, Control, Protocol, Data, and
Frame Check Sequence. The Flag field is one byte 01111110, indicating the
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Asynchronous Protocols
Asynchronous protocols generally use digital signals transmitted without
precise clocking. Hence, the term asynchronous. The signals may have
differing frequencies or phase relationships, such as video or data. The data
variation and the lack of clocking forces the need for another method of
control in order to manage errors.
Traditional asynchronous transmissions, such as modem-to-modem dialogs
over analog lines, encapsulate each character with start and stop bits in
order to control the transmission. This is a tremendous overhead, making
poor use of bandwidth.
Newer asynchronous protocols have different methods of data transmission
in order to increase speed and reduce overhead. For instance, ATM utilizes
a cell-switching technique in which a fixed 53-byte cell length and cell relay
reduces transit delays. ATM was developed to transmit voice, video, or data
easily over high speeds.
Tunneling and Virtual Private Networks
Tunneling a protocol refers to the ability to route a protocol, such as IPX or
AppleTalk, over a network that uses a different protocol, such as TCP/IP.
The result is a connection between the two networks that uses the
network’s native protocol, be that IPX or AppleTalk, but which is
encapsulated and transmitted in a TCP/IP packet format. Note that IP traffic
can also be tunneled through an IPX or AppleTalk network, and AppleTalk
can be tunneled through an IPX network and vice versa as long as the
appropriate tunneling software is available and configured to format the
data.
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protects the data. Authentication is used to verify the identity of the user in
order to grant access to network resources.
Once connected via PPTP, a remote user has a virtual connection to the
network. It is transparent in that the end user may use network resources
just as if that user were connected directly to the network. The use of
PPTP, in effect, creates a Virtual Private Network (VPN). This is sometimes
referred to as an ExtraNet, and is a form of an Extranet, but is not limited
to WWW or FTP applications. Unlike the Internet, a VPN is not wide open,
even though it uses the Internet as a backbone network. It is, in fact,
virtually private. VPN can be accomplished using tunneling protocols, since
the data is encapsulated the way it is, it is secure.
Protocols Appropriate to Different Server Types
Depending on the server that is providing remote access services, the
protocol will vary. Generally, the two types of servers traditionally used by
an Internet Service Provider (ISP) are UNIX servers or Windows NT Servers.
It is possible that other servers are used, as well.
UNIX SLIP Servers
Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) is a legacy remote node protocol offered
by UNIX servers. Because of its prevalence, SLIP is still used. SLIP works at
the Physical Layer only of the TCP/IP protocol stack.
Using Dial-Up Networking in the current version, or the RAS client in older
versions, Windows NT can connect to SLIP servers as a client only. Neither
Windows NT Server, nor Windows NT Workstation can be configured as a
SLIP server.
Windows NT PPP Servers
Windows NT Remote Access Service offers PPP as the default connection
type for remote nodes. PPP is protocol independent and can be used with
any of Windows NT’s native protocols: NetBEUI, NWLink, and TCP/IP. PPP is
also the default client type for Dial-Up Networking and for the older RAS
client in older versions of Windows NT.
Protocols Common to Internet Service Providers
Internet Service Providers (ISPs) commonly use PPP as the protocol for dial-
up connections. They may also use SLIP for dial-up connections if the ISP’s
servers are UNIX based.
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