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Abraham Lincoln
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the American president. For other uses, see Abraham Lincol
n (disambiguation).
Abraham Lincoln
An iconic black and white photograph of a bearded Abraham Lincoln showing his he
ad and shoulders.
Lincoln in 1863 at the age of 54
16th President of the United States
In office
March 4, 1861 April 15, 1865
Vice Presidents Hannibal Hamlin (18611865)
Andrew Johnson (1865)
Preceded by
James Buchanan
Succeeded by
Andrew Johnson
Member of the U.S. House of Representatives
from Illinois's 7th district
In office
March 4, 1847 March 3, 1849
Preceded by
John Henry
Succeeded by
Thomas L. Harris
Member of the Illinois House of Representatives
In office
18341842
Personal details
Born
February 12, 1809
Hodgenville, Kentucky, U.S.
Died
April 15, 1865 (aged 56)
Petersen House,
Washington, D.C., U.S.
Resting place Lincoln Tomb, Oak Ridge Cemetery
Springfield, Illinois, U.S.
Nationality
American
Political party Whig (18341854)
Republican (18541865)
National Union (18641865)
Spouse(s)
Mary Todd (m. 1842; his death 1865)
Children
Robert, Edward, Willie, and Tad
Profession
Lawyer
Politician
Religion
See: Abraham Lincoln and religion
Signature
Cursive signature in ink
Military service
Service/branch Illinois Militia
Years of service
3 months
(April 21, 1832 July 10, 1832)
Rank
Captain
(April 21, 1832 May 27, 1832)
Private
(May 28, 1832 July 10, 1832)
OBS:. Discharged from his command and re-enlisted as a Private.
Battles/wars
Black Hawk War
Abraham Lincoln head on shoulders photo portrait.jpg
This article is part of
a series about
Abraham Lincoln
Early Life & Career Family Congressman
LincolnDouglas debates Electoral History "Cooper Union Speech" Views on Slavery "

Farewell Address in Illinois"

President of the United States
First Term
Campaign for the Presidency 1860
1st Inauguration Presidency
American Civil War
The Union Waging War
Emancipation Proclamation
"Gettysburg Address" 13th Amendment
Second Term
Reelection 1864 2nd Inauguration "Second Inaugural Address" Reconstruction
Assassination and legacy
April 14, 1865 Funeral
Legacy Memorials Depictions
Abraham Lincoln 1862 signature.svg
President of the United States

v t e
Abraham Lincoln (Listeni/ebrhm lkn/; February 12, 1809 April 15, 1865) was the 16th
ident of the United States, serving from March 1861 until his assassination in A
pril 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil Warits bloodiest war a
nd its greatest moral, constitutional, and political crisis.[1][2] In doing so,
he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government,
and modernized the economy.
Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the western frontier in Kentuc
ky and Indiana. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Pa
rty leader, and a member of the Illinois House of Representatives, in which he s
erved for twelve years. Elected to the United States House of Representatives in
1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariff
s, and railroads. Because he had originally agreed not to run for a second term
in Congress, and because his opposition to the MexicanAmerican War was unpopular
among Illinois voters, Lincoln returned to Springfield and resumed his successfu
l law practice. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the
new Republican Party, which had a statewide majority in Illinois. In 1858, while
taking part in a series of highly publicized debates with his opponent and riva
l, Democrat Stephen A. Douglas, Lincoln spoke out against the expansion of slave
ry, but lost the U.S. Senate race to Douglas.
In 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moder
ate from a swing state. With very little support in the slaveholding states of t
he South, he swept the North and was elected president in 1860. His victory prom
pted seven southern slave states to form the Confederate States of America befor
e he moved into the White House - no compromise or reconciliation was found rega
rding slavery and secession. Subsequently, on April 12, 1861, a Confederate atta
ck on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union
in a declaration of war. As the leader of the moderate faction of the Republican
Party, Lincoln confronted Radical Republicans, who demanded harsher treatment o
f the South, War Democrats, who called for more compromise, anti-war Democrats (
called Copperheads), who despised him, and irreconcilable secessionists, who plo
tted his assassination. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponent
s against each other, by carefully planned political patronage, and by appealing
to the American people with his powers of oratory.[3] His Gettysburg Address be
came an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equa
l rights, liberty, and democracy.

Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the w

ar. His primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, lead
ing to the controversial ex parte Merryman decision, and he averted potential Br
itish intervention in the war by defusing the Trent Affair in late 1861. Lincoln
closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, in
cluding his most successful general, Ulysses S. Grant. He also made major decisi
ons on Union war strategy, including a naval blockade that shut down the South's
normal trade, moves to take control of Kentucky and Tennessee, and using gunboa
ts to gain control of the southern river system. Lincoln tried repeatedly to cap
ture the Confederate capital at Richmond; each time a general failed, Lincoln su
bstituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his com
plex moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863;
Lincoln used the U.S. Army to protect escaped slaves, encouraged the border sta
tes to outlaw slavery, and pushed through Congress the Thirteenth Amendment to t
he United States Constitution, which permanently outlawed slavery.
An exceptionally astute politician deeply involved with power issues in each sta
te, Lincoln reached out to the War Democrats and managed his own re-election cam
paign in the 1864 presidential election. Anticipating the war's conclusion, Linc
oln pushed a moderate view of Reconstruction, seeking to reunite the nation spee
dily through a policy of generous reconciliation in the face of lingering and bi
tter divisiveness. On April 14, 1865, five days after the April 9th surrender of
Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John
Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer.
Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars[4] and the public[5] as on
e of the three greatest U.S. presidents.
Contents [hide]
1
Family and childhood
1.1
Early life and family ancestry
1.2
Marriage and children
2
Early career and militia service
3
U.S. House of Representatives, 184749
4
Prairie lawyer
5
Republican politics 185460
5.1
Slavery and a "House Divided"
5.2
LincolnDouglas debates and Cooper Union speech
5.3
1860 Presidential nomination and campaign
6
Presidency
6.1
1860 election and secession
6.2
Beginning of the war
6.3
Assuming command for the Union in the war
6.4
General McClellan
6.5
Emancipation Proclamation
6.6
Gettysburg Address (1863)
6.7
General Grant
6.8
1864 re-election
6.9
Reconstruction
6.10
Redefining the republic and republicanism
6.11
Other enactments
6.12
Judicial appointments
6.12.1 Supreme Court appointments
6.12.2 Other judicial appointments
6.13
States admitted to the Union
7
Assassination and funeral
8
Religious and philosophical beliefs
9
Health
10
Historical reputation

11
Memory and memorials
12
See also
13
References
14
Bibliography
14.1
Cited in footnotes
14.2
Historiography
14.3
Additional references
15
External links
Family and childhood
Early life and family ancestry
Main article: Early life and career of Abraham Lincoln
Abraham Lincoln was born February 12, 1809, the second child of Thomas and Nancy
Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm in Hardin Cou
nty, Kentucky[6] (now LaRue County). He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, who
migrated from Norfolk, England to Hingham, Massachusetts, in 1638. Samuel's gran
dson and great-grandson began the family's western migration, which passed throu
gh New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia.[7][8] Lincoln's paternal grandfather
and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jeffers
on County, Kentucky in the 1780s.[9] Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian rai
d in 1786. His children, including six-year-old Thomas, the future president's f
ather, witnessed the attack.[10][11] After his father's murder, Thomas was left
to make his own way on the frontier, working at odd jobs in Kentucky and in Tenn
essee, before settling with members of his family in Hardin County, Kentucky, in
the early 1800s.[12][13]
Lincoln's mother, Nancy, is widely assumed to have been the daughter of Lucy Han
ks, although no record of Nancy Hanks' birth has ever been found.[14] According
to William Ensign Lincoln's book The Ancestry of Abraham Lincoln, Nancy was the
daughter of Joseph Hanks;[15] however, the debate continues over whether she was
born out of wedlock. Still another researcher, Adin Baber, claims that Nancy Ha
nks was the daughter of Abraham Hanks and Sarah Harper of Virginia.[16] Of these
three genealogies, Baber's is the only one consistent with the Quaker naming tr
adition that Nancy Hanks must have used in naming her children. Consistent with
Baber's genealogy, Nancy named her oldest daughter Sarah after Sarah's maternal
grandmother Sarah Harper, her oldest son Abraham after both of his grandfathers
Abraham Hanks and Captain Abraham Lincoln, and her second son Thomas after his f
ather Thomas Lincoln.
Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks were married on June 12, 1806, in Washington Coun
ty, and moved to Elizabethtown, Kentucky, following their marriage.[17] They bec
ame the parents of three children: Sarah, born on February 10, 1807; Abraham, on
February 12, 1809; and another son, Thomas, who died in infancy.[18] Thomas Lin
coln bought or leased several farms in Kentucky, including the Sinking Spring fa
rm, where Abraham was born; however, a land title dispute soon forced the Lincol
ns to move.[19][20] In 1811 the family moved eight miles north, to Knob Creek Fa
rm, where Thomas acquired title to 230 acres (93 ha) of land. In 1815 a claimant
in another land dispute sought to eject the family from the farm.[20] Of the 81
6.5 acres that Thomas held in Kentucky, he lost all but 200 acres (81 ha) of his
land in court disputes over property titles.[21] Frustrated over the lack of se
curity provided by Kentucky courts, Thomas sold the remaining land he held in Ke
ntucky in 1814, and began planning a move to Indiana, where the land survey proc
ess was more reliable and the ability for an individual to retain land titles wa
s more secure.[22]
In 1816 the family moved north across the Ohio River to Indiana, a free, non-sla
veholding territory, where they settled in an "unbroken forest"[23] in Hurricane
Township, Perry County. (Their land in southern Indiana became part of Spencer
County, Indiana, when the county was established in 1818.)[24][25] The farm is p
reserved as part of the Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial. In 1860 Lincoln noted
that the family's move to Indiana was "partly on account of slavery"; but mainl

y due to land title difficulties in Kentucky.[21][26] During the family's years

in Kentucky and Indiana, Thomas Lincoln worked as a farmer, cabinetmaker, and ca
rpenter.[27] He owned farms, several town lots and livestock, paid taxes, sat on
juries, appraised estates, served on country slave patrols, and guarded prisone
rs. Thomas and Nancy Lincoln were also members of a Separate Baptists church, wh
ich had restrictive moral standards and opposed alcohol, dancing, and slavery.[2
8] Within a year of the family's arrival in Indiana, Thomas claimed title to 160
acres (65 ha) of Indiana land. Despite some financial challenges he eventually
obtained clear title to 80 acres (32 ha) of land in what became known as the Lit
tle Pigeon Creek Community in Spencer County.[29] Prior to the family's move to
Illinois in 1830, Thomas had acquired an additional twenty acres of land adjacen
t to his property.[30]
A statue of young Lincoln sitting on a stump, holding a book open on his lap
The young Lincoln in sculpture at Senn Park, Chicago.
Several significant family events took place during Lincoln's youth in Indiana.
On October 5, 1818, Nancy Lincoln died of milk sickness, leaving eleven-year-old
Sarah in charge of a household that included her father, nine-year-old Abraham,
and Dennis Hanks, Nancy's nineteen-year-old orphaned cousin.[31] On December 2,
1819, Lincoln's father married Sarah "Sally" Bush Johnston, a widow from Elizab
ethtown, Kentucky, with three children of her own.[32] Abraham became very close
to his stepmother, whom he referred to as "Mother".[33][34] Those who knew Linc
oln as a teenager later recalled him being very distraught over his sister Sarah
's death on January 20, 1828, while giving birth to a stillborn son.[35][36]
As a youth, Lincoln disliked the hard labor associated with frontier life. Some
of his neighbors and family members thought for a time that he was lazy for all
his "reading, scribbling, writing, ciphering, writing Poetry, etc.",[37][38][39]
and must have done it to avoid manual labor. His stepmother also acknowledged h
e did not enjoy "physical labor", but loved to read.[40] Lincoln was largely sel
f-educated. His formal schooling from several itinerant teachers was intermitten
t, the aggregate of which may have amounted to less than a year; however, he was
an avid reader and retained a lifelong interest in learning.[41][42] Family, ne
ighbors, and schoolmates of Lincoln's youth recalled that he read and reread the
King James Bible, Aesop's Fables, Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress, Defoe's Robi
nson Crusoe, Weems's The Life of Washington, and Franklin's Autobiography, among
others.[43][44][45][46]
As he grew into his teens, Lincoln took responsibility for the chores expected o
f him as one of the boys in the household. He also complied with the customary o
bligation of a son giving his father all earnings from work done outside the hom
e until the age of twenty-one.[47] Abraham became adept at using an axe. Tall fo
r his age, Lincoln was also strong and athletic.[48] He attained a reputation fo
r brawn and audacity after a very competitive wrestling match with the renowned
leader of a group of ruffians known as "the Clary's Grove boys".[49]
In early March 1830, fearing a milk sickness outbreak along the Ohio River, the
Lincoln family moved west to Illinois, a non-slaveholding state. They settled on
a site in Macon County, Illinois, 10 miles (16 km) west of Decatur.[50][51] His
torians disagree on who initiated the move.[52] After the family relocated to Il
linois, Abraham became increasingly distant from his father,[53] in part because
of his father's lack of education, and occasionally lent him money.[54] In 1831
, as Thomas and other members of the family prepared to move to a new homestead
in Coles County, Illinois, Abraham was old enough to make his own decisions and
struck out on his own.[55] Traveling down the Sangamon River, he ended up in the
village of New Salem in Sangamon County.[56] Later that spring, Denton Offutt,
a New Salem merchant, hired Lincoln and some friends to take goods by flatboat f
rom New Salem to New Orleans via the Sangamon, Illinois, and Mississippi rivers.
After arriving in New Orleansand witnessing slavery firsthandLincoln returned to
New Salem, where he remained for the next six years.[57][58]

