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This paper describes a hybrid fuzzy weights-of-evidence (WofE) model for mineral potential
mapping that generates fuzzy predictor patterns based on (a) knowledge-based fuzzy membership values and (b) data-based conditional probabilities. The fuzzy membership values are
calculated using a knowledge-driven logistic membership function, which provides a framework for treating systemic uncertainty and also facilitates the use of multiclass predictor maps
in the modeling procedure. The fuzzy predictor patterns are combined using Bayes rule in
a log-linear form (under an assumption of conditional independence) to update the prior
probability of target deposit-type occurrence in every unique combination of predictor patterns. The hybrid fuzzy WofE model is applied to a regional-scale mapping of base-metal
deposit potential in the south-central part of the Aravalli metallogenic province (western
India). The output map of fuzzy posterior probabilities of base-metal deposit occurrence is
classified subsequently to delineate zones with high-favorability, moderate favorability, and
low-favorability for occurrence of base-metal deposits. An analysis of the favorability map
indicates (a) significant improvement of probability of base-metal deposit occurrence in the
high-favorability and moderate-favorability zones and (b) significant deterioration of probability of base-metal deposit occurrence in the low-favorability zones. The results demonstrate
usefulness of the hybrid fuzzy WofE model in representation and in integration of evidential
features to map relative potential for mineral deposit occurrence.
KEY WORDS: Fuzzy membership, conditional probability, base-metal deposits, GIS, Aravalli province.
INTRODUCTION
P [ B| D]
W+ = loge P [ B | D]
and
|D]
P[B
W = loge P [ B | D ] .
1 International
1
C 2006 International Association for Mathematical Geology
1520-7439/06/0300-0001/0
2
Bonham-Carter and Wright, 1990). The WofE modeling approach therefore, may be implemented using
binary predictor patterns, instead of multiclass predictor patterns, so that a predictor pattern is large
enough to contain a large proportion of training deposits. However, reclassification of spatial data into a
binary predictor map potentially results in some loss
of information in the predictor maps.
In fuzzy modeling approaches (for example,
An, Moon, and Rencz, 1991; Gettings and Bultman,
1993; Porwal and Sides, 2000; Knox-Robinson, 2000;
Carranza and Hale, 2001; Porwal, Carranza, and
Hale, 2003b), the spatial association of a predictor
pattern with a type of target mineral deposits is represented as a fuzzy membership value, which is estimated heuristically or algorithmically, based either
on expert knowledge or on empirical data, using appropriate fuzzy membership functions. Fuzzy modeling approaches, therefore, are implemented usually
using multiclass predictor maps.
In WofE modeling with multiclass predictor
maps, Cheng and Agterberg (1999) proposed a
fuzzy WofE approach that generalizes the ordinary
WofE approach by incorporating fuzzy mathematics.
The method involves (a) creating a fuzzy set of
favorable indicators of the target deposit-type for
each predictor map, (b) defining a knowledge-based
or data-based fuzzy membership function to calculate a fuzzy membership value for each pattern
in a predictor map represented as a fuzzy set, (c)
calculating a fuzzy WofE for each pattern in a predictor map, (d) combining the fuzzy WofE to
calculate, for each unique condition (Kemp,
Bonham-Carter, and Raines, 1999), a fuzzy posterior probability and the variance of the fuzzy
posterior probability because of missing patterns, to
miss-assigned patterns and to the fuzzy membership
functions, and (e) mapping of fuzzy posterior probabilities. The fuzzy posterior probability map can
be reclassified subsequently to create a binary or a
multiclass favorability map.
The fuzzy WofE approach (Cheng and
Agterberg, 1999) can be either (a) purely datadriven,
if a data-based function is used for calculating fuzzy
membership values or (b) hybrid knowledge-datadriven, if a knowledge-based function is used for
calculating fuzzy membership values. Cheng and
Agterberg (1999) demonstrated the fuzzy WofE
approach via a purely data-driven form to map gold
deposit potential in the Meguma Terrane, Nova
Scotia, Canada. In this paper, we explain and then
demonstrate a hybrid fuzzy WofE approach to
(1)
1
,
1 + ea(xij b)
(2)
(3)
W
Ai (xij ) =
Ai (xij )P[Ai1 |D] + {1
Ai (xij )}P[Ai2 |D]
loge
,
Ai (xij )P[Ai1 |D] + {1
Ai (xij )}P[Ai2 |D]
(5)
where P[Ai1 |D] and P[Ai2 |D] are, respectively, the
conditional probabilities of two crisp sets Ai1 and
and
Ai2 , given the presence of D, whereas P[Ai1 |D]
P[Ai2 |D] are, respectively, the conditional probabilities of the two crisp sets Ai1 and Ai2 , given the absence of D. The two crisp sets Ai1 and Ai2 (i = 1 to
i (i = 1 to n) are defined here as
n) in the fuzzy set A
follows:
Ai1 = {xij |
Aij = MAX (
Aij )} and
(6)
eloge O[D|Xi ]
.
