ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Types of Engineering Materials

Metals
Crystalline in structure
Opaque and lustrous
Good electric and thermal conductivity
Changing geometric structures permanently
High strength, stiffness and ductility
Alloy: When two or more metals are combined together

Examples: Copper, Steel, Aluminium, Gold, Brass, Bronze, Super alloys
Polymers
Long molecular chains
Backbone of carbon atoms
Light weight
Low electrical and thermal conductivity
Generally resistant to atmospheric attack
Examples: Polyamide, Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), Polystyrene, ABS, rubber and nylon
Applications: Carrier bags, plumbing pipes, hoses, tyres, domestic items
Ceramics
Combination of 1 or more metals with a non-metallic element (oxygen, nitrogen, carbon)
Formation of oxides, nitrides, borides, silicides and carbides
Brittle
Good thermal and insulating properties
High compressive strengths but poor plasticity (the quality of being easily shaped or moulded)
Examples: Refractory, glass, concrete, silica, magnesium oxide and fireclay
Applications: Glassware, electrical insulators, cutting tools and building bricks
Composites
Two or more materials uniquely combined
One material will serve as a matrix to hold the reinforcement
Example: Cement holding steel bars
Fibrous composites (roof covers)
Light and strong
Particulate composites (cermets)
Hard and abrasive resistant
Usually made of Substrate and the resin
Substrate: Fibreglass, carbon fibre, Kevlar
Resin - structural glue: Polyester resin, Vinylester resin, Epoxy
Epoxy Resin is a transparent matrix when cured, used in aerospace industry

Properties of Materials
Physical Properties
Not easily altered
Remain intact whereas mechanical properties can be change through heat treatment
Density
Mass/Volume
Thermal Conductivity
Packing arrangement of atoms
Opacity/Transparency
Colour
Inherent reflected wavelength
Melting Point
Thermal Conductivity
Copper has the highest (1340 KJ/mhC)
Wood has low TC (1 KJ/mhC)
Electrical Conductivity
Electrical Conductivity
m/Q-mm
Copper has EC of 64,000 m/Q-mm
PVC has EC of 1014 m/Q-mm
Thermal Expansion
1/
Coefficient of Thermal expansion is melting point of a material
Higher melting point materials have less expansion
However steel is an exception
(non/Ferro)
Magnetism

Corrosion Resistance
Resistance to surface deterioration primarily caused by oxygen, chemicals or other agents
Though, degradation in plastics can be caused by UV and moisture
Mechanical Properties
Strength
kgf/mm ( ) Stress
Load per unit area
Tensile, Compressive, Shear
Strain
mm of deformation per mm of material length
Tensile
Properties

Stress/Strain (for ductile materials) able to be deformed without losing toughness; pliable, not brittle
Strain
Change a material undergoes during elongation or contraction
Elasticity
Recovery of material after being deformed/ stress is removed
Deformation of a good elastic material is not permanent
Deformation of Plastic (plastic deformation) is permanent
Figure 4 - General Stress/Straight Graph (Right)
Point A - Proportional / Elastic limit
Point B - Upper Yield Stress Point
Point C - Lower Yield Stress Point
Point D - Maximum tensile stress
Point E - Fracturing point

 Figure 5 - Different Force/Extension graph for different materials (Right)

Apart from ductile material such as mild steel, many materials do
not exhibit a marked discontinuity called yield point
Common Materials Terminology
Yield Strength ( y )
Stress level which large strains take place without further
increase in stress
Maximum stress before plastic flow (permanent
deformation) sets in
Proof stress
Force / Extension
Equivalent to yield strength
Plasticity
Materials ability to undergo permanent deformation without
rupture
Modulus
of Elasticity (E)

Measure of a stiffness of a material

Ration of stress to strain at elastic limit
Tensile Strength
UTS
Maximum stress of a material without fracture
Dividing the max load to cross sectional area of material
under test
N(-mm)
Force / Area
Compression

Extent to which material deforms under a compressive load prior to rupture

Bubble gum does not rupture, concrete will crack under heavy load
Bending
Characterised by outside fibres of a beam placed in tension and the inside fibres in compression
Torsion
Application of torque - a force that tends to cause rotation causing it to twist about its
longitudinal axis
Shear Strength
Maximum load a material can withstand without rupture when sheared
Bubble gum has little shear strength
Ductility
Ability to withstand plastic deformation without rupture.
Examples: Low carbon steels, aluminium, copper, gold, silver and nickel
Malleability

Same as ductility however malleability is associated with compressive deformation while ductility
is tensile deformation
Ductility is a mechanical property used to describe the extent to which materials can be deformed plastically
without fracture. In material science, ductility specifically refers to a material's ability to deform under tensile
stress; this is often characterised by the material's ability to be stretched into a wire.
Malleability, a similar concept, refers to a material's ability to deform under compressive stress; this is often
characterised by the material's ability to form a thin sheet by hammering or rolling. Ductility and malleability do
not always correlate with each other; for instance, gold is both ductile and malleable, but lead is only
malleable., https://sg.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20090303051823AAFRJmT, 2008

Hardness
The ability to withstand penetration, scratching or
wear
Clay is not hard, glass is hard but has a limit since
it shatters
If the material is deformed when hit by a hammer,
then the hammer is said to be harder than the
material.
Different scales and tests to measure hardness
but the most common are:
Brinell


i ) Hardened steel ball as the indentor


ii ) Brinell hardness number (BHN)
Vickers


i ) Vickers hardness scale (VHS)
Rockwell ( B&C Scales )


i ) Rockwell hardness scale (HRC)


ii ) N&T Scales use smaller indent force
Brittleness

Opposite of ductility
No relation to tensile strength
Associated with extreme high hardness
Examples: Hardened steels, cast irons and
ceramics
Impact Strength
Toughness of a material
Depends on ductility and strength
Chirpy and Izod impact tests
Chirpy test is when the specimen is struck
when in a horizontal position (Struct in the
middle of the span)
Izod test is when the specimen is struck
when in a vertical position (Struck above the
notch)
Pendulum swings and strikes the specimen.
The lost energy makes the difference in
height.
Fatigue Strength
Vibrational stress can cause fractures even when
stress is less than determined tensile test
Fatigue failure/ cyclic stressing is when you bend
something repeatedly
Examples: Connecting rods, gears, crane hooks,
bolts and aircraft bodies.
Creep Resistance
Long period of time may deform and fracture well
below tensile stress than determined
Usually accompanied by high temperatures
(Creep)
Example: Turbine blades and boiler tubes
Structural beams and milling machines