INDIAN BIODIVERSITY

What is biodiversity?
Biological diversity - or biodiversity - is a term we use to describe the variety of life
on Earth. It refers to the wide variety of ecosystems and living organisms: animals,
plants, their habitats and their genes.
India, a megadiverse country with only 2.4% of the world's land area,
harbours 7-8% of all recorded species, including over 45,000 species of plants and
91,000 species of animals. It is also amongst the few countries that have developed
a biogeographic classification for conservation planning, and has mapped
biodiversity-rich areas in the country. Of the 34 global biodiversity hotspots, four are
present in India, represented by the Himalaya, the Western Ghats, the North-east,
and the Nicobar Islands. Considering the outstanding universal values and
exceptionally high levels of endemism in the Western Ghats, 39 sites in the States
of Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra have been inscribed on the
United Nations Education Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World
Heritage List in 2012. India is an acknowledged centre of crop diversity and
harbours hundreds of varieties of crop plants such as rice, maize, millets etc. The
diverse physical features and climatic conditions have resulted in a variety of
ecosystems such as forests, grasslands, wetlands, desert, coastal and marine
ecosystems which harbour and sustain high biodiversity and contribute to human
well-being.

Faunal and Floral Diversity:

With only about 2.4% of world's total land surface, India is known to have
over 6.7% of the animal species that the world holds. With an estimated 29,105
species of algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms, India
holds 9.13% of the world's known floral diversity in these groups.
1.) Fungi and Lichen Diversity: The fungi, comprising diverse groups, are
ubiquitous and constitute the major decomposer community in the
biosphere. The Indian subcontinent and other warmer belts of the globe are a
storehouse of known and hitherto unknown fungi. The fungi are the largest
group of organisms by number on earth next only to insects, and are
different from animals and plants, they belong to a separate biological
kingdom that probably contains far more species than does the plant
kingdom. Fungi are threatened by climate change, habitat destruction,
invasive species, pollution, overexploitation and various other threats. It is
for these reasons that fungal conservation and the sustainable utilization of
fungi have been recognized by IUCN to be just as important as animal and
plant conservation. In recognition of the expertise available at Agharkar
Research Institute (ARI), Department of Science & Technology (DST), set up
in 2008 the National Facility for Culture Collection of Fungi (NFCCI) with the
primary aim of conserving germplasm of indigenous fungi in a repository,
extending knowledge-based services, undertake researches in defined thrust

areas and building capacity at the national level through workshops/training

programmes.
India also has a large number of species of lichens. Lichens are nature's most
remarkable alliances and the first recognized symbionts, combining the growth of
fungi and algae or cyanobacteria in an intimate biological union. Such an
association, besides conferring several advantages on lichens, has enabled them to
thrive in all sorts of diverse environments in different parts of the world. At least
2300 species belonging to 305 genera and 74 families of lichen are reported from
India. ARI is one of the leading centres of lichen studies in India.
2.) Marine biodiversity: Indias coastal and marine areas hold many biological
treasures. Dense mangrove forest of Sunderbans, the worlds largest
congregations of nesting turtles in Odisha, beautiful seagrass beds in
Palk Bay, dolphins and dugongs in the Gulf of Mannar, majestic whale
sharks in the Gulf of Kachchh and some of the worlds most beautiful coral
reefs are just a few examples of the treasures of Indias coastal and marine
biodiversity.
3.) Endemism: Endemism in plants is significant across different plant groups in
India. About 4045 species of flowering plants (angiosperms) endemic to India
are distributed amongst 141 genera belonging to 47 families. These are
concentrated in the floristically rich areas of North-east India, the Western
Ghats, the North-west Himalaya and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
In terms of endemism of vertebrate groups, India's global ranking is 10th in birds,
with 69 species, fifth in reptiles, with 156 species, and seventh in amphibians, with
110 species. Endemism is manifested most prominently in the Indian fauna among
the Amphibia (61.2%) and Reptilia (47%). It is estimated that 62% of the known
amphibian species are endemic to India, of which a majority are found in the
Western Ghats. Endemism is also reported to be high in freshwater fishes of the
Western Ghats.
Taking into account the urgent need to protect endemic species and to spread
awareness about their conservation, Department of Posts in collaboration with
Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), issued stamps on key endemic species
of the four Indian biodiversity hotspots. They are:
(a)Bugun Liocichla:This species has been classified as vulnerable under International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List.
(b)Nicobar Megapode:As the name suggest this species is endemic to the Nicobar Islands, India.

(c) Hoolock Gibbon:This species, the only ape in India is a forest dweller. This species is an important
seed disperser. Its diet includes mostly ripe fruits with some flowers, leaves and
shoots.
(d)Venated Gliding Frog:This critically endangered species of frog is restricted to the Indira Gandhi National
Park and its surrounding in Tamilnadu, in the South Western Ghats, within an
attitudinal range of 1000-1300 meters.

4.) Domestic biodiversity: India, as a centre of origin of cultivated plants, has as

many as 15 different agro-climatic zones. India is also considered to be a
primary centre of origin of rice. India also has a vast and rich repository of
farm animals, represented by a broad spectrum of native breeds of cattle
(34), buffaloes (12), goat (21), sheep (39) and chicken (15). To conserve
India's rich domesticated biodiversity and promote underutilized crops and
animal breeds, the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) has set up six national
bureaus namely, plant genetic resources, animal genetic resources, fish
genetic resources, agriculturally important insects, agriculturally important
microorganisms and soil sciences. These bureaus serve as the nodal
organisations for characterisation, evaluation, cataloguing and establishing
of national databases of living organisms corresponding to their mandates.

5.) Livestock diversity: This sector helps supplement food of the people with
animal protein, supporting family incomes and generating gainful
employment in the rural sector, particularly among the landless or small,
marginal farmers and women. Livestock also provides fibre, manure for crops
and draught power. The breakdown of livestock in the country is cattle,
37.6%; buffaloes, 19.9%; sheep, 13.5%; goats, 26.5%; and other livestock
species (camels, horses, ponies, pigs, donkeys, etc.), 2.1%. Although the
cattle, sheep, goat and yak populations have increased by 7.5%, 16.4%, 13%
and 28%, respectively, the population of other livestock species has
decreased. The National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR) has
taken steps to characterise the indigenous farm animals.

6.) Fish diversity: Geographically, India occupying a position at the confluence of

three major bio-geographic realms viz., the Palaearctic, Afrotropical and IndoMalayan, exhibits a great variety of ecological habitats which harbours rich
ichthyofaunal diversity. So far, Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) has recorded
3,022 species which constitute about 9.41% of the known fish species of the
world. National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources (NBFGR) is mandated to
carry out research related to cataloguing, characterization and conservation
of country's fish germplasm resources.
7.) Genetic diversity of agriculturally important microorganisms: India is home to
billions of diverse microbes, many of which are found nowhere else in the
world. The country is also endowed with enormous variability in agriculturally
important microorganisms. The variability in fungi, bacteria, actinomycetes,
viruses, cyanobacteria, etc. appears to have evolved with their hosts vis--vis
the environment and forms invaluable gene pool resources. Due to
intensification of agricultural practices and population pressure, the microbial
variability is eroding. National Bureau of Agriculturally Important
Microorganisms (NBAIM) is a microbial bioresource centre for conserving and
preserving microorganisms.
8.) Genetic diversity of agriculturally important insects: While the diversity of
plants is discussed at length, insects, which form nearly 75% of all animals,
representing tremendous diversity, remain poorly explored and documented.
They outnumber by far all other terrestrial animals and occur practically
everywhere. The National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Insects (NBAII),
(www.nbaii.res.in) is an insect bioresource centre for collection,
characterisation, documentation, conservation, exchange and utilisation of
agriculturally important insect resources.

Biogeographic classification and biodiversity characterization:

India is amongst the few countries that have developed a biogeographic
classification based on which conservation planning has been taken up. This
classification uses four levels of planning units: the biogeographic zone, the biotic
province, the land region and the biome. Within India, the biogeographic
classification recognizes 10 zones, divided into 27 provinces.
The Biogeographic Zone is a large distinctive units of similar ecology, biome
representation, community and species, e.g., The Himalaya, The Western Ghats.

The Biotic Province is a secondary unit within a zone, giving weight to particular
communities separated by dispersal barriers or gradual change in environmental
factors, e.g., North-west and West Himalaya either side of the Sutlej River.
The Land Region is a tertiary set of unit within a province, indicating different land
forms, e.g., Aravalli Mountains and Malwa Plateau in Gujarat Rajwara Province.
The Biome is an ecological unit, not a biogeographic unit, such as swamp/wetland or
temperate broad leaved forest.
Biodiversity hotspots:
The idea of hotspots was first mooted in 1988 by ecologist Norman Myers,
who defined a hotspot as an area of exceptional plant, animal and microbe wealth
that is under threat. The key criteria for determining a hotspot are endemism (the
presence of species found nowhere else on earth) and degree of threat. Out of the
34 global biodiversity hotspots, four are present in India.
(1) THE HIMALAYA: Western and Eastern Himalaya form part of Himalayan
global biodiversity hotspot.
The sudden rise of the Himalayan mountains from less than 500 metres to more
than 8,000 metres results in a diversity of ecosystems, from alluvial grasslands and
subtropical broadleaf forests along the foothills to temperate broadleaf forests in the
middle elevations, mixed conifer and conifer forests in the higher hills, and alpine
meadows 2 above the tree line. This enormous mountain range, which extends over
nearly 750,000 km , lies in two separate regions of India, namely the Eastern
Himalaya and the Western Himalaya. Charismatic large mammals such as the tiger
and elephant are found in the foothills and terai region. The Snow leopard, Musk
deer, Himalayan tahr, Blue sheep, Black bear, Chir pheasant, Himalayan monal and
Western tragopan are some of the characteristic fauna of the mountains. The
Eastern Himalayan region is exceptionally rich in diversity and endemism and hence
is of great significance. The area is also rich in wild relatives of plants of economic
significance, for example, rice, banana, citrus, ginger, chilli, jute and sugarcane.
This region is also rich in birds, reptiles and amphibian diversity.
(2) THE WESTERN GHATS: part of Western Ghats-Sri Lanka global biodiversity
hotspot.
The Western Ghats are part of the Western Ghats-Sri Lanka global hotspot, running
roughly in a North-south direction for about 1500 kilometres parallel to the coast
bordering the Arabian Sea. The importance of the Western Ghats in terms of their
biodiversity can be seen from the known inventory of their plant and animal groups
and the levels of endemism in these taxa. Western Ghats harbour 7388 species of
flowering plants. This are is rich in butterfly, reptiles, fish, amphibian diversity.
Over 500 species of birds and 120 species of mammals are also known from this
region. The Western Ghats region harbours the largest global populations of the
Asian elephant and possibly of other mammals such as the tiger, dhole and gaur.