Marriage and children

Further information: Lincoln family tree, Medical and mental health of Abraham L
incoln, and Sexuality of Abraham Lincoln
A seated Lincoln holding a book as his young son looks at it
1864 photo of President Lincoln with youngest son, Tad
Black and white photo of Mary Todd Lincoln's shoulders and head
Mary Todd Lincoln, wife of Abraham Lincoln, age 28
Lincoln's first romantic interest was Ann Rutledge, whom he met when he first mo
ved to New Salem; by 1835, they were in a relationship but not formally engaged.
She died at the age of 22 on August 25, 1835, most likely of typhoid fever.[59]
In the early 1830s, he met Mary Owens from Kentucky when she was visiting her s
ister.[60]
Late in 1836, Lincoln agreed to a match with Mary if she returned to New Salem.
Mary did return in November 1836, and Lincoln courted her for a time; however, t
hey both had second thoughts about their relationship. On August 16, 1837, Linco
ln wrote Mary a letter suggesting he would not blame her if she ended the relati
onship. She never replied and the courtship ended.[60]
In 1840, Lincoln became engaged to Mary Todd, who was from a wealthy slave-holdi
ng family in Lexington, Kentucky.[61] They met in Springfield, Illinois, in Dece
mber 1839[62] and were engaged the following December.[63] A wedding set for Jan
uary 1, 1841, was canceled when the two broke off their engagement at Lincoln's
initiative.[62][64] They later met again at a party and married on November 4, 1
842, in the Springfield mansion of Mary's married sister.[65] While preparing fo
r the nuptials and feeling anxiety again, Lincoln, when asked where he was going
, replied, "To hell, I suppose."[66]
In 1844, the couple bought a house in Springfield near Lincoln's law office. Mar
y Todd Lincoln kept house, often with the help of a relative or hired servant gi
rl.[67] Robert Todd Lincoln was born in 1843 and Edward Baker Lincoln (Eddie) in
1846. Lincoln "was remarkably fond of children",[68] and the Lincolns were not
considered to be strict with their children.[69]
Edward died on February 1, 1850, in Springfield, probably of tuberculosis. "Will
ie" Lincoln was born on December 21, 1850, and died of a fever on February 20, 1
862. The Lincolns' fourth son, Thomas "Tad" Lincoln, was born on April 4, 1853,
and died of heart failure at the age of 18 on July 16, 1871.[70] Robert was the
only child to live to adulthood and have children. His last descendant, great-gr
andson Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith, died in 1985.[71]
The deaths of their sons had profound effects on both parents. Later in life, Ma
ry struggled with the stresses of losing her husband and sons, and Robert Lincol
n committed her temporarily to a mental health asylum in 1875.[72] Abraham Linco
ln suffered from "melancholy", a condition which now is referred to as clinical
depression.[73]
Lincoln's father-in-law and others of the Todd family were either slave owners o
r slave traders. Lincoln was close to the Todds, and he and his family occasiona
lly visited the Todd estate in Lexington.[74] He was an affectionate, though oft
en absent, husband and father of four children.
During his term as President of the United States of America, His wife was known
to cook for him often. Since she was raised by a wealthy family, her cooking ab
ilities were simple, but satisfied Lincoln's tastes, which included, particularl
y, imported oysters.[75]
Early career and militia service
Further information: Early life and career of Abraham Lincoln and Abraham Lincol

n in the Black Hawk War

Lincoln depicted protecting a Native American from his own men in a scene often
related about Lincoln's service during the Black Hawk War.
In 1832, at age 23, Lincoln and a partner bought a small general store on credit
in New Salem, Illinois.[76] Although the economy was booming in the region, the
business struggled and Lincoln eventually sold his share. That March he began h
is political career with his first campaign for the Illinois General Assembly. H
e had attained local popularity and could draw crowds as a natural raconteur in
New Salem, though he lacked an education, powerful friends, and money, which may
be why he lost. He advocated navigational improvements on the Sangamon River.[7
7][78]
Before the election, Lincoln served as a captain in the Illinois Militia during
the Black Hawk War.[79] Following his return, Lincoln continued his campaign for
the August 6 election for the Illinois General Assembly. At 6 feet 4 inches (19
3 cm),[80] he was tall and "strong enough to intimidate any rival". At his first
speech, when he saw a supporter in the crowd being attacked, Lincoln grabbed th
e assailant by his "neck and the seat of his trousers" and threw him.[81] Lincol
n finished eighth out of 13 candidates (the top four were elected), though he re
ceived 277 of the 300 votes cast in the New Salem precinct.[82]
Lincoln served as New Salem's postmaster and later as county surveyor, all the w
hile reading voraciously. He then decided to become a lawyer and began teaching
himself law by reading Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England and othe
r law books. Of his learning method, Lincoln stated: "I studied with nobody".[83
] His second campaign in 1834 was successful. He won election to the state legis
lature; though he ran as a Whig, many Democrats favored him over a more powerful
Whig opponent.[84]
Admitted to the bar in 1836,[85] he moved to Springfield, Illinois, and began to
practice law under John T. Stuart, Mary Todd's cousin.[86] Lincoln became an ab
le and successful lawyer with a reputation as a formidable adversary during cros
s-examinations and closing arguments. He partnered with Stephen T. Logan from 18
41 until 1844. Then Lincoln began his practice with William Herndon, whom Lincol
n thought "a studious young man".[87]
Successful on his second run for office, Lincoln served four successive terms in
the Illinois House of Representatives as a Whig representative from Sangamon Co
unty.[88] He supported the construction of the Illinois and Michigan Canal, whic
h he remained involved with later as a Canal Commissioner.[89] In the 183536 legi
slative session, he voted to expand suffrage to white males, whether landowners
or not.[90] He was known for his "free soil" stance of opposing both slavery and
abolitionism. He first articulated this in 1837, saying, "[The] Institution of
slavery is founded on both injustice and bad policy, but the promulgation of abo
lition doctrines tends rather to increase than abate its evils."[91] His stance
closely followed Henry Clay in supporting the American Colonization Society prog
ram of making the abolition of slavery practical by its advocation and helping t
he freed slaves to settle in Liberia in Africa.[92]
U.S. House of Representatives, 184749
Middle aged clean shaven Lincoln from the hips up.
Lincoln in his late 30s as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives. Photo
taken by one of Lincoln's law students around 1846.
From the early 1830s, Lincoln was a steadfast Whig and professed to friends in 1
861 to be, "an old line Whig, a disciple of Henry Clay".[93] The party, includin
g Lincoln, favored economic modernization in banking, protective tariffs to fund
internal improvements including railroads, and espoused urbanization as well.[9
4]

In 1846, Lincoln was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, where he serv
ed one two-year term. He was the only Whig in the Illinois delegation, but he sh
owed his party loyalty by participating in almost all votes and making speeches
that echoed the party line.[95] Lincoln, in collaboration with abolitionist Cong
ressman Joshua R. Giddings, wrote a bill to abolish slavery in the District of C
olumbia with compensation for the owners, enforcement to capture fugitive slaves
, and a popular vote on the matter. He abandoned the bill when it failed to garn
er sufficient Whig supporters.[96]
On foreign and military policy, Lincoln spoke out against the MexicanAmerican War
, which he attributed to President Polk's desire for "military glorythat attracti
ve rainbow, that rises in showers of blood".[97] Lincoln also supported the Wilm
ot Proviso, which, if it had been adopted, would have banned slavery in any U.S.
territory won from Mexico.[98]
Lincoln emphasized his opposition to Polk by drafting and introducing his Spot R
esolutions. The war had begun with a Mexican slaughter of American soldiers in t
erritory disputed by Mexico and the U.S. Polk insisted that Mexican soldiers had
"invaded our territory and shed the blood of our fellow-citizens on our own soi
l".[99][100] Lincoln demanded that Polk show Congress the exact spot on which bl
ood had been shed and prove that the spot was on American soil.[100]
Congress never enacted the resolution or even debated it, the national papers ig
nored it, and it resulted in a loss of political support for Lincoln in his dist
rict. One Illinois newspaper derisively nicknamed him "spotty Lincoln".[101][102
][103] Lincoln later regretted some of his statements, especially his attack on
the presidential war-making powers.[104]
Realizing Clay was unlikely to win the presidency, Lincoln, who had pledged in 1
846 to serve only one term in the House, supported General Zachary Taylor for th
e Whig nomination in the 1848 presidential election.[105] Taylor won and Lincoln
hoped to be appointed Commissioner of the General Land Office, but that lucrati
ve patronage job went to an Illinois rival, Justin Butterfield, considered by th
e administration to be a highly skilled lawyer, but in Lincoln's view, an "old f
ossil".[106] The administration offered him the consolation prize of secretary o
r governor of the Oregon Territory. This distant territory was a Democratic stro
nghold, and acceptance of the post would have effectively ended his legal and po
litical career in Illinois, so he declined and resumed his law practice.[107]
Prairie lawyer
Lincoln returned to practicing law in Springfield, handling "every kind of busin
ess that could come before a prairie lawyer".[108] Twice a year for 16 years, 10
weeks at a time, he appeared in county seats in the midstate region when the co
unty courts were in session.[109] Lincoln handled many transportation cases in t
he midst of the nation's western expansion, particularly the conflicts arising f
rom the operation of river barges under the many new railroad bridges. As a rive
rboat man, Lincoln initially favored those interests, but ultimately represented
whoever hired him.[110] In fact, he later represented a bridge company against
a riverboat company in a landmark case involving a canal boat that sank after hi
tting a bridge.[111][112] In 1849, he received a patent for a flotation device f
or the movement of boats in shallow water. The idea was never commercialized, bu
t Lincoln is the only president to hold a patent.[113][114]
In 1851, he represented the Alton & Sangamon Railroad in a dispute with one of i
ts shareholders, James A. Barret, who had refused to pay the balance on his pled
ge to buy shares in the railroad on the grounds that the company had changed its
original train route.[115][116] Lincoln successfully argued that the railroad c
ompany was not bound by its original charter extant at the time of Barret's pled
ge; the charter was amended in the public interest to provide a newer, superior,
and less expensive route, and the corporation retained the right to demand Barr