1 + eloge O[D|Xi ]
and
2
X
(P[D|Xi ]) = {P[D|Xk] P[D|Xk]}2 P[D].
(9)
2
Ai (1
Ai )
p[Xi ]P[Xi ]
p[
]
Ai
2
2
(P[D|X
])
+
(P[D|X
])
.
X
i
i
Xl
l
(10)
where W
Aij is the fuzzy WofE of xij pattern in
Xi predictor map and is estimated as (Cheng and
Agterberg, 1999 ):
Ai2 = {xij |
Aij = MIN (
Aij )}.
(7)
APPLICATION TO BASE-METAL
DEPOSIT POTENTIAL MAPPING IN
ARAVALLI PROVINCE, WESTERN INDIA
The study area forms a part of the Aravalli metallogenic province in the state of Rajasthan, western
India (Fig. 1). It measures about 34,000 km2 and is
located between latitudes 23 30 N and 26 N and between longitudes 73 E and 75 E.
The geology of the province is characterized by two major fold belts, viz., the PalaeoMesoproterozoic Aravalli Fold Belt and the MesoNeoproterozoic Delhi Fold Belt, which are ingrained
in a reworked basement complex named the Banded
Gneissic Complex that contains incontrovertible
Archaean components. This three-fold tectonostratigraphic classification of the province, which was proposed first by Heron (1953), remains the basic framework of reference for all subsequent studies (Raja
Rao and others, 1971; Roy, 1988; Roy and others,
1993; Gupta and others, 1997). In an attempt to explain the evolution of the province in the framework
of Proterozoic Wilson cycles and plate tectonics,
Deb and Sarkar (1990) and Sugden, Deb, and
Figure 1. Location map of study area in state of Rajasthan, India. Small black circles are locations of base-metal deposits.
Windley (1990) divided the province into a number of tectonic domains based on lithogeochemical
and structural considerations. Our work on geophysical data also indicates that the province is comprised of subparallel linearly disposed belts (Fig.
2), each having distinct geophysical and tectonic
characteristics, coinciding broadly with the tectonic
domains proposed by Sugden, Deb, and Windley
(1990).
The Aravalli province holds substantial reserves
of base-metal sulfide deposits, particularly, lead and
zinc. The economically viable lead-zinc reserves in
the province stand at 130 million tonnes with 2.2%
Pb and 9.2% Zn with an additional 30 million tonnes
of possible resources in producing mines and deposits under detailed exploration (Haldar, 2001).
These form the entire economically viable lead-zinc
resource-base of the country.
A vast majority of the lead-zinc sulfide deposits
of the province are contained in the study area, which
is considered one of the prime exploration target
areas for base-metals in the country. The deposits
Figure 2. Generalized geological map of south-central Aravalli province showing study area for fuzzy WofE modeling
(demarcated in heavy black) and important mineralized zones (outlined in white). White circles are locations of basemetal deposits.
1981). The locations of 54 known base-metal deposits were compiled from various sources. The digitized maps in a vector format were converted into
grid format for subsequent operations. Based on the
resolution of the original maps used for creating
the GIS database, a grid cell size of 250 m 250 m
was considered appropriate for representing the
smallest feature in the original analogue maps. The
grid maps were processed, interpreted, and reclassified, as described by Porwal, Carranza, and Hale
(2003b), to create predictor maps. Of the eight
predictor maps we prepared, seven are multiclass
(lithologies, stratigraphic groups, sedimentary environments, buffered regional lineaments, buffered
NE-trending lineaments, buffered NW-trending lineaments, and buffered fold axes) and one is binary
(mafic igneous rocks).
Pairwise Test of Conditional Independence. All
pairs of predictor maps were tested for conditional
independence (CI) with respect to the locations
of base-metal deposits using the 2 test (BonhamCarter and Agterberg, 1990). The test, although not
accurate in determining CI, because it is gives low estimates of correlations (see Singer and Kouda, 1999,
for a detailed discussion), can be used for identifying pairs of predictor maps that lack CI with respect
to target variable. The results indicate that predictor map of sedimentary environments and predictor
map of lithologies significantly lack CI with respect
to the locations of base-metal deposits (Table 1). The
predictor map of sedimentary environments was not
considered further in the hybrid fuzzy WofE modeling because the sedimentary environments were inferred mainly from available geoscience information,
whereas the lithologies were mapped in the field. After combining the predictor maps, we also performed
an overall test of CI (see next).