The Western Ghats also support a number of wild relatives of cultivated plants,
including pepper, cardamom, mango, jackfruit and sandal.
(3) NORTH-EAST: part of Indo-Burma global biodiversity hotspot.
Some parts of the North-eastern region of India, excluding the Himalayan region,
are contiguous with the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot, centred on the
IndoChinese Peninsula, and comprising Cambodia, the Lao People's Democratic
Republic, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam and parts of Southern China. The topography
of the hotspot is complex and is characterised by a series of North-south mountain
ranges that descend from the Himalayan chain and its South-eastern extensions.
Indo-Burma probably supports the highest diversity of freshwater turtle in the world.
The hotspot also has a remarkable freshwater fish fauna.
(4) NICOBAR ISLANDS: part of the Sundaland global biodiversity hotspot
The Nicobar Islands are part of the Sundaland hotspot, which includes a small
portion of Southern Thailand; nearly all of Malaysia; Singapore, at the tip of the
Malay Peninsula; all of Brunei Darussalam; and all of the western half of the
megadiverse country of Indonesia, including Kalimantan. They belong to the
Andaman and Nicobar group of islands, consisting of some of the most pristine
island ecosystems in the world. These island groups form a distinct ecoregion and
are classified as one of the 10 biogeographical zones of India. These islands are
fringed by one of the most spectacular reefs of the Indian Ocean region and are
considered to be globally significant.
The Nicobar Islands are characterised by an absence of large mammals and the
presence of a significant number of endemics, such as Nicobar tree shrew (Tupaia
nicobarica), among the island's vertebrates. The only primate, the Nicobar Crabeating macaque (Macaca fascicularis umbrosa), occurs in the Southern group of the
Nicobar Islands. In the Nicobars, the mega herpetofauna include the Malayan box
turtle (Cuora amboinensis), found on Great and Little Nicobar, the Sunbeam snake
(Xenopeltis unicolor), the Saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) and the
Reticulated python (Python reticulatus), found in the Southern Nicobar group,
besides several species of Pit viper in the central Nicobars. Fifteen reptile species
are reported to be endemic to the Nicobars. Four species of marine turtle, the
Leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys
imbricata), Green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) and the Olive ridley turtle
(Lepidochelys olivacea) also feed and nest around the Andaman and Nicobars. The
nesting population of Leatherbacks in the Nicobars is one of the last four colonies
that exceed 1000 individuals in the Indo-Pacific and hence has global significance.

PA network, ESAs, corridors and connectivity, BRs, IBAs, KBAs, AZEs,

CCAs:

(1)PA Network:
India has a very long tradition of setting aside areas for conservation of wild
flora and fauna. After independence, several Protected Areas (PAs) were designated
in the form of National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries, but the approach was largely
ad hoc. In 1983, the Government of India (GoI) decided that rational planning and
implementation of a comprehensive network of PAs would be the keystone of the
National Wildlife Action Plan and entrusted the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) to
formulate plans for such a network. PAs include national parks, wildlife sanctuaries,
conservation reserves and community reserves.
Marine protected area network in India - India has a vast coastline of 7517 km,
of which 5423 km is in peninsular India and 2094 km in the Andaman, Nicobar 2 and
Lakshadweep Islands, with an exclusive economic zone of 2.02 million km . This
coastline also supports a huge human population, which is dependent on the rich
coastal and marine resources.
The MPA network in India has been used as a tool to manage natural marine
resources for biodiversity conservation and for the well-being of people dependent
on these resources. India has designated four legal categories of PAs, National
Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves. There
are 23 MPAs present in peninsular India and more than 100 MPAs in the country's
islands. Of the 23 MPAs in the peninsula, Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park,
Sundarbans National Park, Gulf of Kachchh National Park, Gahirmatha Marine
Sanctuary, Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary, Chilika Wildlife Sanctuary have unique
marine biodiversity and provide a range of ecological services to the local
communities. The total area of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands is 4947 km , of 2
which 1510 km is protected under the provisions of India's Wildlife (Protection) Act,
1972. There are 105 PAs in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, of which about 100
include marine areas. These MPAs cover more than 30% of the terrestrial area of the
islands and protect more than 40% of the coastal habitat. Mahatma Gandhi Marine

National Park and Rani Jhansi Marine National Park are important MPAs here. In the
Lakshadweep group of islands, Pitti Island (0.01 2 km ) is the only island having the
status of an MPA.
(2) Corridors and connectivity:
Many PAs are too small to be able to safeguard viable populations of landscapedependent species such as the tiger and elephant in the long term. Considering the
importance of corridors in maintaining long-term viability of species, the High Level
Working Group (HLWG) has endorsed the need for maintaining 'functional corridors'
so as to ensure that permeability to movement of wild animals is not impaired. With
this in view, efforts are being made to designate the identified 'corridors and
connectivity' as Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESAs).
(3)Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESAs):
While the PAs are managed under the provisions of the Indian Wildlife (Protection)
Act, 1972, areas falling within 10 km of the PA boundaries are often subjected to
development, which may not be in harmony with the requirements of habitat and
species conservation. Certain landscape-dependent species also move beyond PA
boundaries into the larger landscapes for meeting their ecological requirements of
food, cover and reproduction. In February 2011, the MoEF issued its guidelines for
Declaration of Eco-sensitive Zone around National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
The basic objective of these guidelines is to regulate activities around National
Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries so as to minimize the negative impacts of such
activities on the fragile ecosystems around PAs. The guidelines also provide an
indicative list of activities categorised into three groups: (i) prohibited, (ii) restricted
with safeguards and (iii) permissible. These guidelines have to be applied in the
context of National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, important corridors and connectivity
areas with a view to minimising and preferably eliminating negative impacts on PAs.
The HLWG set up the MoEF under the chairmanship of Dr. K. Kasturirangan,
Member, Planning Commission, has 2 recommended identification of about 60,000
km of natural landscape (approximately 37% of the total geographical area of
Western Ghats Region) as ESA. This represents more or less a contiguous band of
vegetation extending over a distance of 1500 km across six States of Western Ghats
region and includes PAs and World Heritage Sites. The HLWG has recommended
prohibitory and regulatory regime in ESAs for those activities with maximum
interventionist and destructive impacts on the ecosystem.
(4)Biosphere Reserves (BRs):
The MoEF, initiated the National Biosphere Reserve Programme in 1986 with the
primary aim of conservation of an entire range of living resources and their
ecological foundations, along with sustainable use of natural resources and
improvement of the livelihoods of local inhabitants. This programme also had the
objective of ensuring community participation for effective management of
biodiversity resources and integration of traditional knowledge and scientific
research for conservation, education and training as a part of the overall

management of BRs. Considering the diversity of ecosystems and recognising the

importance of BRs in ensuring long-term conservation and sustainable use of India's
representative and diverse biological diversity, so far 18 BRs have been notified by
the GoI. Globally, the World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) has designated
a total of 621 BRs, of which 9 are in India. These are the Achanakmar-Amarkantak,
Nilgiri, Gulf of Mannar, Nanda Devi, Sundarban, Simlipal, Pachmarhi, Nokrek and
Great Nicobar BR.
(5)Important Bird Areas (IBAs):
Birds are good indicators of ecosystem health. The IBA programme of BirdLife
International aims to identify, monitor and protect a global network of IBAs for
conservation of the world's birds and other biodiversity. The IBAs are conservation
areas of international significance for conservation of birds at the global, regional or
sub-regional level. According to BirdLife International, designation of IBAs is based
on standardised criteria, namely (i) hold significant numbers of one or more globally
threatened bird species, (ii) be one of a set of sites that together hold a suite of
restricted-range species or biome-restricted species and (iii) have exceptionally
large numbers of migratory or congregatory birds. The IBAs contain a range of
habitats, such as wetlands, mudflats, microhabitats in biodiversity hotspots,
grasslands and scrublands, making them excellent indicators of biodiversity
richness.
(6)Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs):
KBAs are nationally identified sites of global significance. In India, the identification
of KBAs in the Western Ghats was initiated in 2003. These sites are high priorities
for conservation action. KBAs comprise an 'umbrella' which includes globally
important sites for different taxa and realms: IBAs, Medicinal Plant Conservation
Areas (MPCAs), Important Sites for Freshwater/Marine Biodiversity; and Alliance for
Zero Extinction (AZE) sites.
(7)Alliance for Zero Extinction (AZE):
The AZE (www.zeroextinction.org) is a global alliance, which identifies threatened
species (CR and EN), based on the global IUCN Red Listing, occurring in a single
location, as the highest priority in initiating on-theground conservation action.
(8)Community Conservation Areas (CCAs):
CCAs can be defined as 'natural ecosystems
(forest/marine/wetlands/grasslands/others), including those with minimum to
substantial human influence, containing significant wildlife and biodiversity values,
being conserved by communities for cultural, religious, livelihood, or political
purposes, using customary laws or other effective means'. Recognising that there
are several traditional communityinitiated and driven conservation programmes,
the GoI has decided to provide financial and technical support to such initiatives
through Central Schemes. The objective is to provide adequate protection to wildlife
in multiple use areas such as Government forests outside Pas.