et's payment. The decision by the Illinois Supreme Court has been cited by numer
ous other courts in the nation.[115] Lincoln appeared before the Illinois Suprem
e Court in 175 cases, in 51 as sole counsel, of which 31 were decided in his fav
or.[117] From 1853 to 1860, another of Lincoln's largest clients was the Illinoi
s Central Railroad.[118] Lincoln's reputation with clients gave rise to his nick
name "Honest Abe."[119]
Lincoln's most notable criminal trial occurred in 1858 when he defended William
"Duff" Armstrong, who was on trial for the murder of James Preston Metzker.[120]
The case is famous for Lincoln's use of a fact established by judicial notice i
n order to challenge the credibility of an eyewitness. After an opposing witness
testified seeing the crime in the moonlight, Lincoln produced a Farmers' Almana
c showing the moon was at a low angle, drastically reducing visibility. Based on
this evidence, Armstrong was acquitted.[120]
Lincoln rarely raised objections in the courtroom; but in an 1859 case, where he
defended a cousin, Peachy Harrison, who was accused of stabbing another to deat
h, Lincoln angrily protested the judge's decision to exclude evidence favorable
to his client. Instead of holding Lincoln in contempt of court as was expected,
the judge, a Democrat, reversed his ruling, allowing the evidence and acquitting
Harrison.[120][121]
Republican politics 185460
Slavery and a "House Divided"
Further information: Slave and free states and Abraham Lincoln and slavery
By the 1850s, slavery was still legal in the southern United States, but had bee
n generally outlawed in the northern states, including Illinois, whose original
1818 Constitution forbade slavery, as required by the Northwest Ordinance.[122]
Lincoln disapproved of slavery, and the spread of slavery to new U.S. territory
in the west.[123] He returned to politics to oppose the pro-slavery KansasNebrask
a Act (1854); this law repealed the slavery-restricting Missouri Compromise (182
0). Senior Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois had incorporated popular sover
eignty into the Act. Douglas' provision, which Lincoln opposed, specified settle
rs had the right to determine locally whether to allow slavery in new U.S. terri
tory, rather than have such a decision restricted by the national Congress.[124]
Eric Foner (2010) contrasts the abolitionists and anti-slavery Radical Republica
ns of the Northeast who saw slavery as a sin, with the conservative Republicans
who thought it was bad because it hurt white people and blocked progress. Foner
argues that Lincoln was a moderate in the middle, opposing slavery primarily bec
ause it violated the republicanism principles of the Founding Fathers, especiall
y the equality of all men and democratic self-government as expressed in the Dec
laration of Independence.[125]
Painting
A portrait of Dred Scott. Lincoln denounced the Supreme Court decision in Dred S
cott v. Sandford as part of a conspiracy to extend slavery.
On October 16, 1854, in his "Peoria Speech", Lincoln declared his opposition to
slavery, which he repeated en route to the presidency.[126] Speaking in his Kent
ucky accent, with a very powerful voice,[127] he said the Kansas Act had a "decl
ared indifference, but as I must think, a covert real zeal for the spread of sla
very. I cannot but hate it. I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slav
ery itself. I hate it because it deprives our republican example of its just inf
luence in the world ..."[128]
In late 1854, Lincoln ran as a Whig for the U.S. Senate seat from Illinois. At t
hat time, senators were elected by the state legislature.[129] After leading in
the first six rounds of voting in the Illinois assembly, his support began to dw
indle, and Lincoln instructed his backers to vote for Lyman Trumbull, who defeat
ed opponent Joel Aldrich Matteson.[130] The Whigs had been irreparably split by

the KansasNebraska Act. Lincoln wrote, "I think I am a Whig, but others say there
are no Whigs, and that I am an abolitionist [...] I do no more than oppose the
extension of slavery."[131]
Drawing on remnants of the old Whig party, and on disenchanted Free Soil, Libert
y, and Democratic Party members, he was instrumental in forging the shape of the
new Republican Party.[132] At the 1856 Republican National Convention, Lincoln
placed second in the contest to become the party's candidate for vice president.
[133]
In 18571858, Douglas broke with President James Buchanan, leading to a fight for
control of the Democratic Party. Some eastern Republicans even favored the reele
ction of Douglas for the Senate in 1858, since he had led the opposition to the
Lecompton Constitution, which would have admitted Kansas as a slave state.[134]
In March 1857, the Supreme Court issued its decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford;
Chief Justice Roger B. Taney opined that blacks were not citizens, and derived n
o rights from the Constitution. Lincoln denounced the decision, alleging it was
the product of a conspiracy of Democrats to support the Slave Power.[135] Lincol
n argued, "The authors of the Declaration of Independence never intended 'to say
all were equal in color, size, intellect, moral developments, or social capacit
y', but they 'did consider all men created equalequal in certain inalienable righ
ts, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness'."[136]
After the state Republican party convention nominated him for the U.S. Senate in
1858, Lincoln delivered his House Divided Speech, drawing on Mark 3:25, "A hous
e divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure p
ermanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolvedI d
o not expect the house to fallbut I do expect it will cease to be divided. It wil
l become all one thing, or all the other."[137] The speech created an evocative
image of the danger of disunion caused by the slavery debate, and rallied Republ
icans across the North.[138] The stage was then set for the campaign for statewi
de election of the Illinois legislature which would, in turn, select Lincoln or
Douglas as its U.S. senator.[139]
LincolnDouglas debates and Cooper Union speech
Further information: LincolnDouglas debates and Cooper Union speech
Lincoln in 1858, the year of his debates with Stephen Douglas over slavery.
The Senate campaign featured the seven LincolnDouglas debates of 1858, the most f
amous political debates in American history.[140] The principals stood in stark
contrast both physically and politically. Lincoln warned that "The Slave Power"
was threatening the values of republicanism, and accused Douglas of distorting t
he values of the Founding Fathers that all men are created equal, while Douglas
emphasized his Freeport Doctrine, that local settlers were free to choose whethe
r to allow slavery or not, and accused Lincoln of having joined the abolitionist
s.[141] The debates had an atmosphere of a prize fight and drew crowds in the th
ousands. Lincoln stated Douglas' popular sovereignty theory was a threat to the
nation's morality and that Douglas represented a conspiracy to extend slavery to
free states. Douglas said that Lincoln was defying the authority of the U.S. Su
preme Court and the Dred Scott decision.[142]
Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democra
ts won more seats, and the legislature re-elected Douglas to the Senate. Despite
the bitterness of the defeat for Lincoln, his articulation of the issues gave h
im a national political reputation.[143] In May 1859, Lincoln purchased the Illi
nois Staats-Anzeiger, a German-language newspaper which was consistently support
ive; most of the state's 130,000 German Americans voted Democratic but there was
Republican support that a German-language paper could mobilize.[144]
On February 27, 1860, New York party leaders invited Lincoln to give a speech at

Cooper Union to a group of powerful Republicans. Lincoln argued that the Foundi
ng Fathers had little use for popular sovereignty and had repeatedly sought to r
estrict slavery. Lincoln insisted the moral foundation of the Republicans requir
ed opposition to slavery, and rejected any "groping for some middle ground betwe
en the right and the wrong".[145] Despite his inelegant appearancemany in the aud
ience thought him awkward and even ugly[146]Lincoln demonstrated an intellectual
leadership that brought him into the front ranks of the party and into contentio
n for the Republican presidential nomination. Journalist Noah Brooks reported, "
No man ever before made such an impression on his first appeal to a New York aud
ience."[147][148]
Historian Donald described the speech as a "superb political move for an unannou
nced candidate, to appear in one rival's (William H. Seward) own state at an eve
nt sponsored by the second rival's (Salmon P. Chase) loyalists, while not mentio
ning either by name during its delivery".[149] In response to an inquiry about h
is presidential intentions, Lincoln said, "The taste is in my mouth a little."[1
50]
1860 Presidential nomination and campaign
Main articles: Electoral history of Abraham Lincoln and United States presidenti
al election, 1860
Lincoln being carried by two men on a long board.
"The Rail Candidate"Lincoln's 1860 candidacy is depicted as held up by the slaver
y issuea slave on the left and party organization on the right.
On May 910, 1860, the Illinois Republican State Convention was held in Decatur.[1
51] Lincoln's followers organized a campaign team led by David Davis, Norman Jud
d, Leonard Swett, and Jesse DuBois, and Lincoln received his first endorsement t
o run for the presidency.[152] Exploiting the embellished legend of his frontier
days with his father (clearing the land and splitting fence rails with an ax),
Lincoln's supporters adopted the label of "The Rail Candidate".[153] In 1860 Lin
coln described himself : "I am in height, six feet, four inches, nearly; lean in
flesh, weighing, on an average, one hundred and eighty pounds; dark complexion,
with coarse black hair, and gray eyes." His biographers added that he had a:
Large head, with high crown of skull; thick, bushy hair; large and deep eye-cave
rns; heavy eyebrows; a large nose; large ears; large mouth; thin upper and somew
hat thick under lip; very high and prominent cheek-bones; cheeks thin and sunken
; strongly developed jawbone; chin slightly upturned; a thin but sinewy neck, ra
ther long; long arms; large hands; chest thin and narrow as compared with his gr
eat height; legs of more than proportionate length, and large feet.[154]
On May 18, at the Republican National Convention in Chicago, Lincoln's friends p
romised and manipulated and won the nomination on the third ballot, beating cand
idates such as William H. Seward and Salmon P. Chase. A former Democrat, Hanniba
l Hamlin of Maine, was nominated for Vice President to balance the ticket. Linco
ln's success depended on his reputation as a moderate on the slavery issue, and
his strong support for Whiggish programs of internal improvements and the protec
tive tariff.[155]
On the third ballot Pennsylvania put him over the top. Pennsylvania iron interes
ts were reassured by his support for protective tariffs.[156] Lincoln's managers
had been adroitly focused on this delegation as well as the others, while follo
wing Lincoln's strong dictate to "Make no contracts that bind me".[157]
Most Republicans agreed with Lincoln that the North was the aggrieved party, as
the Slave Power tightened its grasp on the national government with the Dred Sco
tt decision and the presidency of James Buchanan. Throughout the 1850s, Lincoln
doubted the prospects of civil war, and his supporters rejected claims that his
election would incite secession.[158] Meanwhile, Douglas was selected as the can
didate of the Northern Democrats. Delegates from 11 slave states walked out of t
he Democratic convention, disagreeing with Douglas' position on popular sovereig

nty, and ultimately selected John C. Breckinridge as their candidate.[159]

The Wide Awake Parade was formed in 1860 by Republicans in the Northern states t
o help nominate Abraham Lincoln as the President of the United States. As Abraha
m Lincolns ideas of abolishing slavery grew, so did his supporters. People of the
Northern states knew the Southern states would vote against Lincoln because of
his ideas of anti-slavery and took action to rally supporters for Lincoln.[160]
As Douglas and the other candidates went through with their campaigns, Lincoln w
as the only one of them who gave no speeches. Instead, he monitored the campaign
closely and relied on the enthusiasm of the Republican Party. The party did the
leg work that produced majorities across the North, and produced an abundance o
f campaign posters, leaflets, and newspaper editorials. There were thousands of
Republican speakers who focused first on the party platform, and second on Linco
ln s life story, emphasizing his childhood poverty. The goal was to demonstrate
the superior power of "free labor", whereby a common farm boy could work his way
to the top by his own efforts.[161] The Republican Party s production of campai
gn literature dwarfed the combined opposition; a Chicago Tribune writer produced
a pamphlet that detailed Lincoln s life, and sold 100,000 to 200,000 copies.[16
2]
Presidency
Main article: Presidency of Abraham Lincoln
1860 election and secession
Main articles: United States presidential election, 1860 and Baltimore Plot
Map of the U.S. showing Lincoln winning the North-east and West, Breckinridge wi
nning the South, Douglas winning Missouri, and Bell winning Virginia, West Virgi
nia, and Kentucky.
In 1860, northern and western electoral votes (shown in red) put Lincoln into th
e White House.
A large crowd in front of a large building with many pillars.
1861 inaugural at the Capitol. The rotunda was still under construction.
On November 6, 1860, Lincoln was elected the 16th president of the United States
, beating Democrat Stephen A. Douglas, John C. Breckinridge of the Southern Demo
crats, and John Bell of the new Constitutional Union Party. He was the first pre
sident from the Republican Party. His victory was entirely due to the strength o
f his support in the North and West; no ballots were cast for him in 10 of the 1
5 Southern slave states, and he won only two of 996 counties in all the Southern
states.[163]
Lincoln received 1,866,452 votes, Douglas 1,376,957 votes, Breckinridge 849,781
votes, and Bell 588,789 votes. Turnout was 82.2 percent, with Lincoln winning th
e free Northern states, as well as California and Oregon. Douglas won Missouri,
and split New Jersey with Lincoln.[164] Bell won Virginia, Tennessee, and Kentuc
ky, and Breckinridge won the rest of the South.[165]
Although Lincoln won only a plurality of the popular vote, his victory in the el
ectoral college was decisive: Lincoln had 180 and his opponents added together h
ad only 123. There were fusion tickets in which all of Lincoln s opponents combi
ned to support the same slate of Electors in New York, New Jersey, and Rhode Isl
and, but even if the anti-Lincoln vote had been combined in every state, Lincoln
still would have won a majority in the Electoral College.[166]
The first photographic image of the new president
As Lincoln s election became evident, secessionists made clear their intent to l
eave the Union before he took office the next March.[167] On December 20, 1860,
South Carolina took the lead by adopting an ordinance of secession; by February
1, 1861, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed.[
168][169] Six of these states then adopted a constitution and declared themselve