Table 1. Pair-Wise 2 Test for Conditional Independence among Input Predictor Maps
Predictor maps
Stratigraphy
Lithologies
Sedimentary environments
Mafic igneous rocks
Buffered regional lineaments
Buffered NW lineaments
Buffered NE lineaments
57.66 (48)
65.171
68.42 (42)
58.124
6.36 (8)
15.507
3.01 (7)
14.067
4.96 (6)
12.529
Buffered
regional
lineaments
0.74 (8)
15.507
0.85 (7)
14.067
0.11 (6)
12.529
0.46 (1)
3.84
Buffered NW
lineaments
Buffered NE
lineaments
Buffered
fold axes
0.96 (8)
15.507
6.44 (7)
14.067
2.53 (6)
12.529
0.01 (1)
3.84
0.002 (1)
3.84
0.89 (8)
15.507
7.28 (7)
14.067
7.09 (6)
12.529
0.07 (1)
3.84
0.03 (1)
3.84
1.53 (1)
3.84
1.91 (8)
15.507
1.19 (7)
14.067
1.49 (6)
12.529
0.03 (1)
3.84
0.38 (1)
3.84
3.83 (1)
3.84
0.32 (1)
3.84
Note. Values in bold and italics are calculated and tabulated 2 values (at 0.05% significance level), respectively. Figures in parentheses
are degrees of freedom ( = (v 1)(u 1), where v and u are number of classes in two predictor maps).
Null hypothesis of conditional independence is rejected at 95% confidence level.
Map
weight
Class
weight
Class
score
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
2
1
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
20
10
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Fuzzy
membership
P[Xi |D]
P[Xi |D]
Fuzzy
WofE
0.99
0.98
0.95
0.88
0.73
0.5
0.27
0.05
0.02
0.1739
0.3043
0.3043
0.2174
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.022
0.0118
0.0096
0.0002
0.0213
0.0467
0.0839
0.2092
0.5935
1.8265
1.6288
1.1837
0.5244
0.3280
1.2640
2.2360
4.1740
5.1200
90
81
72
63
54
45
36
27
18
9
0.98
0.96
0.09
0.79
0.60
0.38
0.20
0.09
0.04
0.02
0.2609
0.5217
0.0870
0.0000
0.0000
0.0870
0.0000
0.0435
0.0000
0.0000
0.0044
0.0117
0.0545
0.0036
0.0083
0.0961
0.1528
0.1005
0.1925
0.3738
3.0684
2.5593
1.7249
0.9093
0.0153
0.8700
1.7620
2.6880
3.5510
4.2650
10
1
80
8
0.95
0.01
0.7391
0.2609
0.1265
0.8731
1.4737
1.1810
10
8
6
4
2
1
80
64
48
32
16
8
0.9526
0.8022
0.4502
0.1419
0.0323
0.0148
0.2609
0.4348
0.2174
0.0435
0.0000
0.0435
0.1897
0.1633
0.1336
0.1066
0.083
0.3235
0.2455
0.0080
0.6220
1.4100
1.8430
1.9290
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
1
70
63
56
49
42
35
28
21
14
7
7
0.8808
0.7858
0.6457
0.4750
0.3100
0.1824
0.0998
0.0522
0.0266
0.0134
0.0134
0.6957
0.1739
0.0435
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.087
0.1128
0.1026
0.0908
0.0787
0.0699
0.061
0.0523
0.0466
0.0415
0.0385
0.3051
1.7741
1.7303
1.6476
1.4992
1.2542
0.8911
0.4135
0.1540
0.7830
1.4440
1.4440
10
8
6
4
2
1
60
48
36
24
12
6
0.7311
0.4502
0.1978
0.0691
0.0219
0.0121
0.4783
0.2609
0.1739
0.0000
0.0435
0.0435
0.2430
0.1822
0.1169
0.0793
0.0574
0.3209
0.3142
0.1780
0.8580
1.4560
1.7950
1.8810
10
8
6
4
2
1
60
48
36
24
12
6
0.7311
0.4502
0.1978
0.0691
0.0219
0.0121
0.3913
0.2609
0.1304
0.087
0.0435
0.0870
0.1890
0.1678
0.1360
0.1056
0.0841
0.3171
0.3257
0.1470
0.6840
1.0490
1.2110
1.2470
Figure 3. Continuous grey-scale map of fuzzy posterior probabilities, which range from zero (white) to 0.484 (black).
The favorability map was validated by overlaying the 23 deposit training points and 31 deposit
validation points on the favorability map (Fig. 5).
Table 3 shows the distribution of deposit validation points and deposit training points in the favorability map. In the favorability map, (a) the highfavorability zones occupy about 6% of the study area
and contain about 74% and about 96%, respectively,
of the deposit validation points and deposit training
points, (b) the moderate-favorability zones occupy
about 4% of the study area and contain about 13% of
the deposit validation points and 13% of the deposit
training points, and (c) the low-favorability zones occupy about 90% of the study area and contain about
13% and about 4%, respectively, of the deposit validation points and deposit training points.