(9) Medicinal Plant Conservation Areas (MPCAs):

India has one of the richest and oldest medicinal plant cultures of the world. The
uniqueness of the Indian medical heritage draws from two streams of knowledge,
folk and codified stream, which are coexisting living traditions that have historically
enjoyed a symbiotic relationship. India is a global leader in in-situ conservation of
medicinal plants having established the largest in-situ conservation network for
medicinal plants in the tropical world. So far, 110 MPCAs, each of an average size of
200 ha, have been set up across 13 States of India.

(10)

Wild Life Sanctuary:

The State Government may, by notification, declare its intention to constitute any
area other than area comprised with any reserve forest or the territorial waters as a
sanctuary if it considers that such area is of adequate ecological, faunal, floral,
geomorphological, natural. or zoological significance, for the purpose of protecting,
propagating or developing wildlife or its environment. The State Government shall
issue a notification specifying the limits of the area which shall be comprised within
the sanctuary and declare that the said area shall be sanctuary on and from such
date as may be specified in the notification. Provided that where any part of the
territorial waters is to be so included, prior concurrence of the Central Government
shall be obtained by the State Government.
Restriction on entry in sanctuary. No person other than
(a) a public servant on duty;
(b) a person who has been permitted by the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorised
officer to reside within the limits of the sanctuary;
(c) a person who has any right over immovable property within the limits of the
sanctuary;
(d) a person passing through the sanctuary along a public highway, and
(e) the dependents of the person referred to in CI. (a), (b) or (c). shall enter or reside
in the sanctuary.
Grant of permit. The Chief Wildlife Warden may, on application, grant to any
person a permit to enter or reside in a sanctuary for all or any of the following
purposes, namely:
(a) investigation or study of wildlife and purposes ancillary or incidental thereto;
(b) photography;
(c) scientific research;
(d) tourism;
(e) transaction of lawful business with any person residing in the sanctuary.

(11)

National Park:

Whenever it appears to the State Government that an area, whether within a

sanctuary or not, is, by reason of its ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, or
zoological association or importance, needed to be constituted as a National Park
for the purpose of protecting & propagating or developing wildlife therein or its
environment, it may, by notification, declare its intention to constitute such area as
a National Park.
The State Government shall publish a notification specifying the limits of the area
which shall be comprised within the National Park and declare that the said area
shall be a National Park on and from such date as may be specified in the
notification.
No alteration of the boundaries of a National Park shall be made except on a
resolution passed by the Legislature of the State.
No person shall, destroy, exploit, or remove any wildlife from a National Park or
destroy or damage the habitat or any wild animal or deprive any wild animal or its
habitat within such National Park except under and in accordance with a permit
granted by the Chief Wildlife Warden and no such permit shall be granted unless the
State Government, being satisfied that such destruction, exploitation, or removal of
wildlife from the National Park is necessary for the improvement and better
management of wildlife therein, authorises the issue of such permit.
No grazing of any livestock shall be permitted in a National Park and no livestock
shall be allowed to enter.
What is the difference between a national park, protected area, sanctuary and
biosphere reserve?

Due to enormous pressure of the exploding human population, the area of the
forests is shrinking and many of the flora and fauna are on the verge of extinction.
Accordingly, efficient in-situ conservation strategy has been organized to
conserve ecologically important areas by regulating human intervention and thus
efforts have established a protected area network.
National park is an area with enough ecological, geo-morphological and natural
significance with rich fauna and flora, which is designed to protect and to develop
wildlife or its environment. The rights of the people living inside this Category 2
type of protected areas are tightly regulated and activities like grazing, hunting ,
forestry or cultivation, encroachment, destruction of habitats and other activities
are strictly prohibited. But most national parks provide outdoor recreation,
camping opportunities and are designed to educate the public on the importance
of conservation activities.
Protected areas are at the core of efforts towards biodiversity conservation,

providing habitat and protection from hunting for threatened and endangered
species and are key to buffering unpredictable impacts of impeding climate
change. Thus, protected areas are geographical space, recognized, dedicated and
managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long term
conservation of nature and cultural values. In protected areas human occupation
and exploitation of resources is limited.
Wildlife Sanctuaries or wildlife refuges are home to various endangered species of
wild animals and these animals are safe from hunting, predation or competition.
and safeguarded from extinction in their natural habitat. Wildlife sanctuaries and
national parks attract millions of tourists and nature lovers. In Wildlife sanctuaries
harvesting timbers, cultivation, collection of forest products are allowed with
permission.
Biosphere Reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal ecosystems which are
internationally recognized within the framework of the Man and the Biosphere
( MAB) programme of the UNESCO and are not formed according to the guidelines
of the Wildlife (protection) Act, 1972 and may have one more national parks or
wildlife sanctuaries in it. Under the MAB programme there is a World Network of
Biosphere Reserves (WNBR ) and within this network, exchange of information, experience and
personnel is allowed.
National Park - No human activity or settlement allowed.
Villagers cannot graze their animals, Extremely strict rules about jungle produce
collection (Tendu leaves, Honey etc.)
Wildlife Sanctuary - People are not allowed to live (some exceptions though) but
some human activities are allowed, such as grazing, firewood collection.
Tourism is permitted.
A Sanctuary can be upgraded as a National Park. However a National Park cannot
be downgraded as a Sanctuary.
Biosphere reserve - People are allowed to live, own private land and carry on their
traditional activities. (In the outer-zone)

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972:

The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 is an Act of the Parliament of
India enacted for protection of plants and animal species. India Among other
reforms, the Act established schedules of protected plant and animal species;
hunting or harvesting these species was largely outlawed.

The Act provides for the protection of wild animals, birds and plants; and
for matters connected therewith or ancillary or incidental thereto. It extends to the
whole of India, except the State of Jammu and Kashmir which has its own wildlife
act. It has six schedules which give varying degrees of protection. Schedule I and
part II of Schedule II provide absolute protection - offences under these are
prescribed the highest penalties. Species listed in Schedule III and Schedule IV are
also protected, but the penalties are much lower. Schedule V includes the animals
which may be hunted. The plants in Schedule VI are prohibited from cultivation and
planting.
The major activities and provisions in the act can be summed up as
follows:
1. It defines the wildlife related terminology.
2. Enactment of an All India Wildlife Protection Act (1972).
3. It provides for the appointment of wildlife advisory Board, Wildlife warden, their
powers, duties etc.
4. Becoming a party to the Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species
of Fauna and Flora (CITES, 1976).
5. Launching a national component of UNESCOs Man and Biosphere Programme
(1971).
6. Under the Act, comprehensive listing of endangered wildlife species was done for
the first time and prohibition of hunting of the endangered species was mentioned.
7. Protection to some endangered plants.
8. The Act provides for setting up of National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries etc.
9. The Act provides for the constitution of Central Zoo Authority.

10. There is provision for trade and commerce in some wildlife species with license
for sale, possession, transfer etc.
11. The act imposes a ban on the trade or commerce in scheduled animals.
12. It provides for legal powers to officers and punishment to offenders.
It provides for captive breeding programme for endangered species. Several
Conservation Projects for individual endangered species like Lion (1972), Tiger
(1973), Crocodile (1974) and Brown antlered Deer (1981) were stated under this
Act. The Act is adopted by all states in India except J & K, which has its own Act.
Some of the major drawbacks of the Act include mild penalty to offenders, illegal
wildlife trade in J & K, personal ownership certificate for animal articles like tiger and
leopard skins, no coverage of foreign endangered wildlife, pitiable condition of
wildlife in mobile zoos and little emphasis on protection of plant genetic resources.
The act was amended in 2013.
The provisions of the amended act are:

According to the government, India is a party to the Convention on

International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
and amendments to the Act are necessary for India to fulfil its obligations
under the CITES. The key amendments made by the Bill are:

The manufacture, sale, transport or use of animal traps except for

educational and scientific purposes (with permission) is prohibited.\

Under the Act, destruction, exploitation or removal of any wildlife including

forest produce from a sanctuary is not permitted, except with a permit. The
amendment allows certain activities such as grazing or movement of
livestock, bona fide use of drinking and household water by local
communities, and hunting under a permit.

Provisions to regulate international trade in endangered species of wild fauna

and flora as per the CITES have been inserted. A schedule listing out flora and

fauna for purposes of regulation of international trade under CITES has been
added.

The Tiger and Other Endangered Species Crime Control Bureau has been
changed to the Wild life Crime Control Bureau.

The term of punishment and fines for commission of offences under the Act
have been increased.

The Bill protects the hunting rights of Scheduled Tribes in the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands.