s to be a sovereign nation, the Confederate States of America.[168] The upper So

uth and border states (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee,
Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) listened to, but initially rejected, the seces
sionist appeal.[170] President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to r
ecognize the Confederacy, declaring secession illegal.[171] The Confederacy sele
cted Jefferson Davis as its provisional President on February 9, 1861.[172]
There were attempts at compromise. The Crittenden Compromise would have extended
the Missouri Compromise line of 1820, dividing the territories into slave and f
ree, contrary to the Republican Party s free-soil platform.[173] Lincoln rejecte
d the idea, saying, "I will suffer death before I consent ... to any concession
or compromise which looks like buying the privilege to take possession of this g
overnment to which we have a constitutional right."[174]
Lincoln, however, did tacitly support the proposed Corwin Amendment to the Const
itution, which passed Congress before Lincoln came into office and was then awai
ting ratification by the states. That proposed amendment would have protected sl
avery in states where it already existed and would have guaranteed that Congress
would not interfere with slavery without Southern consent.[175][176] A few week
s before the war, Lincoln sent a letter to every governor informing them Congres
s had passed a joint resolution to amend the Constitution.[177] Lincoln was open
to the possibility of a constitutional convention to make further amendments to
the Constitution.[178]
En route to his inauguration by train, Lincoln addressed crowds and legislatures
across the North.[179] The president-elect then evaded possible assassins in Ba
ltimore, who were uncovered by Lincoln s head of security, Allan Pinkerton. On F
ebruary 23, 1861, he arrived in disguise in Washington, D.C., which was placed u
nder substantial military guard.[180] Lincoln directed his inaugural address to
the South, proclaiming once again that he had no intention, or inclination, to a
bolish slavery in the Southern states:
Apprehension seems to exist among the people of the Southern States that by the
accession of a Republican Administration their property and their peace and pers
onal security are to be endangered. There has never been any reasonable cause fo
r such apprehension. Indeed, the most ample evidence to the contrary has all the
while existed and been open to their inspection. It is found in nearly all the
published speeches of him who now addresses you. I do but quote from one of thos
e speeches when I declare that "I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to in
terfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists. I believe
I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so."
First inaugural address, 4 March 1861[181]
The President ended his address with an appeal to the people of the South: "We a
re not enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies ... The mystic chords of mem
ory, stretching from every battlefield, and patriot grave, to every living heart
and hearthstone, all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Uni
on, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our natu
re."[182] The failure of the Peace Conference of 1861 signaled that legislative
compromise was impossible. By March 1861, no leaders of the insurrection had pro
posed rejoining the Union on any terms. Meanwhile, Lincoln and the Republican le
adership agreed that the dismantling of the Union could not be tolerated.[183] L
incoln said as the war was ending:
Both parties deprecated war, but one of them would make war rather than let the
Nation survive, and the other would accept war rather than let it perish, and th
e war came.[184]
Beginning of the war
Main articles: American Civil War and Battle of Fort Sumter
portrait

Major Anderson, Ft. Sumter commander

The commander of Fort Sumter, South Carolina, Major Robert Anderson, sent a requ
est for provisions to Washington, and the execution of Lincoln s order to meet t
hat request was seen by the secessionists as an act of war. On April 12, 1861, C
onfederate forces fired on Union troops at Fort Sumter, forcing them to surrende
r, and began the war. Historian Allan Nevins argued that the newly inaugurated L
incoln made three miscalculations: underestimating the gravity of the crisis, ex
aggerating the strength of Unionist sentiment in the South, and not realizing th
e Southern Unionists were insisting there be no invasion.[185]
William Tecumseh Sherman talked to Lincoln during inauguration week and was "sad
ly disappointed" at his failure to realize that "the country was sleeping on a v
olcano" and that the South was preparing for war.[186] Donald concludes that, "H
is repeated efforts to avoid collision in the months between inauguration and th
e firing on Ft. Sumter showed he adhered to his vow not to be the first to shed
fraternal blood. But he also vowed not to surrender the forts. The only resoluti
on of these contradictory positions was for the confederates to fire the first s
hot; they did just that."[187]
On April 15, Lincoln called on all the states to send detachments totaling 75,00
0 troops to recapture forts, protect Washington, and "preserve the Union", which
, in his view, still existed intact despite the actions of the seceding states.
This call forced the states to choose sides. Virginia declared its secession and
was rewarded with the Confederate capital, despite the exposed position of Rich
mond so close to Union lines. North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas also voted
for secession over the next two months. Secession sentiment was strong in Misso
uri and Maryland, but did not prevail; Kentucky tried to be neutral.[188] The Co
nfederate attack on Fort Sumter rallied Americans north of the Mason-Dixon line
to the defense of the American nation. Historian Allan Nevins says:
The thunderclap of Sumter produced a startling crystallization of Northern senti
ment ... Anger swept the land. From every side came news of mass meetings, speec
hes, resolutions, tenders of business support, the muster of companies and regim
ents, the determined action of governors and legislatures."[189][190]
States sent Union regiments south in response to Lincoln s call to save the capi
tal and confront the rebellion. On April 19, mobs in Baltimore, which controlled
the rail links, attacked Union troops who were changing trains, and local leade
rs groups later burned critical rail bridges to the capital. The Army responded
by arresting local Maryland officials. Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas cor
pus in areas the army felt it needed to secure for troops to reach Washington.[1
91] John Merryman, a Maryland official involved in hindering the U.S. troop move
ments, petitioned Supreme Court Chief Justice and Marylander, Roger B. Taney, au
thor of the controversial pro-slavery Dred Scott opinion, to issue a writ of hab
eas corpus, and in June Taney, acting as a circuit judge and not speaking for th
e Supreme Court, issued the writ, because in his opinion only Congress could sus
pend the writ. Lincoln continued the army policy that the writ was suspended in
limited areas despite the Ex parte Merryman ruling.[192][193]
Assuming command for the Union in the war
After the Battle of Fort Sumter, Lincoln realized the importance of taking immed
iate executive control of the war and making an overall strategy to put down the
rebellion. Lincoln encountered an unprecedented political and military crisis,
and he responded as commander-in-chief, using unprecedented powers. He expanded
his war powers, and imposed a blockade on all the Confederate shipping ports, di
sbursed funds before appropriation by Congress, and after suspending habeas corp
us, arrested and imprisoned thousands of suspected Confederate sympathizers. Lin
coln was supported by Congress and the northern public for these actions. In add
ition, Lincoln had to contend with reinforcing strong Union sympathies in the bo
rder slave states and keeping the war from becoming an international conflict.[1
94]

A group of men sitting at a table as another man creates money on a wooden machi
ne.
"Running the Machine ": An 1864 political cartoon takes a swing at Lincoln s a
dministrationfeaturing William Fessenden, Edwin Stanton, William Seward, Gideon W
elles, Lincoln and others.
The war effort was the source of continued disparagement of Lincoln, and dominat
ed his time and attention. From the start, it was clear that bipartisan support
would be essential to success in the war effort, and any manner of compromise al
ienated factions on both sides of the aisle, such as the appointment of Republic
ans and Democrats to command positions in the Union Army. Copperheads criticized
Lincoln for refusing to compromise on the slavery issue. Conversely, the Radica
l Republicans criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery.[195] O
n August 6, 1861, Lincoln signed the Confiscation Act that authorized judiciary
proceedings to confiscate and free slaves who were used to support the Confedera
te war effort. In practice, the law had little effect, but it did signal politic
al support for abolishing slavery in the Confederacy.[196]
In late August 1861, General John C. Frmont, the 1856 Republican presidential nom
inee, issued, without consulting his superiors in Washington, a proclamation of
martial law in Missouri. He declared that any citizen found bearing arms could b
e court-martialed and shot, and that slaves of persons aiding the rebellion woul
d be freed. Frmont was already under a cloud with charges of negligence in his co
mmand of the Department of the West compounded with allegations of fraud and cor
ruption. Lincoln overruled Frmont s proclamation. Lincoln believed that Fremont s
emancipation was political; neither militarily necessary nor legal.[197] After
Lincoln acted, Union enlistments from Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri increased
by over 40,000 troops.[198]
The Trent Affair of late 1861 threatened war with Great Britain. The U.S. Navy i
llegally intercepted a British merchant ship, the Trent, on the high seas and se
ized two Confederate envoys; Britain protested vehemently while the U.S. cheered
. Lincoln resolved the issue by releasing the two men and war was successfully a
verted with Britain.[199] Lincoln s foreign policy approach had been initially h
ands off, due to his inexperience; he left most diplomacy appointments and other
foreign policy matters to his Secretary of State, William Seward. Seward s init
ial reaction to the Trent affair, however, was too bellicose, so Lincoln also tu
rned to Senator Charles Sumner, the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Com
mittee and an expert in British diplomacy.[200]
To learn technical military terms, Lincoln borrowed and studied Henry Halleck s
book, Elements of Military Art and Science from the Library of Congress.[201] Li
ncoln painstakingly monitored the telegraphic reports coming into the War Depart
ment in Washington, D.C. He kept close tabs on all phases of the military effort
, consulted with governors, and selected generals based on their past success (a
s well as their state and party). In January 1862, after many complaints of inef
ficiency and profiteering in the War Department, Lincoln replaced Simon Cameron
with Edwin Stanton as War Secretary. Stanton was a staunchly Unionist pro-busine
ss conservative Democrat who moved toward the Radical Republican faction. Nevert
heless, he worked more often and more closely with Lincoln than any other senior
official. "Stanton and Lincoln virtually conducted the war together," say Thoma
s and Hyman.[202]
In terms of war strategy, Lincoln articulated two priorities: to ensure that Was
hington was well-defended, and to conduct an aggressive war effort that would sa
tisfy the demand in the North for prompt, decisive victory; major Northern newsp
aper editors expected victory within 90 days.[203] Twice a week, Lincoln would m
eet with his cabinet in the afternoon, and occasionally Mary Lincoln would force
him to take a carriage ride because she was concerned he was working too hard.[
204] Lincoln learned from his chief of staff General Henry Halleck, a student of

the European strategist Jomini, of the critical need to control strategic point
s, such as the Mississippi River;[205] he also knew well the importance of Vicks
burg and understood the necessity of defeating the enemy s army, rather than sim
ply capturing territory.[206]
General McClellan
After the Union defeat at the First Battle of Bull Run and the retirement of the
aged Winfield Scott in late 1861, Lincoln appointed Major General George B. McC
lellan general-in-chief of all the Union armies.[207] McClellan, a young West Po
int graduate, railroad executive, and Pennsylvania Democrat, took several months
to plan and attempt his Peninsula Campaign, longer than Lincoln wanted. The cam
paign s objective was to capture Richmond by moving the Army of the Potomac by b
oat to the peninsula and then overland to the Confederate capital. McClellan s r
epeated delays frustrated Lincoln and Congress, as did his position that no troo
ps were needed to defend Washington. Lincoln insisted on holding some of McClell
an s troops in defense of the capital; McClellan, who consistently overestimated
the strength of Confederate troops, blamed this decision for the ultimate failu
re of the Peninsula Campaign.[208]
Photograph of Lincoln and McClellan sitting at a table in a field tent
Lincoln and George McClellan after the Battle of Antietam in 1862.
Lincoln removed McClellan as general-in-chief and appointed Henry Wager Halleck
in March 1862, after McClellan s "Harrison s Landing Letter", in which he offere
d unsolicited political advice to Lincoln urging caution in the war effort.[209]
McClellan s letter incensed Radical Republicans, who successfully pressured Lin
coln to appoint John Pope, a Republican, as head of the new Army of Virginia. Po
pe complied with Lincoln s strategic desire to move toward Richmond from the nor
th, thus protecting the capital from attack.[210]
However, lacking requested reinforcements from McClellan, now commanding the Arm
y of the Potomac, Pope was soundly defeated at the Second Battle of Bull Run in
the summer of 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac to defend Washington for a s
econd time.[210] The war also expanded with naval operations in 1862 when the CS
S Virginia, formerly the USS Merrimack, damaged or destroyed three Union vessels
in Norfolk, Virginia, before being engaged and damaged by the USS Monitor. Linc
oln closely reviewed the dispatches and interrogated naval officers during their
clash in the Battle of Hampton Roads.[211]
Despite his dissatisfaction with McClellan s failure to reinforce Pope, Lincoln
was desperate, and restored him to command of all forces around Washington, to t
he dismay of all in his cabinet but Seward.[212] Two days after McClellan s retu
rn to command, General Robert E. Lee s forces crossed the Potomac River into Mar
yland, leading to the Battle of Antietam in September 1862.[213] The ensuing Uni
on victory was among the bloodiest in American history, but it enabled Lincoln t
o announce that he would issue an Emancipation Proclamation in January. Having c
omposed the Proclamation some time earlier, Lincoln had waited for a military vi
ctory to publish it to avoid it being perceived as the product of desperation.[2
14]
McClellan then resisted the President s demand that he pursue Lee s retreating a
nd exposed army, while his counterpart General Don Carlos Buell likewise refused
orders to move the Army of the Ohio against rebel forces in eastern Tennessee.
As a result, Lincoln replaced Buell with William Rosecrans; and, after the 1862
midterm elections, he replaced McClellan with Republican Ambrose Burnside. Both
of these replacements were political moderates and prospectively more supportive
of the Commander-in-Chief.[215]
Union soldiers before Marye s Heights, Fredericksburg, just prior to the battle
of May 3, 1863.

