The retina assists the cerebral cortex in processing visual information

Processing of information begins in the retina.

The axons of the receptor cells, rods and cones synapse with neurons called bipolar cells,
which in turn synapse with ganglion cells.
Horizontal and amacrine cells are additional neurons that help integrate information
before it is sent to the brain.
Horizontal cells carry signals from one rod or cone to other photoreceptor cells and to
several bipolar cells; amacrine cell spread information from one bipolar cell to several
ganglion cells.
LATERAL INHIBITION occurs when rod or cone stimulates a horizontal cell, the horizontal
cell stimulates nearby receptor cells but inhibits more distant receptors and bipolar cells that
are not illuminated, making the light spot appear lighter and the dark surrounding even
darker. Lateral inhibition sharpens edges and enhances contrast in the image. Lateral
inhibition is repeated by the interactions of the amacrine cells with ganglion cells and occurs
at all levels of visual processing.
Axons of the ganglion cells form the optic nerves that transmit sensations from the eyes
to the brain.
Optic chiasm is where the optic nerves from the two eyes meet near the center of the base
of the cerebral cortex.
The nerve tracts of the optic chiasm are arranged in such a way that the right side of the
brain receives sensory information from the left visual field, while the left side of the brain
receives information from the right visual field.
Most of the ganglion cells axons lead to the lateral geniculate nuclei of the thalamus. The
nuclei relay sensations to the visual cortex, believed to be the first of many brain centers that
cooperate in constructing our visual perceptions.
Point-by-point information in the visual field is projected along neurons onto the visual cortex
according to its position in the retina, but the information the brain receives is highly
distorted.
Researchers estimated that fully 30% of the cerebral cortex takes part in formulating what
we actually see.

HEARING AND EQUILIBRIUM

I.

The mammalian hearing organ is within the inner ear

The ear converts the energy of pressure waves travelling through air into nerve
impulses that the brain perceives as sound.
The outer ear consisting of external pinna and auditory canal collect sound waves.
These waves cause the tympanic membrane to vibrate with the same frequency as
sound.
The three bones of the middle ear, namely malleus, incus, and stapes, amplify
(to make louder or increase) and transmit mechanical movements to the oval
window.
Vibrations of the oval window produce pressure waves in the fluid of the cochlea. The
cochlea then converts the energy of the vibrating fluid into action potentials.
The stapes vibrating creates travelling pressure in the fluid (perilymph) that passes in
the vestibular canal to the apex of the cochlea, then back to the base of the cochlea
via the tympanic canal.

The receptor cells - hair cells are part of the Organ of Corti and are attached in the
tectorial membrane. The energy of the vibrations of the oval window causes the
cochlear conduct, basilar membrane, and the organ of corti, to vibrate up and down.
As the basilar membrane vibrates, hair cells repeatedly brush against the tectorial
membrane to which they are attached. This stimulus causes the hair cells to
depolarize (Deflection of the hairs opens ion channels in the plasma membrane of the
hair cells and positive ions of potassium in this case enter.) and release
neurotransmitter, thereby triggering an action potential in a sensory neuron.
The differential stimulation of hair cells is perceived in the brain as sound of a certain
pitch.