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species:

The IUCN Red List is the worlds most comprehensive information source on
the global conservation status of animal, fungi and plant species and their links to
livelihoods. Far more than a list of species and their status, it is a powerful tool to
inform and catalyse action for biodiversity conservation and policy change - critical
to protecting the natural resources we need to survive.
What is IUCN?

International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)

also known as the World Conservation Union.

The IUCN is the worlds oldest global environmental organization.

IUCN includes both Nations and NGOs.

HQ=Gland, Switz.

The IUCN enjoys observer status at the United Nations General Assembly.

What is IUCN Red List?

It is a system of classifying plants, animals etc on basis of their likelihood of
extinction.
This classification contains total 9 groups.

Extinct (EX) No known individuals remaining.

Extinct in the wild (EW) Known only to survive in captivity, or as a

naturalized population outside its historic range.

Critically endangered (CR) Extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.

Endangered (EN) High risk of extinction in the wild.

Vulnerable (VU) High risk of endangerment in the wild.

Near threatened (NT) Likely to become endangered in the near future.

Least concern (LC) Lowest risk. Does not qualify for a more at-risk category.
Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category.

Data deficient (DD) Not enough data to make an assessment of its risk of
extinction.

Not evaluated (NE) Has not yet been evaluated against the criteria.

Each year thousands of scientists around the world assess or reassess species. The
IUCN Red List is subsequently updated. Latest updated list was released @RIO +20
summit.
This list helps Governments and NGOs prioritize their efforts to save the particular
plant, animal etc. For example more money and manpower should be spent on red
species compared to orange or green species in the list. And the sale of red species
products must be banned under CITES.
The IUCN Red List has listed 132 species of plants and animals as Critically
Endangered from India.

Critically endangered animal species of India:

Critically endangered is the highest risk category assigned by the IUCN

(International Union for Conservation of Nature) Red List to wild species. There are
five quantitative criteria to determine whether a taxon is threatened. A taxon is
critically endangered when the best availabile evidence indicates that it meets any
of the following criteria:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.

Populations have declined or will decrease, by greater than 80% over the
last 10 years or three generations.
Have a restricted geographical range.
Small population size of less than 250 individuals and continuing decline
at 25% in 3 years or one generation.
Very small or restricted population of fewer than 50 mature individuals.
High probability of extinction in the wild.

(A) BIRDS:
(1) Jerdons Courser (Rhinoptilus bitorquatus) - is a nocturnal bird found
only in the northern part of the state of Andhra Pradesh in peninsular India. It
is a flagship species for the extremely threatened scrub jungle. The species
was considered to be extinct until it was rediscovered in 1986 and the area of
rediscovery was subsequently declared as the Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife
Sanctuary.
Habitat: Undisturbed scrub jungle with open areas.

Distribution: Jerdons Courser is endemic to Andhra Pradesh.

Threats: Clearing of scrub jungle, creation of new pastures, growing of dry land
crops, plantations of exotic trees, quarrying and the construction of the TeluguGanga Canal. Illegal trapping of birds is also a threat.
(2)Forest Owlet
Habitat: Dry deciduous forest. Distribution: South Madhya Pradesh, in north-west
Maharashtra and north-central Maharashtra.
Threats: Logging operations, burning and cutting of trees damage roosting and
nesting trees of the Forest Owlet.
(3) White-bellied Heron (Ardea insignis) - is an extremely rare bird found in
five or six sites in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, one or two sites in Bhutan,
and a few in Myanmar.
Habitat: Rivers with sand or gravel bars or inland lakes.
Distribution: Bhutan and north-east India to the hills of Bangladesh and north
Myanmar.
Threats: Loss and degradation of lowland forests and wetlands through direct
exploitation and disturbance by humans.
(4) Out of nine species of vultures, the population of three species- Whitebacked Vulture (Gyps bengalensis), Slender-billed Vulture (Gyps
tenuirostris) and Long-billed Vulture (Gyps indicus) has declined by 99%.
The Red- headed Vulture (Sarcogyps calvus) has also suffered a rapid
decline in the recent past. Vultures keep the environment clean, by
scavenging on animal carcasses. The decline in vulture populations has
associated disease risks, including increased risk of spread of rabies and
anthrax, besides adversely impacting the observance of last rites by the
Parsis in the Towers of Silence.
Habitat: Forests, villages etc.
Distribution: Across India.
Threats: A major threat to vultures is the painkiller diclofenac used by veterinarians
to treat cattle. When vultures consume these carcasses, diclofenac enters their
system, but they are unable to metabolize it. Accumulation of diclofenac results in
gout-like symptoms such as neck-drooping, ultimately leading to death.
(5) Bengal Florican (Houbaropsis bengalensis) - is a rare bustard species that is
very well known for its mating dance. Among the tall grasslands, secretive
males advertise their territories by springing from the ground and flitting to
and fro in the air.
Habitat: Grasslands occasionally interspersed with scrublands.

Distribution: Native to only 3 countries in the world - Cambodia, India and Nepal. In
India, it occurs in 3 states, namely Uttar Pradesh, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.
Threats: Ongoing conversion of the birds grassland habitat for various purposes
including agriculture is mainly responsible for its population decline.
(6) Himalayan Quail - is hard to detect due to its reluctance to fly and its
preference for dense grass habitats.
Habitat: Tall grass and scrub on steep hillsides.
Distribution: Western Himalayas.
Threats: Indiscriminate hunting during the colonial period along with habitat
modification.
(7) Pink- headed Duck (Rhodonessa caryophyllacea) - has not been
conclusively recorded in India since 1949. Males have a deep pink head and
neck from which the bird derives its name.
Habitat: Overgrown still-water pools, marshes and swamps in lowland forests
and tall grasslands.
Distribution: Recorded in India, Bangladesh and Myanmar. Maximum records are
from north-east India.
Threats: Wetland degradation and loss of habitat, along with hunting are the main
causes of its decline.
(8) Sociable Lapwing (Vanellus gregarious) - is a winter migrant to India. This
species has suffered a sudden and rapid population decline due to which it
has been listed as critically endangered.
Habitat: Fallow fields and scrub desert.
Distribution: Kazakhstan, Russia, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan,
Afghanistan, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey,
Egypt, India, Pakistan and Oman. In India, distribution is restricted to the north and
north-west of the country.
Threats: Conversion of habitat to arable land, illegal hunting and proximity to
human settlements.
(9) Spoon Billed Sandpiper (Eurynorhynchus pygmeus) - requires highly
specialized breeding habitat, a constraint that has always kept its population
scarce. India is home to some of the last existing wintering grounds of this
species.
Habitat: Coastal areas with sparse vegetation. No breeding records further inland
than 7 km from the seashore.
Distribution: Has been recorded in West Bengal, Orissa, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

Threats: Habitat degradation and land reclamation. Human disturbance also leads
to high incidence of nest desertion.
(10)
Siberian Crane (Grus leucogeranus) - is a large, strikingly majestic
migratory bird that breeds and winters in wetlands. They are known to winter
at Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan.
Habitat: Wetland areas.
Distribution: Keoladeo National Park in Rajasthan.
Threats: Pesticide pollution, wetland drainage, development of prime habitat into
agricultural fields, and to some extent, hunting.
(11)
Great Indian Bustard - found in India and the adjoining regions of
Pakistan. This bird is among the heaviest of the flying birds. The deep buff
coloured wings with black sides, a conspicuous black crested crown, an
outstretched neck which is whitish in colour and the white underparts are the
distinguishing features of this bird. Once common on the dry plains of the
Indian subcontinent, today very few birds survive and the species is on the
brink of extinction, being critically endangered by hunting and loss of its
habitat, this consists of large expanses of dry grassland and scrub. They are
confined mostly to the arid regions of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the
Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra.

(B) MAMMALS:
(1) Pygmy Hog (Porcula salvania) - is the worlds smallest wild pig, with adults
weighing only 8 kgs. This species constructs a nest throughout the year. It is
one of the most useful indicators of the management status of grassland
habitats. The grasslands where the pygmy hog resides are crucial for the
survival of other endangered species. In 1996, a captive-breeding programme
of the species was initiated in Assam, and some hogs were reintroduced in
Sonai Rupai area in 2009.
Pygmy hog-sucking Louse (Haematopinus oliveri), a parasite that feeds only on
Pygmy Hogs will also fall in the same risk category of critically endangered as its
survival is linked to that of the host species.
Habitat: Relatively undisturbed, tall terai grasslands.
Distribution: Formerly, the species was more widely distributed along the southern
Himalayan foothills but now is restricted to only a single remnant population in
Manas Wildlife Sanctuary and its buffer reserves.
Threats: The main threats are loss and degradation of grasslands, dry-season
burning, livestock grazing and afforestation of grasslands. Hunting is also a threat to
the remnant populations.
(2) Andaman White-toothed Shrew (Crocidura andamanensis), Jenkins
Andaman Spiny Shrew (Crocidura jenkinsi) and the Nicobar White-tailed