Burnside, against the advice of the president, prematurely launched an offensive

across the Rappahannock River and was stunningly defeated by Lee at Fredericksb
urg in December. Not only had Burnside been defeated on the battlefield, but his
soldiers were disgruntled and undisciplined. Desertions during 1863 were in the
thousands and they increased after Fredericksburg.[216] Lincoln brought in Jose
ph Hooker, despite his record of loose talk about the need for a military dictat
orship.[217]
The mid-term elections in 1862 brought the Republicans severe losses due to shar
p disfavor with the administration over its failure to deliver a speedy end to t
he war, as well as rising inflation, new high taxes, rumors of corruption, the s
uspension of habeas corpus, the military draft law, and fears that freed slaves
would undermine the labor market. The Emancipation Proclamation announced in Sep
tember gained votes for the Republicans in the rural areas of New England and th
e upper Midwest, but it lost votes in the cities and the lower Midwest.[218]
While Republicans were discouraged, Democrats were energized and did especially
well in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and New York. The Republicans did maintain
their majorities in Congress and in the major states, except New York. The Cinci
nnati Gazette contended that the voters were "depressed by the interminable natu
re of this war, as so far conducted, and by the rapid exhaustion of the national
resources without progress".[218]
In the spring of 1863, Lincoln was optimistic about upcoming military
to the point of thinking the end of the war could be near if a string
es could be put together; these plans included Hooker s attack on Lee
ichmond, Rosecrans on Chattanooga, Grant s on Vicksburg, and a naval
Charleston.[219]

campaigns
of victori
north of R
assault on

Hooker was routed by Lee at the Battle of Chancellorsville in May,[220] but cont
inued to command his troops for some weeks. He ignored Lincoln s order to divide
his troops, and possibly force Lee to do the same in Harper s Ferry, and tender
ed his resignation, which Lincoln accepted. He was replaced by George Meade, who
followed Lee into Pennsylvania for the Gettysburg Campaign, which was a victory
for the Union, though Lee s army avoided capture. At the same time, after initi
al setbacks, Grant laid siege to Vicksburg and the Union navy attained some succ
ess in Charleston harbor.[221] After the Battle of Gettysburg, Lincoln clearly u
nderstood that his military decisions would be more effectively carried out by c
onveying his orders through his War Secretary or his general-in-chief on to his
generals, who resented his civilian interference with their own plans. Even so,
he often continued to give detailed directions to his generals as Commander-in-C
hief.[222]
Emancipation Proclamation
Main articles: Abraham Lincoln and slavery and Emancipation Proclamation
A dark-haired, bearded, middle-aged man holding documents is seated among seven
other men.
Lincoln presents the first draft of the Emancipation Proclamation to his cabinet
. Painted by Francis Bicknell Carpenter in 1864
Lincoln understood that the Federal government s power to end slavery was limite
d by the Constitution, which before 1865, committed the issue to individual stat
es. He argued before and during his election that the eventual extinction of sla
very would result from preventing its expansion into new U.S. territory. At the
beginning of the war, he also sought to persuade the states to accept compensate
d emancipation in return for their prohibition of slavery. Lincoln believed that
curtailing slavery in these ways would economically expunge it, as envisioned b
y the Founding Fathers, under the constitution.[223] President Lincoln rejected
two geographically limited emancipation attempts by Major General John C. Frmont
in August 1861 and by Major General David Hunter in May 1862, on the grounds tha
t it was not within their power, and it would upset the border states loyal to t

he Union.[224]
On June 19, 1862, endorsed by Lincoln, Congress passed an act banning slavery on
all federal territory. In July, the Confiscation Act of 1862 was passed, which
set up court procedures that could free the slaves of anyone convicted of aiding
the rebellion. Although Lincoln believed it was not within Congress s power to
free the slaves within the states, he approved the bill in deference to the legi
slature. He felt such action could only be taken by the Commander-in-Chief using
war powers granted to the president by the Constitution, and Lincoln was planni
ng to take that action. In that month, Lincoln discussed a draft of the Emancipa
tion Proclamation with his cabinet. In it, he stated that "as a fit and necessar
y military measure, on January 1, 1863, all persons held as slaves in the Confed
erate states will thenceforward, and forever, be free".[225]
Privately, Lincoln concluded at this point that the slave base of the Confederac
y had to be eliminated. However Copperheads argued that emancipation was a stumb
ling block to peace and reunification. Republican editor Horace Greeley of the h
ighly influential New York Tribune fell for the ploy,[226] and Lincoln refuted i
t directly in a shrewd letter of August 22, 1862. Although he said he personally
wished all men could be free, Lincoln stated that the primary goal of his actio
ns as the U.S. president (he used the first person pronoun and explicitly refers
to his "official duty") was that of preserving the Union:[227]
My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to
save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave
I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it; a
nd if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do t
hat. What I do about slavery, and the colored race, I do because I believe it he
lps to save the Union; and what I forbear, I forbear because I do not believe it
would help to save the Union ... [] I have here stated my purpose according to m
y view of official duty; and I intend no modification of my oft-expressed person
al wish that all men everywhere could be free.[228]
The Emancipation Proclamation, issued on September 22, 1862, and put into effect
on January 1, 1863, declared free the slaves in 10 states not then under Union
control, with exemptions specified for areas already under Union control in two
states.[229] Lincoln spent the next 100 days preparing the army and the nation f
or emancipation, while Democrats rallied their voters in the 1862 off-year elect
ions by warning of the threat freed slaves posed to northern whites.[230]
Once the abolition of slavery in the rebel states became a military objective, a
s Union armies advanced south, more slaves were liberated until all three millio
n of them in Confederate territory were freed. Lincoln s comment on the signing
of the Proclamation was: "I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doin
g right, than I do in signing this paper."[231] For some time, Lincoln continued
earlier plans to set up colonies for the newly freed slaves. He commented favor
ably on colonization in the Emancipation Proclamation, but all attempts at such
a massive undertaking failed.[232] A few days after Emancipation was announced,
13 Republican governors met at the War Governors Conference; they supported the
president s Proclamation, but suggested the removal of General George B. McClel
lan as commander of the Union Army.[233]
Enlisting former slaves in the military was official government policy after the
issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation. By the spring of 1863, Lincoln was r
eady to recruit black troops in more than token numbers. In a letter to Andrew J
ohnson, the military governor of Tennessee, encouraging him to lead the way in r
aising black troops, Lincoln wrote, "The bare sight of 50,000 armed and drilled
black soldiers on the banks of the Mississippi would end the rebellion at once".
[234] By the end of 1863, at Lincoln s direction, General Lorenzo Thomas had rec
ruited 20 regiments of blacks from the Mississippi Valley.[235] Frederick Dougla

ss once observed of Lincoln: "In his company, I was never reminded of my humble
origin, or of my unpopular color".[236]
Gettysburg Address (1863)
Main article: Gettysburg Address
The only confirmed photo of Abraham Lincoln at Gettysburg, some three hours befo
re the speech.
With the great Union victory at the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863, and the d
efeat of the Copperheads in the Ohio election in the fall, Lincoln maintained a
strong base of party support and was in a strong position to redefine the war ef
fort, despite the New York City draft riots. The stage was set for his address a
t the Gettysburg battlefield cemetery on November 19, 1863.[237] Defying Lincoln
s prediction that "the world will little note, nor long remember what we say he
re", the Address became the most quoted speech in American history.[238]
In 272 words, and three minutes, Lincoln asserted the nation was born not in 178
9, but in 1776, "conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all
men are created equal". He defined the war as an effort dedicated to these prin
ciples of liberty and equality for all. The emancipation of slaves was now part
of the national war effort. He declared that the deaths of so many brave soldier
s would not be in vain, that slavery would end as a result of the losses, and th
e future of democracy in the world would be assured, that "government of the peo
ple, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth". Lincoln co
ncluded that the Civil War had a profound objective: a new birth of freedom in t
he nation.[239][240]
General Grant
Painting of four men conferring in a ship s cabin, entitled "The Peacemakers".
President Lincoln (center right) with, from left, Generals Sherman and Grant and
Admiral Porter 1868 painting of events aboard the River Queen in March 1865
Meade s failure to capture Lee s army as it retreated from Gettysburg, and the c
ontinued passivity of the Army of the Potomac, persuaded Lincoln that a change i
n command was needed. General Ulysses S. Grant s victories at the Battle of Shil
oh and in the Vicksburg campaign impressed Lincoln and made Grant a strong candi
date to head the Union Army. Responding to criticism of Grant after Shiloh, Linc
oln had said, "I can t spare this man. He fights."[241] With Grant in command, L
incoln felt the Union Army could relentlessly pursue a series of coordinated off
ensives in multiple theaters, and have a top commander who agreed on the use of
black troops.[242]
Nevertheless, Lincoln was concerned that Grant might be considering a candidacy
for President in 1864, as McClellan was. Lincoln arranged for an intermediary to
make inquiry into Grant s political intentions, and being assured that he had n
one, submitted to the Senate Grant s promotion to commander of the Union Army. H
e obtained Congress s consent to reinstate for Grant the rank of Lieutenant Gene
ral, which no officer had held since George Washington.[243]
Grant waged his bloody Overland Campaign in 1864. This is often characterized as
a war of attrition, given high Union losses at battles such as the Battle of th
e Wilderness and Cold Harbor. Even though they had the advantage of fighting on
the defensive, the Confederate forces had "almost as high a percentage of casual
ties as the Union forces".[244] The high casualty figures of the Union alarmed t
he North; Grant had lost a third of his army, and Lincoln asked what Grant s pla
ns were, to which the general replied, "I propose to fight it out on this line i
f it takes all summer."[245]
The Confederacy lacked reinforcements, so Lee s army shrank with every costly ba
ttle. Grant s army moved south, crossed the James River, forcing a siege and tre
nch warfare outside Petersburg, Virginia. Lincoln then made an extended visit to

