THE STRUCTURE OF INTRODUCTIONS

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Scientific articles in many fields typically have the IMRaD structure. Obviously, the Materials and Method
section tells about the materials and method used in the study, and the Results section gives the main results,
while the Discussion section discusses the results. Thats all pretty clear.
But what actually happens in Introductions? What are the functions of an Introduction? How are these
functions realised? Knowing the answers to these questions will help us read more efficiently, write more
effective Introductions, and also help us prepare clearer presentations.
Unread studies are useless
Your study may be incredibly important, amazingly well done, and very elegantly written, but if nobody reads
it... So how can you try to make sure that people will read it? How can you persuade people to pay attention
to your research? This is the function of the Introduction.
Rhetoric: the art of persuasion
Rhetoric is concerned with the way you use language to achieve your objectives. These objectives may be to
amuse people, to inform, maybe even to shock: but most usually in introductions to research articles and
presentations, your main aim will be to persuade.
The CARS model for Introductions: Create A Research Space
The CARS model is a description of what typically happens in introductions, not a statement of what you
should do whenever you write an introduction. So it is descriptive, not prescriptive.
You can see why John Swales called his model of article introductions CARS - Create A Research Space.
Swales and many other investigators have analysed a large number of article introductions in many disciplines,
and in most it seems that the writer is trying to create a space for his/her research, by using various kinds of
rhetorical tricks.
Swales identified a number of elements or moves (like the moves in a game of chess) the writer makes in
trying to persuade readers that s/he has something important to say (see next page). In the model he used an
ecological metaphor, comparing the researcher trying to survive in the research world to an animal trying to
survive in nature. Both have to struggle to survive!
The amount of struggling (rhetorical work) you need to do to create such a space, or niche, for yourself
depends on several factors: for example, (a) the existing competition in the field, (b) the size and importance
of the niche you want to fill, and (c) your reputation as a researcher.
Obviously, if (a) there are very many researchers working in the same field, and (b) you have been
working on an important topic, and (c) you are not famous, you will have to do quite a lot of rhetorical
work if you want to persuade people to read your study!

Some typical expressions used in each Step of the Introduction

MOVE 1: ESTABLISHING A TERRITORY (TUTKIMUSALUEEN ESITTELY)

Here the writers try to persuade readers that the field, or topic, is important.
Step 1 Claiming centrality
The study of ... has great importance for...
Recently there has been wide interest in...
The relationship between ... has been studied by many authors.
and/or
Step 2 Making topic generalization(s)
The aetiology and pathology of ... is well known.
Education core courses are often criticised for...
... is a common finding in patients with...
and/or
Step 3 Reviewing items of previous research
Hacket et al. (1968) found that...
Many investigators have explored...
MOVE 2: ESTABLISHING A NICHE (OMAN REVIIRIN OSOITTAMALLA)

Here the writers try to persuade readers that further research in this area was necessary.
Step 1A Counter-claiming
However, radical design changes have become necessary...
or
Step 1B Indicating a gap
However, these methods suffer from some limitations.
Research into ... is scanty...
... has been largely ignored...
or
Step 1C Question-raising
However, it is not clear whether...
A question remains whether...
or
Step 1D Continuing a tradition
The remaining issue is find a way to ...

MOVE 3: OCCUPYING THE NICHE (OMAN REVIIRIN RAJAAMINEN)

Here the writers tell what they did (or tried to do) and what they found.
Step 1A Outlining purposes
The purpose of this study was...
The study had three objectives...
This investigation was undertaken in order to...
or
Step 1B Describing main features of study
The present work extends the use of the last model..
This analysis ... has been limited to...
Field work, interview and questionnaires have been utilised.
Step 2 Summary of main findings
The results show a growth of...
The authors found that...
Step 3

Indicating RA structure
We have organised the rest of this paper in the following way...
This paper is structured as follows...

Simplified CARS model of Introductions

These are very common elements in Introductions:
1.

This is important!

2.

This was known already.

or
This procedure/equipment/method/system was in
use.

3.

This was not known.

or
There was a problem with the
procedure/equipment/method/system.

4.

We aimed to find out what was not known.

or
We aimed to improve the
procedure/equipment/method/system.