Shrew (Crocidura nicobarica) are endemic to India. They are usually active
by twilight or in the night and have specialized habitat requirements.
Habitat: Leaf litter and rock crevices.
Distribution: The Andaman White-toothed Shrew is found on Mount Harriet in the
South Andaman Islands. The Jenkins Andaman Spiny Shrew is found on Wright Myo
and Mount Harriet in the South Andaman Islands. The Nicobar White-tailed Shrew
(Crocidura nicobarica) is found in the southern tip of Greater Nicobar Island and is
also recorded in the area extending from the Campbell Bay National Park to the
Galathea River in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Threats: Habitat loss due to selective logging, natural disasters such as the tsunami
and drastic weather changes.
(3) Kondana Rat (Millardia kondana) - is a nocturnal burrowing rodent that is
found only in India. It is sometimes known to build nests.
Habitat: Tropical and subtropical dry deciduous forests and tropical scrub.
Distribution: Known only from the small Sinhagarh Plateau (about one km), near
Pune in Maharashtra. Reported from an elevation of about 1,270 m above mean sea
level.
Threats: Major threats are habitat loss, overgrazing of vegetation and disturbance
from tourism and recreational activities.
(4) Large Rock Rat or Elvira Rat (Cremnomys elvira) is a medium sized,
nocturnal and burrowing rodent that is endemic to India.
Habitat: Tropical dry deciduous shrubland forest, seen in rocky areas.
Distribution: Known only from Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu. Recorded from an
elevation of about 600 m above mean sea level.
Threats: Major threats are habitat loss, conversion of forests and fuel wood
collection.
(5) Namdapha Flying Squirrel (Biswamoyopterus biswasi) - is a unique (the
only one in its genus) flying squirrel that is restricted to a single valley in the
Namdapha Tiger Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh.
Habitat: Tropical forest.
Distribution: Found only in Namdapha Tiger Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh.
Threats: Hunted for food.
(6) Malabar Civet (Viverra civettina) - is considered to be one of the worlds
rarest mammals. It is endemic to India and was first reported from
Travancore, Kerala. It is nocturnal in nature and found exclusively in the
Western Ghats.
Habitat: Wooded plains and hill slopes of evergreen rainforests.

Distribution: Western Ghats.

Threats: Deforestation and commercial plantations are major threats.
(7) Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) is the smallest and most
endangered of the five rhinoceros species. It is now thought to be regionally
extinct in India, though it once occurred in the foothills of the Himalayas and
north-east India.The Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) is also
believed to be extinct in India and only a small number survive in Java and
Vietnam.

(C) REPTILES:
(1) Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) - is the most uniquely evolved crocodilian in
the world, a specialized, river-dwelling, fisheater.
Habitat: Clean rivers with sand banks.
Distribution: Only viable population in the National Chambal Sanctuary, spread
across three states of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh in India. Small
non-breeding populations exist in Son, Gandak, Hoogly and Ghagra rivers.
Threats: The combined effects of dams, barrages, artificial embankments, change in
river course, pollution, sand-mining, riparian agriculture and ingress of domestic and
feral livestock caused irreversible loss of riverine habitat and consequently of the
gharial.
(2) Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) - is a heavily exploited species.
The species is migratory in nature and nesting occurs in about 70 countries
across the world. Maturation is slow and is estimated between 25 40 years.
Habitat: Nesting occurs on insular, sandy beaches.
Distribution: In India they are found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the coast
of Tamil Nadu and Orissa.
Threats: Turtle shell trade, egg collection, slaughter for meat, oil pollution and
destruction of nesting and foraging habitats.
(3) Leatherback Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) - is the largest of the living sea

turtles. Jellyfish is their primary food. The population spikes of leatherbacks

coincide with abundance of jellyfish, making them important top-predators in
marine environments.
Habitat: Tropical and subtropical oceans.
Distribution: Found in tropical and temperate waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and
Indian Oceans.
Threats: High sea fishing operations, harvesting of eggs, destruction of nests by wild
predators and domesticated species such as cats, dogs and pigs. Artificial lighting
disorients hatchlings and adults and causes them to migrate inland rather than

towards the sea. Threats to habitat include construction, mining and plantation of
exotics.
(4) Four-toed River Terrapin or River Terrapin (Batagur baska) - is a critically

endangered turtle. The omnivorous diet of the river terrapin and other
terrapin species makes them an essential part of the efficient clean-up
systems of aquatic habitats.
Habitat: Freshwater rivers and lakes.
Distribution: Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia and Malaysia.
Threats: Use of flesh for medicinal purposes, demand for eggs, which are considered
a delicacy.
(5) Red-crowned Roofed Turtle or the Bengal Roof Turtle (Batagur

kachuga) - is a critically endangered turtle mainly restricted to the Ganga

basin. Males have a bright red coloration during the breeding season.
Habitat: Deep, flowing rivers but with terrestrial nest sites.
Distribution: Found in India, Bangladesh and Nepal. In India it resides basically in the
watershed of the Ganga.
Threats: Water development projects, water pollution, human disturbance and
poaching for the illegal wildlife market.
(6) Sispara day gecko (Cnemaspis sisparensis) - is a large gecko which dwells

usually in forests, it is largely insectivorous and is active by night.

Distribution: Endemic to Western Ghats, and found in Sispara, Nilgiris, Kavalai near
Cochin.
Threats: Habitat conversion and modification.

(D) AMPHIBIANS:
(1) Anamalai Flying Frog (Rhacophorus pseudomalabaricus) - is confined to
rainforests of southwestern Ghats and lives at elevations greater than 1,000
m above mean sea level.
Distribution: It is found in Andiparai Shola, Pudothottam and the Anamalai Hills of
Tamil Nada and Kerala.
Threats: Conversion of forest to cultivated land (including timber and non-timber
plantations) outside the Indira Gandhi National Park, and extraction of wood and
timber by local people are the major threats to this species.
(2) Gundia Indian Frog (Indirana gundia) - is found at an elevation of around
200 m above mean sea level.
Distribution: Known only to exist in Gundia, Kempholey in the Western Ghats region
of Karnataka, South India.

Threats: Habitat loss caused due to intensive livestock production, harvesting of

wood and timber by local people, road construction, and the development of
tourism facilities.
(3) Kerala Indian Frog (Indirana phrynoderma) - is found at elevations of
around 500 m above mean sea level. Due to the presence of prominent warts
and tubercles of various sizes and glandular folds on its dorsal surface, it is
commonly also known as the toad-skinned frog.
Distribution: Anamalai Hills of Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the Western Ghats of south
India.
Threats: Habitat loss due to subsistence wood collection is the major threat to this
species.
(4) Charles Darwins Frog (Ingerana charlesdarwini) - is found at elevations
below 500 m above mean sea level.
Distribution: This species is currently restricted to its type locality of Mount Harriet
in South Andaman Island and Saddle Peak in the North Andaman Island, India.
Threats: Clear felling of forest.
(5) Kottigehar Bubble-nest Frog (Micrixalus kottigeharensis) - is only known
to occur in Kottigehar, Kadur in the Western Ghats of Karnataka state. Its
distribution is restricted to elevation around 1000 m above mean sea level.
Distribution: This species is known to occur in Kottigehar, Kadur in the Hassan
district and Bhadra in Chikamangalur district, Karnataka, India.
Threats: Habitat loss as a result of conversion to agriculture, including paddy fields
and cash crops such as coconut and cashew.
(6) Amboli Bush Frog (Pseudophilautus amboli) - was recently discovered in
2009 in Amboli forest in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra.
Threats: Habitat loss and fragmentation due to urbanization and tourism
development are the major threats to this species.
(7)Chalazodes Bubble-Nest Frog
Distribution: All recorded specimens have been from the Western Ghats, India.
Threats: Conversion of forest to intensively cultivated areas.
(8)Small Bush Frog
Distribution: Known only to occur in Ponmudi in Thiruvananthapuram district of
Kerala, south India.
Threats: Extensive tea and Acacia plantations threaten the habitat of this species.
While the species has been found to occur in abandoned plantations, its decline
suggests that this species may not be tolerant to habitat changes or other unknown
and less obvious threats.

(9) Green-eyed Bush Frog - Known only to occur in the type locality of Munnar,
Idukki district, Kerala in the Western Ghats of South India.
(10)
Griet Bush Frog In kerala and tamilnadu
(11)
Kaikatts Bush Frog in western ghats of kerala
(12)
Marks Bush Frog - Western Ghats of Kerala.
(13)
Munnar Bush Frog kerala
(14)
Large Ponmudi Bush Frog kerala and tamilnadu
(15)
Resplendent Shrub Frog - Currently known to occur in Anamudi
Summit, Eravikulam National park in the Idukki district, Kerala.
(16)
Sacred Grove Bush frog - is known to occur only in the Kapildhara Falls,
Madhya Pradesh.
(17)
Sushils Bush Frog western ghats of tamil nadu.
(18)
Shillong Bubble-nest Frog found in meghalaya and Mizoram
(19)
Tiger toad western ghats of Maharashtra
(E) FISH:
(1) Pondicherry Shark (Carcharhinus hemiodon) - is a marine fish that occurs
or occurred inshore on continental and insular shelves.
Distribution: Indian Ocean. It has also been recorded at the mouth of the Hooghly
river.
Threats: Large, expanding, and unregulated commercial fisheries in inshore
localities and habitats. If still extant, it is probably caught as bycatch.
(2) Ganges Shark (Glyphis gangeticus) - is a uniquely adapted fish-eating shark
that occurs in the turbid waters of the Ganga river and the Bay of Bengal. The
small eyes suggest that it is adapted to living in turbid water, while the
slender teeth of the species suggests that it is primarily a fish-eater.
Distribution: It occurs in India and possibly in Pakistan. The Ganga river system and
Hooghly river mouth are its known habitats.
Threats: Major fisheries targeting sharks. Other probable threats include overfishing,
pollution, increasing river use and construction of dams and barrages. A few jaws of
the species were found to have been traded in the international market.
(3) Knife-tooth Sawfish (Anoxypristis cuspidata) - has a long narrow snout with
blade-like teeth and a shark-like body. It is found in shallow coastal waters
and estuaries.
Distribution: Widespread in western part of the Indo-Pacific region, including Red
Sea.
Threats: The principal threat to all sawfish are fisheries (targeted, bycatch,
commercial and subsistence). Their long tooth-studded saw, makes them
extraordinarily vulnerable to entanglement in any sort of net gear, including
primitive fishing contraptions. When sawfish are caught in by catch, they often end
up being traded because of the very high value of their products (meat is high
quality and fins and saws extremely valuable in international trade).