Grant s headquarters at City Point, Virginia. This allowed the president to con
fer in person with Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman about the hostilities, as
Sherman coincidentally managed a hasty visit to Grant from his position in North
Carolina.[246] Lincoln and the Republican Party mobilized support for the draft
throughout the North, and replaced the Union losses.[247]
Lincoln authorized Grant to target the Confederate infrastructuresuch as plantati
ons, railroads, and bridgeshoping to destroy the South s morale and weaken its ec
onomic ability to continue fighting. Grant s move to Petersburg resulted in the
obstruction of three railroads between Richmond and the South. This strategy all
owed Generals Sherman and Philip Sheridan to destroy plantations and towns in Vi
rginia s Shenandoah Valley. The damage caused by Sherman s March to the Sea thro
ugh Georgia in 1864 was limited to a 60-mile (97 km) swath, but neither Lincoln
nor his commanders saw destruction as the main goal, but rather defeat of the Co
nfederate armies. Mark E. Neely Jr. has argued that there was no effort to engag
e in "total war" against civilians which he believed did take place during World
War II.[248][vague]
Confederate general Jubal Anderson Early began a series of assaults in the North
that threatened the Capital. During Early s raid on Washington, D.C. in 1864, L
incoln was watching the combat from an exposed position; Captain Oliver Wendell
Holmes shouted at him, "Get down, you damn fool, before you get shot!"[249] Afte
r repeated calls on Grant to defend Washington, Sheridan was appointed and the t
hreat from Early was dispatched.[250]
As Grant continued to wear down Lee s forces, efforts to discuss peace began. Co
nfederate Vice President Stephens led a group to meet with Lincoln, Seward, and
others at Hampton Roads. Lincoln refused to allow any negotiation with the Confe
deracy as a coequal; his sole objective was an agreement to end the fighting and
the meetings produced no results.[251] On April 1, 1865, Grant successfully out
flanked Lee s forces in the Battle of Five Forks and nearly encircled Petersburg
, and the Confederate government evacuated Richmond. Days later, when that city
fell, Lincoln visited the vanquished Confederate capital; as he walked through t
he city, white Southerners were stone-faced, but freedmen greeted him as a hero.
On April 9, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox and the war was effectively
over.[252]
1864 re-election
BEP engraved portrait of Lincoln as President.
File:LINCOLN, Abraham-President (BEP engraved portrait).jpg
BEP engraved portrait of Lincoln as President.
Main articles: Electoral history of Abraham Lincoln and United States presidenti
al election, 1864
While the war was still being waged, Lincoln faced reelection in 1864. Lincoln w
as a master politician, bringing togetherand holding togetherall the main factions
of the Republican Party, and bringing in War Democrats such as Edwin M. Stanton
and Andrew Johnson as well. Lincoln spent many hours a week talking to politici
ans from across the land and using his patronage powersgreatly expanded over peac
etimeto hold the factions of his party together, build support for his own polici
es, and fend off efforts by Radicals to drop him from the 1864 ticket.[253][254]
At its 1864 convention, the Republican Party selected Johnson, a War Democrat f
rom the Southern state of Tennessee, as his running mate. To broaden his coaliti
on to include War Democrats as well as Republicans, Lincoln ran under the label
of the new Union Party.[255]
When Grant s 1864 spring campaigns turned into bloody stalemates and Union casua
lties mounted, the lack of military success wore heavily on the President s re-e
lection prospects, and many Republicans across the country feared that Lincoln w
ould be defeated. Sharing this fear, Lincoln wrote and signed a pledge that, if
he should lose the election, he would still defeat the Confederacy before turnin

g over the White House:[256]

This morning, as for some days past, it seems exceedingly probable that this Adm
inistration will not be re-elected. Then it will be my duty to so co-operate wit
h the President elect, as to save the Union between the election and the inaugur
ation; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he cannot possib
ly save it afterward.[257]
Lincoln did not show the pledge to his cabinet, but asked them to sign the seale
d envelope.
Map of the U.S. showing Lincoln winning all the Union states except for Kentucky
, New Jersey, and Delaware. The Southern states are not included.
An electoral landslide (in red) for Lincoln in the 1864 election, southern state
s (brown) and territories (light brown) not in play
A large crowd in front of a large building with many pillars.
Lincoln s second inaugural address in 1865 at the almost completed Capitol build
ing
While the Democratic platform followed the "Peace wing" of the party and called
the war a "failure", their candidate, General George B. McClellan, supported the
war and repudiated the platform. Lincoln provided Grant with more troops and mo
bilized his party to renew its support of Grant in the war effort. Sherman s cap
ture of Atlanta in September and David Farragut s capture of Mobile ended defeat
ist jitters;[258] the Democratic Party was deeply split, with some leaders and m
ost soldiers openly for Lincoln. By contrast, the National Union Party was unite
d and energized as Lincoln made emancipation the central issue, and state Republ
ican parties stressed the perfidy of the Copperheads.[259] On November 8, Lincol
n was re-elected in a landslide, carrying all but three states, and receiving 78
percent of the Union soldiers vote.[256][260]
On March 4, 1865, Lincoln delivered his second inaugural address. In it, he deem
ed the high casualties on both sides to be God s will. Historian Mark Noll concl
udes it ranks "among the small handful of semi-sacred texts by which Americans c
onceive their place in the world".[261] Lincoln said:
Fondly do we hopefervently do we praythat this mighty scourge of war may speedily
pass away. Yet, if God wills that it continue, until all the wealth piled by the
bond-man s 250 years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of
blood drawn with the lash, shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as was
said 3,000 years ago, so still it must be said, "the judgments of the Lord, are
true and righteous altogether". With malice toward none; with charity for all;
with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on t
o finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation s wounds; to care for him who
shall have borne the battle, and for his widow, and his orphanto do all which ma
y achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace, among ourselves, and with all na
tions.[262]
Reconstruction
Main article: Reconstruction Era
Reconstruction began during the war, as Lincoln and his associates anticipated q
uestions of how to reintegrate the conquered southern states, and how to determi
ne the fates of Confederate leaders and freed slaves. Shortly after Lee s surren
der, a general had asked Lincoln how the defeated Confederates should be treated
, and Lincoln replied, "Let em up easy."[263] In keeping with that sentiment, L
incoln led the moderates regarding Reconstruction policy, and was opposed by the
Radical Republicans, under Rep. Thaddeus Stevens, Sen. Charles Sumner and Sen.
Benjamin Wade, political allies of the president on other issues. Determined to
find a course that would reunite the nation and not alienate the South, Lincoln
urged that speedy elections under generous terms be held throughout the war. His
Amnesty Proclamation of December 8, 1863, offered pardons to those who had not

held a Confederate civil office, had not mistreated Union prisoners, and would s
ign an oath of allegiance.[264]
Cartoon of Lincoln and Johnson attempting to stitch up the broken Union
A political cartoon of Vice President Andrew Johnson (a former tailor) and Linco
ln, 1865, entitled "The Rail Splitter At Work Repairing the Union." The captio
n reads (Johnson): Take it quietly Uncle Abe and I will draw it closer than ever
. (Lincoln): A few more stitches Andy and the good old Union will be mended.
As Southern states were subdued, critical decisions had to be made as to their l
eadership while their administrations were re-formed. Of special importance were
Tennessee and Arkansas, where Lincoln appointed Generals Andrew Johnson and Fre
derick Steele as military governors, respectively. In Louisiana, Lincoln ordered
General Nathaniel P. Banks to promote a plan that would restore statehood when
10 percent of the voters agreed to it. Lincoln s Democratic opponents seized on
these appointments to accuse him of using the military to ensure his and the Rep
ublicans political aspirations. On the other hand, the Radicals denounced his p
olicy as too lenient, and passed their own plan, the Wade-Davis Bill, in 1864. W
hen Lincoln vetoed the bill, the Radicals retaliated by refusing to seat represe
ntatives elected from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee.[265]
Lincoln s appointments were designed to keep both the moderate and Radical facti
ons in harness. To fill Chief Justice Taney s seat on the Supreme Court, he name
d the choice of the Radicals, Salmon P. Chase, who Lincoln believed would uphold
the emancipation and paper money policies.[266]
After implementing the Emancipation Proclamation, which did not apply to every s
tate, Lincoln increased pressure on Congress to outlaw slavery throughout the en
tire nation with a constitutional amendment. Lincoln declared that such an amend
ment would "clinch the whole matter".[267] By December 1863, a proposed constitu
tional amendment that would outlaw slavery was brought to Congress for passage.
This first attempt at an amendment failed to pass, falling short of the required
two-thirds majority on June 15, 1864, in the House of Representatives. Passage
of the proposed amendment became part of the Republican/Unionist platform in the
election of 1864. After a long debate in the House, a second attempt passed Con
gress on January 31, 1865, and was sent to the state legislatures for ratificati
on.[268][269] Upon ratification, it became the Thirteenth Amendment to the Unite
d States Constitution on December 6, 1865.[270]
As the war drew to a close, Lincoln s presidential Reconstruction for the South
was in flux; having believed the federal government had limited responsibility t
o the millions of freedmen. He signed into law Senator Charles Sumner s Freedmen
s Bureau bill that set up a temporary federal agency designed to meet the immed
iate material needs of former slaves. The law assigned land for a lease of three
years with the ability to purchase title for the freedmen. Lincoln stated that
his Louisiana plan did not apply to all states under Reconstruction. Shortly bef
ore his assassination, Lincoln announced he had a new plan for southern Reconstr
uction. Discussions with his cabinet revealed Lincoln planned short-term militar
y control over southern states, until readmission under the control of southern
Unionists.[271]
Historians agree that it is impossible to predict exactly what Lincoln would hav
e done about Reconstruction if he had lived, but they make projections based on
his known policy positions and political acumen. Lincoln biographers James G. Ra
ndall and Richard Current, according to David Lincove, argue that:
It is likely that had he lived, Lincoln would have followed a policy similar to
Johnson s, that he would have clashed with congressional Radicals, that he would
have produced a better result for the freedmen than occurred, and that his poli
tical skills would have helped him avoid Johnson s mistakes.[272]
Eric Foner argues that:

Unlike Sumner and other Radicals, Lincoln did not see Reconstruction as an oppor
tunity for a sweeping political and social revolution beyond emancipation. He ha
d long made clear his opposition to the confiscation and redistribution of land.
He believed, as most Republicans did in April 1865, that the voting requirement
s should be determined by the states. He assumed that political control in the S
outh would pass to white Unionists, reluctant secessionists, and forward-looking
former Confederates. But time and again during the war, Lincoln, after initial
opposition, had come to embrace positions first advanced by abolitionists and Ra
dical Republicans. ... Lincoln undoubtedly would have listened carefully to the
outcry for further protection for the former slaves ... It is entirely plausible
to imagine Lincoln and Congress agreeing on a Reconstruction policy that encomp
assed federal protection for basic civil rights plus limited black suffrage, alo
ng the lines Lincoln proposed just before his death."[273]
Redefining the republic and republicanism
An older, tired-looking Abraham Lincoln with a beard.
Lincoln in February 1865, about two months before his death.
The successful reunification of the states had consequences for the name of the
country. The term "the United States" has historically been used, sometimes in t
he plural ("these United States"), and other times in the singular, without any
particular grammatical consistency. The Civil War was a significant force in the
eventual dominance of the singular usage by the end of the 19th century.[274]
In recent years, historians such as Harry Jaffa, Herman Belz, John Diggins, Vern
on Burton and Eric Foner have stressed Lincoln s redefinition of republican valu
es. As early as the 1850s, a time when most political rhetoric focused on the sa
nctity of the Constitution, Lincoln redirected emphasis to the Declaration of In
dependence as the foundation of American political valueswhat he called the "shee
t anchor" of republicanism.[275] The Declaration s emphasis on freedom and equal
ity for all, in contrast to the Constitution s tolerance of slavery, shifted the
debate. As Diggins concludes regarding the highly influential Cooper Union spee
ch of early 1860, "Lincoln presented Americans a theory of history that offers a
profound contribution to the theory and destiny of republicanism itself."[276]
His position gained strength because he highlighted the moral basis of republica
nism, rather than its legalisms.[277] Nevertheless, in 1861, Lincoln justified t
he war in terms of legalisms (the Constitution was a contract, and for one party
to get out of a contract all the other parties had to agree), and then in terms
of the national duty to guarantee a republican form of government in every stat
e.[278] Burton (2008) argues that Lincoln s republicanism was taken up by the Fr
eedmen as they were emancipated.[279]
In March 1861, in Lincoln s first inaugural address, he explored the nature of d
emocracy. He denounced secession as anarchy, and explained that majority rule ha
d to be balanced by constitutional restraints in the American system. He said "A
majority held in restraint by constitutional checks and limitations, and always
changing easily with deliberate changes of popular opinions and sentiments, is
the only true sovereign of a free people."[280]
Other enactments
Lincoln adhered to the Whig theory of the presidency, which gave Congress primar
y responsibility for writing the laws while the Executive enforced them. Lincoln
vetoed only four bills passed by Congress; the only important one was the WadeDavis Bill with its harsh program of Reconstruction.[281] He signed the Homestea
d Act in 1862, making millions of acres of government-held land in the West avai
lable for purchase at very low cost. The Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act, also s
igned in 1862, provided government grants for agricultural colleges in each stat
e. The Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the con
struction of the United States First Transcontinental Railroad, which was compl
eted in 1869.[282] The passage of the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Acts
was made possible by the absence of Southern congressmen and senators who had o

pposed the measures in the 1850s.[283]