Brown and others (2000) use the following probability ratio for expressing the quality of a favorability map:
n(DA)/n(Dtotal )
p(D|A)
=
,
p(D)
n(A)/n(T)
(11)
10
Figure 4. Continuous gray-scale maps of variances of fuzzy posterior probabilities due (A) to missing patterns and to
miss-assigned patterns [variance ranges from zero (white) to 0.2148 (black)] and (B) to fuzzy membership values [variance
ranges from zero (white) to 0.0001 (black)].
DISCUSSION
The knowledge-based logistic function used in
the hybrid fuzzy WofE model provides a framework
for dealing with systemic uncertainties in a flexible
and consistent way. The function uses map weights
and class weights to derive fuzzy membership values of predictor patterns [Eqs. (2) and (3)]. The map
weight, which is similar in concept to the confidence
value of Knox-Robinson (2000), is assigned on the
basis of (a) the fidelity and precision of a predictor
11
Figure 6. Plot of cumulative fuzzy posterior probability versus cumulative percent of study area.
map and (b) the relative importance of the recognition criteria represented by a predictor map. The
map weight therefore provides a method for treating systemic uncertainty, which generally arises from
(a) imprecision in mapping of predictor patterns, (b)
involvement of heuristics in generation of one or
more predictor patterns (for example, several predic-
tor patterns in the present study were based on interpretations of total magnetic field intensity data), and
(c) an unknown contribution of different genetic factors, and, hence, of predictor patterns which represent them, in spatial localization of mineral deposits.
The S-shaped logistic membership function
transforms linearly distributed class scores to logarithmically distributed fuzzy membership values,
so the differences in fuzzy membership values are
larger in the central part of the curve than along
its tails, as discussed by Porwal, Carranza, and Hale
(2003b). The function therefore separates unfavorable patterns from favorable patterns with less uncertainty, although among favorable (and unfavorable)
Zone
% of study area
34,000 km2 )
no. (and %) of
training deposits
no. (and %) of
validation deposits
Prior
probability
Posterior
probability
Probability
ratio
High-favorability
Moderate-favorability
Low-favorability
5.9
4.3
89.8
22 (95.6)
0 (0.0)
1 (4.4)
23 (74.2)
4 (12.9)
4 (12.9)
0.0016
0.0016
0.0016
0.0226
0.0027
0.0001
14.13
1.69
0.06
12
patterns, the separation is more uncertain (Porwal,
Carranza, and Hale, 2003a). In a spatial domain,
this results in a well-defined separation of highfavorability zones from low-favorability zones.
Cheng and Agterberg (1999) used a linear fuzzy
membership function based on an index of spatial association turned contrast (Bonham-Carter and
Agterberg, 1990) for estimating fuzzy membership
values in their data-driven fuzzy WofE model. Although the use of contrast for calculating fuzzy membership values incorporates a purely data-driven approach in the modeling procedure, it is suitable for
multiclass predictor maps if, and only if, each pattern contains at least one known deposit, because
the contrast value ( = W+ W ) of a predictor pattern is estimated from a pair of weights, which are
determinable if, and only if, the pattern contains at
least one known deposit. Therefore, the fuzzy WofE
of a predictor pattern in a data-driven fuzzy WofE
model may become indeterminable if the pattern
does not contain known deposits. On the other hand,
the knowledge-based logistic function [Equation (2)]
used in the present hybrid fuzzy WofE model can
be applied to derive fuzzy membership of a predictor pattern even if it does not contain a known deposit. The calculation of the fuzzy WofE of a predictor pattern in the present hybrid fuzzy WofE model
[Eqs. (5) and (6)] requires the conditional probabilities of only the patterns with the highest and the lowest fuzzy membership values, given the presence or
absence of a deposit. The fuzzy WofE of a predictor
pattern in the present hybrid fuzzy WofE model is,
however, indeterminable if, and only if, neither the
pattern with the highest fuzzy membership value nor
the pattern with the lowest fuzzy membership value
contains a known deposit, which can happen rarely.
At the least, the pattern with the highest fuzzy membership value always contains at least one known
deposit. Consequently, hybrid fuzzy WofE modeling
can be used more conveniently with multipass predictor maps, even if there are few known deposits available. For the same reason, the hybrid fuzzy WofE
model is applicable to mineral potential mapping in
poorly of explored provinces containing few known
mineral deposits.
The fuzzy WofE model [Eq. (4)] uses Bayes
rule under an assumption of conditional independence for combining fuzzy WofE to derive fuzzy posterior probabilities. The linear nature of the fuzzy
WofE model, however, entails that it is highly sensitive to violation of the assumption of CI among two
or more predictor maps with respect to the target
13
14
spatial data modelling using weights of evidence, logistic regression, fuzzy logic and neural network analysis:
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