(4) Large-tooth Sawfish (Pristis microdon) - are heavy-bodied sawfish with a

short but massive saw.
Distribution and habitat : Western part of the Indo-Pacific (East Africa to New
Guinea, Philippines and Vietnam to Australia). In India, it is known to enter the
Mahanadi river, up to 64 km inland, and also is very common in the estuaries of the
Ganga and Brahmaputra.
Threats: Same as that for the Knife-tooth Sawfish. There is also an increasing
demand for sawfish in aquaria. Major habitat changes include construction of dams
over rivers, siltation, pollution from industries and mining operations.
(5) Long-comb Sawfish or Narrow-snout Sawfish (Pristis zijsron) - are
heavily exploited by humans.
Distribution and habitat: Indo-Pacific region including Australia, Cambodia, China,
India, Indonesia and Malaysia.
Threats: This species has been damaged intensively, both as a target species and
as incidental bycatch in commercial, sport or shark-control net fisheries, as well as
for aquarium display.
(F) SPIDERS:
(1) Rameshwaram Ornamental or Rameshwaram Parachute Spider - is
only found in India. The species is semi-social, which means they live partly in
groups.
Habitat: Arboreal and tend to live in hiding.
Distribution: Endemic to India. Spread along the coastal savannah, tropical lowland
rain forests and montane forests upto an altitude of 2000 m above mean sea level.
Threats: Major threats causing the disappearance of this species is habitat alteration
and degradation.
(2) Gooty Tarantula, Metallic Tarantula or Peacock Tarantula - It was first
found in Gooty (Ooty/Udagamandalam). It has been in great demand in the
illegal pet trade.
Habitat: Wooded mountain area of south India.
Distribution: Endemic to India
Threats: They are one of the most expensive spiders in the illegal pet trade. Large
areas where the species occurs have been deforested, or subjected to habitat
degradation due to local fuel wood collection, leading to decline in its population.
(G) CORALS:
(1) Fire corals (Millepora boschmai) - are more closely related to jellyfish than
corals. On contact, one usually feels a burning sensation similar to a sting
from a jellyfish.

Habitat: Millepora species are generally found in murky inshore waters and display a
tolerance for siltation. They often are found in clear offshore sites.
Distribution: Indonesia, Gulf of Chiriqu, Panama Pacific Province. Possibly extinct
from Australia, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Panama, Singapore and Thailand.
Threats: Collected for decoration and jewellery trade. This group is also sensitive to
temperature rise, and is thought to have completely disappeared from the majority
of marine areas possibly because of growing global warming related bleaching
effects.

Endangered Animals in India:

Endangered (EN) species is a population of organisms which is at risk of becoming
extinct because it is either few in numbers, or threatened by changing
environmental or predation parameters. Also it could mean that due to
deforestation there may be a lack of food and/or water. It is therefore considered to
be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild.
(1) Ganges River Dolphin: As an indicator of the health of the freshwater
ecosystem, the Ganges River Dolphin has recently been recognized by the
government of India as its National Aquatic Animal. While habitat loss and
pollution of fresh water aquatic systems are a major threat to this species,
there are also reports that this animal is being killed and traded for its body
parts, especially fat and oil.
Ganges River Dolphin is listed on the Appendix I of CITES (Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) and Schedule I
of Indias Wildlife (Protection), Act, 1972. Therefore, hunting of the species and both
domestic and international trade in the species and its parts and derivatives is
completely prohibited.
(2) Hoolock Gibbon: is the only ape to be found in India. It is the most
accomplished acrobat of all the apes. It lives in dense forests of north eastern India. It is found in Bangladesh and in some parts of Burma and
China. Its range extends into seven states covering Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura.
(3) Nilgiri langur (Trachypithecus johnii) - is found in the Nilgiri Hills of the
Western Ghats in South India. Its range also includes Kodagu in Karnataka,
Kodayar Hills in Tamil Nadu and many other hilly areas in Kerala and Tamil
Nadu. This primate has glossy black fur on its body and golden brown fur on
its head. The animal is often seen encroaching into agricultural lands. Its diet
consists of fruits, shoots and leaves. The species is endangered due to
deforestation and poaching for its fur and flesh, the latter believed to have
aphrodisiac properties.
(4) Indian wild ass its range once extended from western India, southern
Pakistan (i.e. provinces of Sindh and Baluchistan), Afghanistan, and south-

eastern Iran. Today, its last refuge lies in the Indian Wild Ass Sanctuary, Little
Rann of Kutch and its surrounding areas of the Great Rann of Kutch in the
Gujarat province of India. Saline deserts (rann), arid grasslands and
shrublands are its preferred environments.
(5) Lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus) - is endemic to the Western Ghats of
South India. The hair of the lion-tailed macaque is black. Its outstanding
characteristic is the silver-white mane which surrounds the head from the
cheeks down to its chin. It primarily eat indigenous fruits, leaves, buds,
insects and small vertebrates in virgin forest.
(6) Indian Pangolin: It has large, overlapping scales on the body which act as
armour. It can also curl itself into a ball as self-defense against predators such
as the tiger. The colour of its scales varies depending on the colour of the
earth in its surroundings. It is an insectivore that feeds on ants and termites.
(7) Nilgiri tahr, Nilgiritragus hylocrius - known locally as the Nilgiri ibex or
simply ibex, is an ungulate that is endemic to the Nilgiri Hills and the
southern portion of theWestern Ghats in the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala
in southern India. It is the state animal of Tamil Nadu. The Nilgiri tahrs are
stocky goats with short, coarse fur and a bristly mane. Males are larger than
the females, and have a darker color when mature. Both sexes have curved
horns, which are larger in the males. Adult males develop a light grey area on
their backs and are thus called "saddlebacks".
(8) Bengal tiger: In the Indian subcontinent, tigers
inhabit tropical moist evergreen forests, tropical dry forests, tropical and
subtropical moist deciduous forests, mangroves, subtropical and temperate
upland forests, and alluvial grasslands. The Bengal tigers in
the Sundarbans in India and Bangladesh are the only tigers in the world
inhabiting mangrove forests. The population in the Indian Sundarbans is
estimated as 70 tigers in total.
Habitat losses and the extremely large-scale incidences of poaching are serious
threats to the species' survival. The most significant immediate threat to the
existence of wild tiger populations is the illegal trade in poached skins and body
parts between India, Nepal and China. The illicit demand for bones and body parts
from wild tigers for use in Traditional Chinese medicine is the reason for the
unrelenting poaching pressure on tigers on the Indian subcontinent. For at least a
thousand years, tiger bones have been an ingredient in traditional medicines that
are prescribed as a muscle strengthener and treatment for rheumatism and body
pain.
In 1973, Project Tiger was launched aiming at ensuring a viable population of tigers
in the country and preserving areas of biological importance as a natural heritage
for the people.
(9) Musk deer: it lacks antlers. The white-bellied musk deer or Himalayan
musk deer (Moschus leucogaster) is a musk deer species occurring in
the Himalayas of Nepal, Bhutan, northern India including Sikkim, and China. It
is the state animal of Uttarakhand.

The white-bellied musk deer has a waxy substance called musk that the male
secrets from a gland in the abdomen. The deer use this to mark territories and
attract females, but the musk is also used in the manufacture of perfumes and
medicines.
The hunting and trade of the white-bellied musk deer is the main threat to the
species.
(10)
Snow Leopard: it is found in the high altitudes of
the Himalayas in India. Potential snow leopard habitat in the Indian Himalayas
is estimated at less than 90,000 km2 (35,000 sq mi) in the states of Jammu
and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, and Arunachal
Pradesh.
Global warming has caused the tree line to be increased in altitude, resulting in the
decrease of wild prey that depend on the plants for food.
(11)
White winged-wood duck: In India, the duck is found only in the
northeastern part of the country with main concentration in eastern Assam
and adjacent areas of Arunachal Pradesh. In India, the key protected areas for
the white-winged duck are Dibru-Saikhowa National Park, Dihing-Patkai
Wildlife Sanctuary, Nameri National Park and Namdapha National Park. The
white-winged duck occurs in dense tropical evergreen forests, near rivers and
swamps.
It is the state bird of the Indian state of Assam.
Recent news: Zoological Survey of India
The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI), a premier institution under the MOEFCC, has
been undertaking survey, exploration and research leading to the advancement of
our knowledge on the exceptionally rich faunal diversity of the country since its
inception in 1916.
The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) has identified 778 new species of fauna
in the last five years. India is one of the 17 megadiversity countries in the
world and has 6.77% of faunal diversity.
(The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN Code) is a widely
accepted convention in zoology that rules the formal scientific naming of
organisms treated as animals.)
About 50 per cent of mammalian fauna of India have shrunk in their
distributional range due to various anthropogenic pressures. Already four
mammal species Cheetah, Banteng, Sumatran Rhinoceros and Javan
Rhinoceros are extinct in India.
Scientists from the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) have discovered a new
species of catfish, Glyptothorax senapatiensis, in the Chindwin river
drainage in Senapati district of Manipur. The people of the region have
been having the six-cm-long freshwater fish as food for long, calling it
Ngapang.