The Lincoln Cabinet[284]
Office Name
Term
President
Abraham Lincoln 18611865
Vice President Hannibal Hamlin 18611865
Andrew Johnson 1865
Secretary of State
William H. Seward
18611865
Secretary of Treasury Salmon P. Chase 18611864
William P. Fessenden
18641865
Hugh McCulloch 1865
Secretary of War
Simon Cameron 18611862
Edwin M. Stanton
18621865
Attorney General
Edward Bates
18611864
James Speed
18641865
Postmaster General
Montgomery Blair
18611864
William Dennison Jr.
18641865
Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles 18611865
Secretary of the Interior
Caleb Blood Smith
18611862
John Palmer Usher
18631865
Other important legislation involved two measures to raise revenues for the Fede
ral government: tariffs (a policy with long precedent), and a new Federal income
tax. In 1861, Lincoln signed the second and third Morrill Tariff, the first hav
ing become law under James Buchanan. Also in 1861, Lincoln signed the Revenue Ac
t of 1861, creating the first U.S. income tax.[285] This created a flat tax of 3
percent on incomes above $800 ($21,100 in current dollar terms), which was late
r changed by the Revenue Act of 1862 to a progressive rate structure.[286]
Lincoln also presided over the expansion of the federal government s economic in
fluence in several other areas. The creation of the system of national banks by
the National Banking Act provided a strong financial network in the country. It
also established a national currency. In 1862, Congress created, with Lincoln s
approval, the Department of Agriculture.[287] In 1862, Lincoln sent a senior gen
eral, John Pope, to put down the "Sioux Uprising" in Minnesota. Presented with 3
03 execution warrants for convicted Santee Dakota who were accused of killing in
nocent farmers, Lincoln conducted his own personal review of each of these warra
nts, eventually approving 39 for execution (one was later reprieved).[288] Presi
dent Lincoln had planned to reform federal Indian policy.[289]
In the wake of Grant s casualties in his campaign against Lee, Lincoln had consi
dered yet another executive call for a military draft, but it was never issued.
In response to rumors of one, however, the editors of the New York World and the
Journal of Commerce published a false draft proclamation which created an oppor
tunity for the editors and others employed at the publications to corner the gol
d market. Lincoln s reaction was to send the strongest of messages to the media
about such behavior; he ordered the military to seize the two papers. The seizur
e lasted for two days.[290]
Lincoln is largely responsible for the institution of the Thanksgiving holiday i
n the United States.[291] Before Lincoln s presidency, Thanksgiving, while a reg
ional holiday in New England since the 17th century, had been proclaimed by the
federal government only sporadically and on irregular dates. The last such procl
amation had been during James Madison s presidency 50 years before. In 1863, Lin
coln declared the final Thursday in November of that year to be a day of Thanksg
iving.[291] In June 1864, Lincoln approved the Yosemite Grant enacted by Congres
s, which provided unprecedented federal protection for the area now known as Yos
emite National Park.[292]
Judicial appointments
Main article: List of federal judges appointed by Abraham Lincoln

Supreme Court appointments

Noah Haynes Swayne 1862
Samuel Freeman Miller 1862
David Davis 1862
Stephen Johnson Field 1863
Salmon Portland Chase 1864 (Chief Justice)
Salmon Portland Chase was Lincoln s choice to be Chief Justice of the United Sta
tes.
Lincoln s declared philosophy on court nominations was that "we cannot ask a man
what he will do, and if we should, and he should answer us, we should despise h
im for it. Therefore we must take a man whose opinions are known."[291] Lincoln
made five appointments to the United States Supreme Court. Noah Haynes Swayne, n
ominated January 21, 1862 and appointed January 24, 1862, was chosen as an antislavery lawyer who was committed to the Union. Samuel Freeman Miller, nominated
and appointed on July 16, 1862, supported Lincoln in the 1860 election and was a
n avowed abolitionist. David Davis, Lincoln s campaign manager in 1860, nominate
d December 1, 1862 and appointed December 8, 1862, had also served as a judge in
Lincoln s Illinois court circuit. Stephen Johnson Field, a previous California
Supreme Court justice, was nominated March 6, 1863 and appointed March 10, 1863,
and provided geographic balance, as well as political balance to the court as a
Democrat. Finally, Lincoln s Treasury Secretary, Salmon P. Chase, was nominated
as Chief Justice, and appointed the same day, on December 6, 1864. Lincoln beli
eved Chase was an able jurist, would support Reconstruction legislation, and tha
t his appointment united the Republican Party.[293]
Other judicial appointments
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by addi
ng citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and remov
ed. (December 2014)
Lincoln appointed 32 federal judges, including four Associate Justices and one C
hief Justice to the Supreme Court of the United States, and 27 judges to the Uni
ted States district courts. Lincoln appointed no judges to the United States cir
cuit courts during his time in office.
States admitted to the Union
West Virginia, admitted to the Union June 20, 1863, contained the former north-w
esternmost counties of Virginia that seceded from Virginia after that commonweal
th declared its secession from the Union. As a condition for its admission, West
Virginia s constitution was required to provide for the gradual abolition of sl
avery. Nevada, which became the third State in the far-west of the continent, wa
s admitted as a free state on October 31, 1864.[294]
Assassination and funeral
Main articles: Assassination of Abraham Lincoln and Funeral and burial of Abraha
m Lincoln
Image of Lincoln being shot by Booth while sitting in a theater booth.
Shown in the presidential booth of Ford s Theatre, from left to right, are assas
sin John Wilkes Booth, Abraham Lincoln, Mary Todd Lincoln, Clara Harris, and Hen
ry Rathbone.
John Wilkes Booth was a well-known actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland; th
ough he never joined the Confederate army, he had contacts with the Confederate
secret service.[295] In 1864, Booth formulated a plan (very similar to one of Th
omas N. Conrad previously authorized by the Confederacy)[296] to kidnap Lincoln
in exchange for the release of Confederate prisoners. After attending an April 1
1, 1865, speech in which Lincoln promoted voting rights for blacks, an incensed
Booth changed his plans and became determined to assassinate the president.[297]
Learning that the President and Grant would be attending Ford s Theatre, Booth
formulated a plan with co-conspirators to assassinate Lincoln and Grant at the t

heater, as well as Vice President Johnson and Secretary of State Seward at their
homes. Without his main bodyguard, Ward Hill Lamon, Lincoln left to attend the
play Our American Cousin on April 14. At the last minute, Grant decided to go to
New Jersey to visit his children instead of attending the play.[298]
Lincoln s bodyguard, John Parker, left Ford s Theater during intermission to dri
nk at the saloon next door. The now unguarded President sat in his state box in
the balcony. Seizing the opportunity, Booth crept up from behind and at about 10
:13 pm, aimed at the back of Lincoln s head and fired at point-blank range, mort
ally wounding the President. Major Henry Rathbone momentarily grappled with Boot
h, but Booth stabbed him and escaped.[299][300]
After being on the run for 12 days, Booth was tracked down and found on a farm i
n Virginia, some 70 miles (110 km) south of Washington. After refusing to surren
der to Union troops, Booth was killed by Sergeant Boston Corbett on April 26.[30
1][302]
Doctor Charles Leale, an Army surgeon, found the President unresponsive, barely
breathing and with no detectable pulse. Having determined that the President had
been shot in the head, and not stabbed in the shoulder as originally thought, h
e made an attempt to clear the blood clot, after which the President began to br
eathe more naturally.[303] The dying President was taken across the street to Pe
tersen House. After remaining in a coma for nine hours, Lincoln died at 7:22 am
on April 15. Secretary of War Stanton saluted and said, "Now he belongs to the a
ges."[304]
Lincoln s flag-enfolded body was then escorted in the rain to the White House by
bareheaded Union officers, while the city s church bells rang. President Johnso
n was sworn in at 10:00 am, less than 3 hours after Lincoln s death. The late Pr
esident lay in state in the East Room, and then in the Capitol Rotunda from Apri
l 19 through April 21. For his final journey with his son Willie, both caskets w
ere transported in the executive coach "United States" and for three weeks the L
incoln Special funeral train decorated in black bunting[305] bore Lincoln s rema
ins on a slow circuitous waypoint journey from Washington D.C. to Springfield, I
llinois, stopping at many cities across the North for large-scale memorials atte
nded by hundreds of thousands, as well as many people who gathered in informal t
rackside tributes with bands, bonfires, and hymn singing[306][307] or silent rev
erence with hat in hand as the railway procession slowly passed by. Poet Walt Wh
itman composed When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom d to eulogize Lincoln, one
of four poems he wrote about the assassinated president.[308] Historians have e
mphasized the widespread shock and sorrow, but also noted that some Lincoln hate
rs cheered when they heard the news.[309] African-Americans were especially move
d; they had lost their Moses .[citation needed] In a larger sense, the outpouri
ng of grief and anguish was in response to the deaths of so many men in the war
that had just ended.[310]
Religious and philosophical beliefs
Further information: Abraham Lincoln and religion
A painting of Lincoln sitting with his hand on his chin and his elbow on his leg
.
Lincoln, painting by George Peter Alexander Healy in 1869
As a young man, Lincoln was a religious skeptic,[311] or, in the words of a biog
rapher, an iconoclast.[312] Later in life, Lincoln s frequent use of religious i
magery and language might have reflected his own personal beliefs or might have
been a device to appeal to his audiences, who were mostly evangelical Protestant
s.[313] He never joined a church, although he frequently attended with his wife.
[314] However, he was deeply familiar with the Bible, and he both quoted and pra
ised it.[315] He was private about his beliefs and respected the beliefs of othe
rs. Lincoln never made a clear profession of Christian beliefs. However he did b
elieve in an all-powerful God that shaped events and, by 1865, was expressing th

ose beliefs in major speeches.[316]

In the 1840s, Lincoln subscribed to the Doctrine of Necessity, a belief that ass
erted the human mind was controlled by some higher power.[317] In the 1850s, Lin
coln believed in "providence" in a general way, and rarely used the language or
imagery of the evangelicals; he regarded the republicanism of the Founding Fathe
rs with an almost religious reverence.[318] When he suffered the death of his so
n Edward, Lincoln more frequently expressed a need to depend on God.[319] The de
ath of his son Willie in February 1862 may have caused Lincoln to look toward re
ligion for answers and solace.[320] After Willie s death, Lincoln considered why
, from a divine standpoint, the severity of the war was necessary. He wrote at t
his time that God "could have either saved or destroyed the Union without a huma
n contest. Yet the contest began. And having begun He could give the final victo
ry to either side any day. Yet the contest proceeds."[321] On the day Lincoln wa
s assassinated, he reportedly told his wife he desired to visit the Holy Land.[3
22]
Health
Main article: Medical and mental health of Abraham Lincoln
Several claims abound that Lincoln s health was declining before the assassinati
on. These are often based on photographs appearing to show weight loss and muscl
e wasting. One such claim is that he suffered from a rare genetic disorder MEN2b
,[323] which manifests with a medullary thyroid carcinoma, mucosal neuromas and
a Marfinoid appearance. Others simply claim he had Marfan s syndrome, based on h
is tall appearance with spindly fingers, and the association of possible aortic
regurgitation, which can cause bobbing of the head (DeMusset s sign) based on bl
urring of Lincoln s head in photographs, which back then had a long exposure tim
e. DNA analysis is so far being refused by the Grand Army of the Republic museum
in Philadelphia.[323]
Historical reputation
See also: Abraham Lincoln cultural depictions
Lincoln s image is carved into the stone of Mount Rushmore.
In surveys of U.S. scholars ranking presidents conducted since the 1940s, Lincol
n is consistently ranked in the top three, often as number one.[4][5] A 2004 stu
dy found that scholars in the fields of history and politics ranked Lincoln numb
er one, while legal scholars placed him second after Washington.[324] In preside
ntial ranking polls conducted in the United States since 1948, Lincoln has been
rated at the very top in the majority of polls: Schlesinger 1948, Schlesinger 19
62, 1982 Murray Blessing Survey, Chicago Tribune 1982 poll, Schlesinger 1996, CS
PAN 1996, Ridings-McIver 1996, Time 2008, and CSPAN 2009. Generally, the top thr
ee presidents are rated as 1. Lincoln; 2. George Washington; and 3. Franklin D.
Roosevelt, although Lincoln and Washington, and Washington and Roosevelt, are oc
casionally reversed.[325]
President Lincoln s assassination increased his status to the point of making hi
m a national martyr. Lincoln was viewed by abolitionists as a champion for human
liberty. Republicans linked Lincoln s name to their party. Many, though not all
, in the South considered Lincoln as a man of outstanding ability.[326]
Schwartz argues that Lincoln s reputation grew slowly in the late 19th century u
ntil the Progressive Era (19001920s) when he emerged as one of the most venerated
heroes in American history, with even white Southerners in agreement. The high
point came in 1922 with the dedication of the Lincoln Memorial on the National M
all in Washington, D.C.[327] In the New Deal era liberals honored Lincoln not so
much as the self-made man or the great war president, but as the advocate of th
e common man who doubtless would have supported the welfare state. In the Cold W
ar years, Lincoln s image shifted to emphasize the symbol of freedom who brought
hope to those oppressed by communist regimes.[328]

