Comparison of Major Stress Models

Stress
model

Definition
of Stress

Source(s)
of stress

Strengths

Weaknesse
s

General Adaptation
Syndrome (Selye)

Nonspecific
response of the
body to demands
placed upon it
disturbs body
equilibrium

Various
environmental
pressures (chronic)
that deplete energy
reserves

Empirically
derived and
extensively tested

Extreme biological
emphasis; treats
good and bad
stressors the same
way; ignores
cognitive-social
factors; based on
animal research

Psychodynamic
theory (Freud)

Defined primarily
by reference to
anxiety and
internal threats

Signals of danger
and unconscious
conflict

Uses only a few

concepts with great
power; intuitive
appeal; defense
mechanisms

Difficult (if not

impossible) to test;
limited in scope to
unconscious factors

Learning theory
(Skinner)

Faulty
conditioning
causes conditioned
emotional
responses and bad
habits

Presence of any
conditioned stimuli
and/or
reinforcement

Empirically
derived; clear
operational
definitions for
basic terms and
procedures;
attempted
explanation of
related coping
actions

Limited scope;
largely ignores any
biological factors;
limited use of
social context
factors; ignores or
denies importance
of cognitive
process

Transactional
theory (Lazarus)

Relationship
between demand
and coping
resources

Real or perceived
threats from the
environment

Compatible with
both the biological
and social models;
emphasizes
cognitive
(appraisal) factors
in stress

Criticized for its

circularity; some
concepts not well
defined

Social
readjustment
theory (Holmes &
Rahe)

Results from major

life change and the
pressures to adapt
to change in the
social environment

Any type of
change in social
situation (job,
residence,
relationships) that
requires an
adjustment by the
person

Incorporates social
factors related to
stress; research
supports
relationship to
health

The stress involved

in different
situations is not the
same for everyone;
considers only
relatively major life
changes; treats
welcome and
unwelcome
changes the same
way

Daily hassles and

uplifts (Lazarus)

Results from minor

annoyances and
hassles that occur
on a daily basis

Minor
disappointments,
annoyances, and
inconveniences
that occur on a
daily basis

Emphasizes a
source of stress
that many people
overlook or
dismiss as minor;
good predictor of
near-term health

Definition of a
hassle is not
precise; difficult to
measure such
minor events after
the fact

Holistic health
theory

No specific
definition provided

Implies that stress

results from failure
to treat the person
as a functional
whole

Scope is global;
emphasizes
interaction
between biological,
psychological, and
social factors

Not a formal
theory; lacking in
formal operational
definitions; lacking
in specific
supporting research

Note: Adapted from Table 1-1 in Rice, P. L. (1999). Stress & Health (3rd ed.). Pacific
Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Models of Stress
The way a stressor is encountered by the body and the body's way of
dealing with it has been the subject of many models. Two models in
particular are used today.

Selye's Model
Selye's model deals with how the stress is a physiological reaction to
all stressors. He observed by studying rats that all reactions to
stressors were basically similar, the body's adrenalin level rises and
there is hightened awareness. He claimed the body was nonspecific,
that it reacted to all stressors the same.
Selye's model is called the general adaption syndrome or GAS. It
is split into three stages. The first stage is the alarm stage, where a
stressor sets off the body's alarm so the body prepares for action. The
second stage is the resistance stage where the body focuses its
resources to battle the stressor. During this stage the body gets
weakened as it loses its resources. The final stage is the exhaustion
stage, where the body can no longer resist the stressor.

Lazarus's Model
Lazarus's Model differed slightly from Seyle's. By working more with
humans he came to the conclusion that the stressor, nor the response
could define stress, rather it was the individual's perception and
appraisal of the stressor that would determine if it would create stress.
He realized that different individuals would look at an event, such as
skydiving, and have different kinds of stress, positive or negative.
The first stage in his model is primary appraisal where the subject
analyzes the stressor and determines if it will be positive or negative,
exciting or harmful, etc. The second stage is secondary appraisal,
where the subject determines if he or she can cope with the given
stressor. Even if the stressor is determined as harmful in the first
stage, if the subject decides he or she can cope with it in the second
stage, stress will be kept at a minimum.