The Zoological Survey of India has kick started its centenary celebrations
with a vow to give the common man access to its over 4 million faunal
document through digitization.
The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) completed 100 years.
Status Survey of endangered species: One status survey was undertaken
for Crab eating Macaque, one survey for Golden Langur, one for Himalayan
Musk deer, two surveys for Caecilian species and two status surveys for
Indian Bustard.
Research on foraging ecology of White-bellied Heron Ardea insignis in
Namdapha Tiger Reserve, Arunachal Pradesh.
Restoration of Corals at Gulf of Kachchh.
DNA Bar-coding on Sponges of Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Status and conservation of threatened plant species and their habitats:

Though considerable efforts have been made to strengthen the PA network in the
country, several macro and microhabitats which harbour unique assemblages of
plants and threatened plant species still remain outside the current PA network and
continue to face anthropogenic pressures.
(1) Myristica swamps: Myristica swamps are a type of freshwater swamp forest
predominantly composed of species of Myristica, the most primitive of the
flowering plants on earth. These are found in two localities in India, the Uttara
Kannada district of the State of Karnataka and in the Southern parts of the
State of Kerala. These are the most endangered forest ecosystem in India.
Myristica swamps are 'live museums' of ancient tree species and the home of
proto-angiosperms.
(2) Cycads: Cycads are the remnants of the most ancient seed plants. These
plants date to the late Carboniferous period (300-325 million years ago). They
are flagship species for conservation biology due to their unusual life
histories, restricted distribution in special habitats and the globally
threatened status of many species. Cycads are used extensively for medicinal
and other subsistence purposes.
(3) Rhododendron: It is a 'keystone element' in the Himalayan context. The
Eastern Himalayan region is particularly rich. Many species have ethnobotanical significance and are used for medicinal purposes. They are also
used for fuelwood. Anthropogenic pressures such as the rising population, an
increase in the number of domesticated animals and construction of roads
and hydel power stations and allied works have resulted in populations of
Rhododendron species dwindling. The State Government of Sikkim has
specially declared two PAs as Rhododendron Sanctuaries.
(4) Pitcher plant: The plant is endemic to the State of Meghalaya and is found
at altitudes of approximately 1000-1500 m in the Khasi, Jaintia and Garo hills

(Nokrek BR; Singh et. al., 2011). The tribal communities of this BR use the
plant for its vast medicinal properties for treatment of various ailments and
as a source of daily income. Habitat destruction due to overexploitation,
various anthropogenic pressures and fragmentation of large contiguous
populations into isolated and scattered ones are the major reasons for the
decline in the population of this species.
(5) Citrus: India is regarded as the home and one of the centres of origin of
Citrus (Figure 1.21) due to the presence of a vast genetic diversity of
important Citrus species (family Rutaceae). It is the third most important fruit
crop of India. Vast reservoirs of genetically diverse Citrus species are found in
the North-eastern and North-western parts of India.
(6) Orchids: The Himalayan region is their main home, and others are scattered
in the Eastern and Western Ghats. Orchid diversity in India is high, comprising
terrestrial, epiphytic and saprophytic orchids. Sessa Orchid Sanctuary, at
Arunachal Pradesh, with more than 600 species, is the orchid paradise of the
country.
Recent news: survey of flora
The Botanical Survey of India (BSI) is the apex research organization under
the Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India for carrying out taxonomic
and floristic studies on wild plant resources of the country through Survey,
Documentation and Conservation.
Activities undertaken so far 1 new family, 32 new genera and 925 new
species, subspecies, varieties have been discovered as new to science.
EIA studies on impact of over 100 developmental projects on flora completed.
Seventy Five field tours for collection of plant specimens/materials for

floristic, ethnobotanical and pharmacognostical studies on flowering and

non-flowering plants were undertaken by different regional centre and
units of BSI covering the following regions, including three biodiversity
hotspot, viz. the Himalaya, the Indo-Burma and the Western Ghats-Sri
Lanka.
Ex-Situ Conservation About 2,865 saplings, seeds, propagules belonging
to 376 taxa of rare, threatened, endemic and economic plant species,
including wild relatives of cultivated plants, aquatic plants, orchids, palms,
canes, bamboos, ferns and fern-allies, etc., were collected for introduction
in AJC Bose Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah and associated botanic gardens
of different Regional Centre.
Micro-Propagation of Threatened Species.
7507 herbarium specimens were bar-coded and digitized.
Cyber-taxonomy initiative: In order to develop digital Indian Plant Diversity
Information System (IPDIS), BSI has initiated the process for web-launching
of all its publications.
Scientists and taxonomists of BSI have discovered 173 species and genera of plants.
Of the new plants, some of the significant findings include nine new taxa of wild Musa

(bananas), four species of black plum (jamun), three species of wild gingibers and 10
species of orchids. The Western Ghats and the northeast are biodiversity hotspots where
most new species were found.
The Botanical Survey of India (BSI) has developed the first open-access
online database of India's floral diversity to document over 18,000
flowering plant species in an effort at boosting digitisation and conservation
of endangered ones. The 'eFlora India' test site was launched by BSI in July
2015.
Plant Checklist Database - Under the above project Plant Checklist
Database in the web enabled format has been developed.

Biological Diversity Act, 2002:

The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 is an Act of the Parliament of India for
preservation of biological diversity in India, and provides mechanism for equitable
sharing of benefits arising out use of traditional biological resources and knowledge.
The Act was enacted to meet the obligations under Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD), to which India is a party.
Benefit sharing out of usage of biological resources can be done in following
manner:

Joint ownership of intellectual property rights

transfer of technology

location of production, research development units in the area of source

payment of monetary and non-monetary compensation

setting up of venture capital fund for aiding the cause of benefit claimers

National Biodiversity Authority (NBA): The National Biodiversity Authority

(NBA) was established in 2003 to implement Indias Biological Diversity Act (2002).
The NBA is a Statutory, Autonomous Body under the Ministry of Environment and
Forests and it performs facilitative, regulatory and advisory function for the
Government of India on issues of conservation, sustainable use of biological
resources and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of
biological resources.

The State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) focus on advising the State Governments,
subject to any guidelines issued by the Central Government, on matters relating to
the conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and equitable
sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of biological resources;
The SSBs also regulate, by granting of approvals or otherwise requests for
commercial utilization or bio-survey and bio-utilization of any biological resource by
Indians. The local level Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) are
responsible for promoting conservation, sustainable use and documentation of
biological diversity including preservation of habitats, conservation of land races,
folk varieties and cultivars, domesticated stocks and breeds of animals and
microorganisms and chronicling of knowledge relating to biological diversity.
The NBA with its headquarters in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, delivers its mandate through
a structure that comprises of the Authority, Secretariat, SBBs, BMCs and Expert
Committees.

National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP):

Article 6 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) on General
Measures for Conservation and Sustainable Use, states that each Contracting Party
shall, in accordance with its particular conditions and capabilities develop national
strategies, plans or programmes for the conservation and sustainable use of
biological diversity or adapt for this purpose existing strategies, plans or
programmes that shall reflect, inter alia, the measures set out in this Convention
relevant to the Contracting Party concerned. This has come to be known as the
National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans (NBSAPs).
NBSAPs are the principal instruments for implementing the Convention at
the national level. The Convention requires countries to prepare a national
biodiversity strategy (or equivalent instrument) and to ensure that this strategy is
mainstreamed into the planning and activities of all those sectors whose activities
can have an impact (positive and negative) on biodiversity. In recognition of the
urgent need for action for biological diversity conservation, the United Nations (UN)
General Assembly declared 2011-2020 as the UN Decade for Biodiversity.
The broad action points of India's NBAP 2008 are
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

strengthening and integration of in situ, on-farm and ex situ

conservation,
augmentation of the natural resource base and its sustainable
utilization,
ensuring inter- and intra-generational equity,

(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)

(x)
(xi)
(xii)

regulation of introduction of invasive alien species and their

management,
assessment of vulnerability and adaptation to climate change and
desertification,
integration of biodiversity concerns in economic and social
development,
pollution impacts,
development and integration of biodiversity databases,
strengthening the implementation of policy, legislative and
administrative measures for biodiversity conservation and
management,
building national capacities for biodiversity conservation and
appropriate use of new technologies,
valuation of goods and services provided by biodiversity and use of
economic instruments in decision-making processes and
international cooperation.