By the 1970s Lincoln had become a hero to political conservatives[329] for his i
ntense nationalism, support for business, his insistence on stopping the spread
of human bondage, his acting in terms of Lockean and Burkean principles on behal
f of both liberty and tradition, and his devotion to the principles of the Found
ing Fathers.[330][331][332] As a Whig activist, Lincoln was a spokesman for busi
ness interests, favoring high tariffs, banks, internal improvements, and railroa
ds in opposition to the agrarian Democrats.[333] William C. Harris found that Li
ncoln s "reverence for the Founding Fathers, the Constitution, the laws under it
, and the preservation of the Republic and its institutions undergirded and stre
ngthened his conservatism".[334] James G. Randall emphasizes his tolerance and e
specially his moderation "in his preference for orderly progress, his distrust o
f dangerous agitation, and his reluctance toward ill digested schemes of reform"
. Randall concludes that, "he was conservative in his complete avoidance of that
type of so-called radicalism which involved abuse of the South, hatred for th
e slaveholder, thirst for vengeance, partisan plotting, and ungenerous demands t
hat Southern institutions be transformed overnight by outsiders."[335]
By the late 1960s, liberals, such as historian Lerone Bennett, were having secon
d thoughts, especially regarding Lincoln s views on racial issues.[336][337] Ben
nett won wide attention when he called Lincoln a white supremacist in 1968.[338]
He noted that Lincoln used ethnic slurs, told jokes that ridiculed blacks, insi
sted he opposed social equality, and proposed sending freed slaves to another co
untry. Defenders, such as authors Dirck and Cashin, retorted that he was not as
bad as most politicians of his day;[339] and that he was a "moral visionary" who
deftly advanced the abolitionist cause, as fast as politically possible.[340] T
he emphasis shifted away from Lincoln-the-emancipator to an argument that blacks
had freed themselves from slavery, or at least were responsible for pressuring
the government on emancipation.[341][342] Historian Barry Schwartz wrote in 2009
that Lincoln s image suffered "erosion, fading prestige, benign ridicule" in th
e late 20th century.[343] On the other hand, Donald opined in his 1996 biography
that Lincoln was distinctly endowed with the personality trait of negative capa
bility, defined by the poet John Keats and attributed to extraordinary leaders w
ho were "content in the midst of uncertainties and doubts, and not compelled tow
ard fact or reason".[344]
Today s U.S. President, however, seems to be promoting a sympathetic resurgence
for his predecessor, Lincoln. Indeed, President Obama, has insisted on using Lin
coln s Bible for his swearing in of office at both his inaugurations.[345]
Lincoln has often been portrayed by Hollywood, almost always in a flattering lig
ht.[346][347]
Memory and memorials
Main articles: Memorials to Abraham Lincoln and Abraham Lincoln cultural depicti
ons
An aerial photo a large white building with big pillars.
Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C.
Lincoln s portrait appears on two denominations of United States currency, the p
enny and the $5 bill. His likeness also appears on many postage stamps and he ha
s been memorialized in many town, city, and county names,[348] including the cap
ital of Nebraska.[349]
The most famous and most visited memorials are the Lincoln Memorial in Washingto
n, D.C.; Lincoln s sculpture on Mount Rushmore;[350] Ford s Theatre and Petersen
House (where he died) in Washington and the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Librar
y and Museum, located in Springfield, Illinois, not far from Lincoln s home and
his tomb.[351][352]
There was also the Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln exhibit in Disneyland, and the

Hall of Presidents at Walt Disney World, which had to do with Walt Disney admir
ing Lincoln ever since he was a little boy.
Barry Schwartz, a sociologist who has examined America s cultural memory, argues
that in the 1930s and 1940s, the memory of Abraham Lincoln was practically sacr
ed and provided the nation with "a moral symbol inspiring and guiding American l
ife". During the Great Depression, he argues, Lincoln served "as a means for see
ing the world s disappointments, for making its sufferings not so much explicabl
e as meaningful". Franklin D. Roosevelt, preparing America for war, used the wor
ds of the Civil War president to clarify the threat posed by Germany and Japan.
Americans asked, "What would Lincoln do?"[353] However, Schwartz also finds that
since World War II, Lincoln s symbolic power has lost relevance, and this "fadi
ng hero is symptomatic of fading confidence in national greatness". He suggested
that postmodernism and multiculturalism have diluted greatness as a concept.[35
4]
See also
Book icon
Book: Abraham Lincoln
List of Presidents of the United States
List of Presidents of the United States, sortable by previous experience
Blab school
Dakota War of 1862
Lincoln Tower
List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln
List of civil rights leaders
Acw bs 7a.pngAmerican Civil War portal
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Jump up ^ Donald (1996), p. 597.
Jump up ^ Martin, Paul (April 8, 2010). "Lincoln s Missing Bodyguard". Smithsoni
an Magazine. Archived from the original on October 20, 2011.
Jump up ^ Steers, p. 153.
Jump up ^ Donald (1996), p. 599.
Jump up ^ "Report of first doctor to reach shot Lincoln found".
Jump up ^ Donald (1996), pp. 598599, 686. Witnesses have provided other versions
of the quote, i.e. "He now belongs to the ages." and "He is a man for the ages."
Jump up ^ Scott D. Trostel. "The Lincoln Funeral Train". Retrieved November 20,
2012.
Jump up ^ Trostel, pp. 3158.
Jump up ^ Goodrich, pp. 231238.
Jump up ^ Peck, Garrett (2015). Walt Whitman in Washington, D.C.: The Civil War
and America s Great Poet. Charleston, SC: The History Press. pp. 11823. ISBN 9781-62619-973-6.
Jump up ^ Martha Hodes (2015). Mourning Lincoln. Yale UP. pp. 84, 86, 9697.
Jump up ^ Hodes (2015). Mourning Lincoln. pp. 197199.
Jump up ^ Douglas L. Wilson (1999). Honor s Voice: The Transformation of Abraham
Lincoln. Random House Digital, Inc. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-307-76581-9.
Jump up ^ Carwardine (2003), p. 4.
Jump up ^ Carwardine (1997), pp. 2755.
Jump up ^ On claims that Lincoln was baptized by an associate of Alexander Campb
ell, see Martin, Jim (1996). "The secret baptism of Abraham Lincoln". Restoratio
n Quarterly 38 (2).
Jump up ^ Donald (1996), pp. 4849, 514515.
Jump up ^ Mark A. Noll (1992). A History of Christianity in the United States an
d Canada. Wm. B. Eerdmans. pp. 32122.
Jump up ^ Donald (1996), pp. 4849.
Jump up ^ Grant R. Brodrecht, "Our country": Northern evangelicals and the Union
during the Civil War and Reconstruction (2008) p. 40
Jump up ^ Parrillo, pp. 227253.
Jump up ^ Wilson, pp. 251254.
Jump up ^ Wilson, p. 254.

Jump up ^ Guelzo (1999), p. 434

^ Jump up to: a b "Was Lincoln Dying Before He Was Shot?". The Atlantic. May 20,
2009. Retrieved October 8, 2014.
Jump up ^ Taranto, p. 264.
Jump up ^ Densen, John V., Editor, Reassessing The Presidency, The Rise of the E
xecutive State and the Decline of Freedom (Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2001), pg
s. 132; Ridings, William H., & Stuard B. McIver, Rating The Presidents, A Ranking
of U.S. Leaders, From the Great and Honorable to the Dishonest and Incompetent
(Citadel Press, Kensington Publishing Corp., 2000).
Jump up ^ Chesebrough, pp. 76, 79, 106, 110.
Jump up ^ Schwartz (2000), p. 109.
Jump up ^ Schwartz (2009), pp. 23, 9198.
Jump up ^ Havers, p. 96. Apart from neo-Confederates such as Mel Bradford who de
nounced his treatment of the white South.
Jump up ^ Belz (2006), pp. 514518.
Jump up ^ Graebner, pp. 6794.
Jump up ^ Smith, pp. 4345.
Jump up ^ Boritt (1994), pp. 196, 198, 228, 301.
Jump up ^ Harris, p. 2.
Jump up ^ Randall (1947), p. 175.
Jump up ^ Zilversmit, pp. 2224.
Jump up ^ Smith, p. 42.
Jump up ^ Bennett, pp. 3542.
Jump up ^ Dirck (2008), p. 31.
Jump up ^ Striner, pp. 24.
Jump up ^ Cashin, p. 61.
Jump up ^ Kelley & Lewis, p. 228.
Jump up ^ Schwartz (2009), p. 146.
Jump up ^ Donald (1996), p. 15.
Jump up ^ David Jackson (2013-01-10). "Obama to be sworn in with Lincoln, King B
ibles". USA TODAY. Retrieved 2016-03-02.
Jump up ^ Steven Spielberg, Doris Kearns Goodwin, and Tony Kushner, "Mr. Lincoln
Goes to Hollywood", Smithsonian (2012) 43#7 pp. 4653.
Jump up ^ Melvyn Stokes, "Abraham Lincoln and the Movies", American Nineteenth C
entury History 12 (June 2011), 20331.
Jump up ^ Dennis, p. 194.
Jump up ^ "Nebraska.gov". nebraska.gov.
Jump up ^ "Mount Rushmore National Memorial". U.S. National Park Service. Archiv
ed from the original on October 23, 2011.
Jump up ^ "The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum". Abraham Lincoln
Presidential Library and Museum. Archived from the original on October 25, 2011
.
Jump up ^ "About Ford s". Ford s Theatre. Archived from the original on October
25, 2011.
Jump up ^ Barry Schwartz, Abraham Lincoln in the Post-Heroic Era: History and Me
mory in Late Twentieth-Century America (2009) pp. xi, 9, 24
Jump up ^ Barry Schwartz, Abraham Lincoln in the Post-Heroic Era: History and Me
mory in Late Twentieth-Century America (2009) p. xi, 9
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Historiography
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Additional references
Burlingame, Michael (2008). Abraham Lincoln: A Life (2 volumes). Johns Hopkins U
niversity Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8993-6.
Cox, LaWanda (1981). Lincoln and Black Freedom: A Study in Presidential Leadersh
ip. University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-87249-400-8.
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erpt and text search
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cession Winter 18601861. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-8947-4.
McPherson, James M. (2008). Tried by War: Abraham Lincoln as Commander in Chief.
Penguin Press. ISBN 978-1-59420-191-2.
Miller, Richard Lawrence (2011). Lincoln and His World: The Rise to National Pro
minence, 18431853. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-5928-5., vol 3. of detailed biograp
hy
Neely, Mark E (1984). The Abraham Lincoln Encyclopedia. Da Capo Press. ISBN 9780-306-80209-6.
Neely, Mark E (1994). The Last Best Hope of Earth: Abraham Lincoln and the Promi

se of America. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-51125-5.

Randall, James G. (19451955). Lincoln the President (4 volumes). Dodd, Mead. OCLC
4183070.
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