Indian State of Forests Report, 2015:

Key Definitions
Canopy and Canopy Density: The cover of branches and Foliage formed by the
crown of trees is called Canopy. The percentage area of land covered by the
canopy of trees is called Canopy density.
Forest Cover: All lands which are more than 1 hectare in area and with a Canopy
density of more than 10% irrespective of the ownership and legal status is called
Forest Cover. Also it does not make any distinction whether the forest is natural or
manmade forest, government or private, recorded or not recorded. It includes
bamboo, orchards, palm etc.
Recorded Forest Area and Forest Blank: The area recorded as forests in the
Government records is called Forest Area or Recorded Forest Area. The patches
within the forest area which have little or no trees are called Forest Blank. The
recorded Forest Area denotes the legal status of the land. It is defined as the
geographic area recorded as forest in government records, state law or any local
law. It is different from the forest cover as forest area may include areas with less
than 10% of tree canopy density and may exclude areas more than 10% of tree
canopy density.
E-Watch: It is a web based GIS application developed for monitoring various

activities funded under CAMPA (Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management

and Planning Authority). CAMPA is meant to promote afforestation activities in
order to compensate for forest land diverted to non-forest uses).
Carbon Stock: It is defined as the amount of carbon stored in the ecosystem of
the forest especially in living biomass and soil.
Best Season to get Satellite Data of Forests:
October December is the best season. The reflectance from the forests is
dependent on the crown foliage and its chlorophyll content. Due to seasonal
variability of the tree phenology over the year, season of satellite data acquisition
is of utmost importance for forest cover assessment. Deciduous forests allow
more reflectance from the ground surface during leafless period thus making their
own detection and classification difficult. Hence, data of the spring-summer
season is not suitable for interpretation of such forest types. During rainy season,
the situation is compounded due to non availability of cloud-free data and mixing
of agricultural and other green covers with forest cover due to similarity in their
spectral reflectance. Taking these limitations into consideration, satellite data of
the period October to December is considered to be the most suitable for forest
cover mapping of the entire country. However, in cases where cloud free data is
not available for this period, data of January to March is procured.
Types of Forest Covers:
The degraded forest lands which have a Canopy density of less than 10% are
called Scrubs.
The Lands with Canopy density of 10-40% are called Open Forests.
The Land with forest cover having a canopy density of 40-70% is called the
Moderately Dense Forest (MDF)
The Lands with forest cover having a canopy density of 70% and more are called
Very Dense Forests (VDF).
State of Forests Report 2015: Key Findings:
Total forest cover in India: 7,01,673 sq km (increase of 3775 sqkm)
Total forest cover as percentage of geographical area: 21.34 per cent
Total tree cover in India: 92,572 sq km (increase of 1306 sq km)
Total tree cover as percentage of geographical area : 2.82 per cent
State with largest total forest cover: Madhya Pradesh having 77, 462 sq km
State having highest forest cover as % of its area: Mizoram (88.93 per cent)
Increase in carbon sink:103 million tonnes CO2 equivalent

Top five states with maximum forest cover:

Indias top five states with maximum forest cover (in km) are as follows:
1. Madhya Pradesh (77,462)
2. Arunachal Pradesh (67,248)

3. Chhattisgarh (55,586)
4. Maharashtra (50,628)
5. Orissa (50,354)
Top five states with maximum forest cover as part of their area:
Top five states / UTs with maximum forest cover as percentage of their own
geographical area are as follows: Mizoram (88.93%)
Lakshadweep (84.56%)
A&N islands (81.84%)
Arunachal Pradesh (80.30%)
Nagaland (78.21%)
Forest Cover in Altitude Zones:

Important Observations:
Out of the total forest cover, the maximum share is of Moderate Dense
Forests, followed by Open Forests.
The very dense forests in India are in just around 2.5% of total geographical
area of the country.
Among all the states of India the states which have shown considerable
improvement in their forest cover are: Tamil Nadu, Jammu and Kashmir,
Uttar Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka.
The states where forest cover has decreased substantially are Mizoram
,Telangana, Uttarakhand, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh.
The total forest cover in the hill districts of the country is 283,015 sq km
which is 39.99 % of total geographic area of these districts.
In the latest report the hill districts have recorded a net increase of 1680 sq
km area.
North east constitutes only 7.98% of geographical area of the country but it
occupies one fourth of the forest cover. However according to the current
report there is a decrease in the forest cover in the north east by 628 sq km
which is primarily because of shifting cultivation and increase in biotic
pressure.

Mangroves Cover:

In worlds total mangrove vegetation, Indias share stands at 3%. Currently

Mangrove cover in India is 4740 km which is 0.14 % of the countrys
geographical area. Sundarbans in West Bengal accounts for almost half of the
total area. As compared to 2013 there is a net increase of 112 sq km in the
mangrove cover. Top five states with maximum Mangrove cover are as follows:
1. West Bengal (2106)
2. Gujarat (1107)
3. Andaman & Nicobar Island (617)
4. Andhra Pradesh (367)
5. Odisha (231)
Mangroves are also found in Tamil Nadu, Goa, Kerala, Daman & Diu, Karnataka
and Puducherry.
Total Carbon Stock:
The total carbon stock has also increased by 103 million tonnes or an increase of
1.48 in percentage terms compared to previous assessments. The total carbon
stock in the countrys forest is around 7, 044 million tonnes. The increase in the
carbon stock shows the commitment of the country towards achieving INDC
target of additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3.0 billion tonnes of CO2.

Threats to biodiversity:
The direct and indirect drivers of loss of biodiversity, particularly in
developing economies, may include a high rate of human population growth and a
high population density, increasing consumption, technological change-induced
effects, economic activity and associated market failures and inadequate awareness
of biodiversity values at the public and decision-making levels, in addition to a
range of policy and institutional weaknesses.
Habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation through conversion of land
use through agriculture, urbanisation and industrial development, Invasive Alien
Species and overexploitation of natural resources, including plants and animals, are
amongst the major threats faced by biodiversity globally and in India. Over 1.17
million hectares of forest land is estimated to have been diverted for more then
23,000 developmental projects since the enactment of the Forest Conservation Act
in 1980 (MoEF 2008). Loss and degradation of grasslands across the country has
affected grassland dependent species such as members of the bustard family Bengal florican, Lesser florican, Houbara bustard and Great Indian bustard as well as
animals such as Blackbuck, Chinkara, Indian wolf, Golden jackal, Indian fox and
Nilgai.
Mining and quarrying cause habitat loss and degradation, with severe
consequences for the ecology of areas such as the Aravalli Range and the Western
Ghats.

The impact of biological invasions by alien species is considered to be a

major factor in the loss of biodiversity through effects on the persistence of native
species and their habitats. Invasive Alien Species can transform landscapes and
cause dramatic ecological changes that reduce the adaptability and
competitiveness of native species. These effects may be felt by all taxonomic
groups, from prokaryotes to higher plants and animals, and are widely found in all
kinds of ecosystems throughout India.
The pressures of livestock grazing on forests and grasslands are severe,
with India having the world's largest livestock population, constituting 15% of the
global livestock population, in 2.4% of the global geographical area and the
population density being nearly 1.5 per hectare of cattle, sheep and goats.
Factors such as increased parasite loads and disease transmission in wild
animals due to proximity to humans and livestock, interbreeding with feral
domesticated animals, and interspecific competition for food and water add to the
pressures on populations of wild species.
An increasing incidence of forest fires is also a growing threat,
particularly in the Himalaya and in areas with dry deciduous forests in southern
India.
These pressures bring wild species into conflict with humans and cause
escalation of human-wildlife conflicts across several parts of the country.
Threats to coastal and marine biodiversity:
Habitat loss and degradation are the major threat to coastal and marine biodiversity
in India, along with Invasive Alien Species, climate change, pollution, unsustainable
use and overexploitation of fish. Despite their tremendous ecological and economic
importance and the existence of policy and regulatory frameworks, coastal and
marine ecosystems are under pressure arising from different types of economic
development and associated activities. A large number of species in these
ecosystems are already under globally threatened categories due to
overexploitation, and habitat loss. Climate change is likely to exacerbate these
stressors, leading to impacts on biodiversity. Other climate-related threats include
erosion (especially in islands), flooding, submergence and deterioration of coastal
ecosystems such as mangroves and salinisation. A rise in the sea level will have a
serious impact on the population living along the coastline and the livelihoods of the
people. This may also result in devastation of coastal infrastructure, shoreline
erosion, flooding of low-lying agricultural fields and soil salination. Climate change,
siltation from land based activities, release of domestic waste and algal overgrowth
are the main threats to coral reef colonies in India.
Mangrove ecosystems are under external influences, leading to changes in their
physiology and adaptability to the changing climate. Shoreline development due to
urbanisation, industrialisation and conversion to aquaculture or salt pans are threats
to mangrove habitats. Changes in local hydrology, salinity due to reduced tidal flows
and pollution also negatively impact their survival. Mangrove roots are susceptible

to oil pollution. Oil is also toxic to benthic fauna, including crabs and polychaetes.
Harmful algal blooms have also been known to affect mangrove seedlings across
the world.
As per the State of Forest Report 2015, published by FSI, the mangrove cover in the
country stands at 4704sq. km which is 0.14% of the country's total geographical
area. There has been increase in the mangrove cover of the country. This can be
attributed to increased plantations and regeneration of natural mangrove areas. The
Government has issued the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification (2011) and
the Island Protection Zone (IPZ) Notification 2011. These Notifications recognize the
mangrove areas as ecologically sensitive and categorize them as CRZ-I which
implies that these areas are accorded protection of the highest order. To enforce and
implement the CRZ and IPZ Notifications, the MoEF has constituted the National and
State/UT level Coastal Zone Management Authorities. The Ministry also provides
financial assistance to Coastal States/Union Territories, who so request, under its
Centrally Sponsored Scheme for conservation and management of mangroves.

Importance of biodiversity and its implications for human well-being:

Biodiversity underpins the form and function of ecosystems, which are of
high value due to the life-supporting services they provide that meet human needs,
both material and non-material. Biodiversity supports ecosystem services that have
economic value for humans in terms of direct or indirect use. They are provisioning
services, such as supplying of fuel and fodder, and regulating services, such as
carbon sequestration and prevention of soil erosion. Moreover, biodiversity has nonuse or existence value. For millions of Indians, biodiversity supports their very
livelihoods and ways of life. In the Indian context especially, a range of sociocultural values are derived from biodiversity that are philosophical, cultural and
religious. Biodiversity and ecosystem diversity are reflected in the cultural and
religious diversity of India through the varied values attached to biodiversity
components and landscapes. India's many traditional knowledge systems and
ethnomedicinal practices are based on a close understanding of and dependence on
biodiversity. The cultural or religious importance of species and designation of
sacred areas are well-known in India.