Anatomy and Physiology

Brain
Cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest portion of the brain, and contains tools which are responsible for most of the
brain's function. It is divided into four sections: the temporal lobe, the occipital lobe, parietal lobe and frontal lobe. The
cerebrum is divided into a right and left hemisphere which are connected by axons that relay messages from one to
the other. This matter is made of nerve cells which carry signals between the organ and the nerve cells which run
through the body.
Cerebral Cortex
The cerebral cortex, the outer layer of gray matter of the cerebrum, is found only in mammals. In larger
mammals, including humans, the surface of the cerebral cortex folds to create gyri (ridges) and sulci (furrows) which
increase the surface area. The cerebral cortex is generally classified into four lobes: the frontal, parietal, temporal, and
occipital lobes. The lobes are classified based on their overlying neurocranial bones.
a.

Frontal Lobe: The frontal lobe is one of four lobes in the cerebral hemisphere. This lobe controls a several
elements including creative thought, problem solving, intellect, judgment, behavior, attention, abstract
thinking, physical reactions, muscle movements, coordinated movements, smell and personality.

b.

Parietal Lobe: Located in the cerebral hemisphere, this lobe focuses on comprehension. Visual functions,
language, reading, internal stimuli, tactile sensation and sensory comprehension will be monitored here.

c.

Sensory Cortex- The sensory cortex, located in the front portion of the parietal lobe, receives
information relayed from the spinal cord regarding the position of various body parts and how they are
moving. This middle area of the brain can also be used to relay information from the sense of touch,
including pain or pressure which is affecting different portions of the body.

Motor Cortex- This helps the brain monitor and control movement throughout the body. It is located
in the top, middle portion of the brain.

Temporal Lobe: The temporal lobe controls visual and auditory memories. It includes areas that help manage
some speech and hearing capabilities, behavioral elements, and language. It is located in the cerebral
hemisphere.

Wernicke's Area- This portion of the temporal lobe is formed around the auditory cortex. While
scientists have a limited understanding of the function of this area, it is known that it helps the body
formulate or understand speech.

d.

Occipital Lobe: The optical lobe is located in the cerebral hemisphere in the back of the head. It helps to
control vision.

Broca's Area- This area of the brain controls the facial neurons as well as the understanding of
speech and language. It is located in the triangular and opercular section of the inferior frontal gyrus.

Cerebral Hemispheres
The cerebrum is divided by the longitudinal fissure into two cerebral hemispheres, the right and the left. The
right hemisphere controls and processes signals from the left side of the body, while the left hemisphere controls and
processes signals from the right side of the body. There is a strong but not complete bilateral symmetry between the
hemispheres. The lateralization of brain function looks at the known and possible differences between the two.
Cerebellum
This is commonly referred to as "the little brain," and is considered to be older than the cerebrum on the
evolutionary scale. The cerebellum controls essential body functions such as balance, posture and coordination,
allowing humans to move properly and maintain their structure.
Limbic System
The limbic system contains glands which help relay emotions. Many hormonal responses that the body
generates are initiated in this area. The limbic system includes the amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus and
thalamus.
a. Amygdala: The amygdala helps the body responds to emotions, memories and fear. It is a large portion of the
telencephalon, located within the temporal lobe which can be seen from the surface of the brain. This visible
bulge is known as the uncus.
b. Hippocampus: This portion of the brain is used for learning memory, specifically converting temporary
memories into permanent memories which can be stored within the brain. The hippocampus also helps people
analyze and remember spatial relationships, allowing for accurate movements. This portion of the brain is
located in the cerebral hemisphere.
c.

Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus region of the brain controls mood, thirst, hunger and temperature. It also
contains glands which control the hormonal processes throughout the body.

d. Thalamus: The Thalamus is located in the center of the brain. It helps to control the attention span, sensing
pain and monitors input that moves in and out of the brain to keep track of the sensations the body is feeling.
Brain Stem
All basic life functions originate in the brain stem, including heartbeat, blood pressure and breathing. In
humans, this area contains the medulla, midbrain and pons. This is commonly referred to as the simplest part of the
brain, as most creatures on the evolutionary scale have some form of brain creation that resembles the brain stem.
The brain stem consists of midbrain, pons and medulla.
a. Midbrain: The midbrain, also known as the mesencephalon is made up of the tegmentum and tectum. These
parts of the brain help regulate body movement, vision and hearing. The anterior portion of the midbrain
contains the cerebral peduncle which contains the axons that transfer messages from the cerebral cortex down
the brain stem, which allows voluntary motor function to take place.
b. Pons: This portion of the metencephalon is located in the hindbrain, and links to the cerebellum to help with
posture and movement. It interprets information that is used in sensory analysis or motor control. The pons
also creates the level of consciousness necessary for sleep.
c.

Medulla: The medulla or medulla oblongata is an essential portion of the brain stem which maintains vital
body functions such as the heart rate and breathing.

Neurotransmitters
1.
2.

Acetylcholine is a very widely distributed excitatory neurotransmitter that triggers muscle contraction and
stimulates the excretion of certain hormones. In the central nervous system, it is involved in wakefulness,
attentiveness, anger, aggression, sexuality, and thirst, among other things.
Dopamine is a neurotransmitter involved in controlling movement and posture. It also modulates mood and
plays a central role inpositive reinforcement and dependency.

3.
4.
5.
6.

GABA (gamma - aminobutyric acid) is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that is very widely distributed in the
neurons of the cortex. GABA contributes to motor control, vision, and many other cortical functions. It also
regulates anxiety.
Glutamate is a major excitatory neurotransmitter that is associated with learning and memory.
Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter that is important for attentiveness, emotions, sleeping, dreaming, and
learning. Norepinephrine is also released as a hormone into the blood, where it causes blood vessels to
contract and heart rate to increase.
Serotonin contributes to various functions, such as regulating body temperature, sleep, mood, appetite, and
pain.

12 cranial nerves
There are total 12 pairs of cranial nerves that originate from our brain and brain stem. Each of them carries different
functions related to different senses of body. Apart from sensory functions there are also some that work as motor
nerves or mixed nerves. Here is a brief description of 12 cranial nerves.
1.

Olfactory. This is a type of sensory nerve that contributes in the sense of smell in human being. These
basically provide the specific cells that are termed as olfactory epithelium. It carries the information from nasal
epithelium to the olfactory center in brain.

2.

Optic nerve. This again is a type of sensory nerve that transforms information about vision to the brain. To be
specific this supplies information to the retina in the form of ganglion cells.

3.

Oculomotor nerve. This is a form of motor nerve that supplies to different centers along midbrain. Its
functions include superiorly uplifting eyelid, superiorly rotating eyeball, construction of pupil on the exposure
to light and operating several eye muscles.

4.

Trochlear. This motor nerve also supplies to the midbrain and performs the function of handling the eye
muscles and turning the eye.

5.

Trigeminal. This is a type of largest cranial nerve in all and performs many sensory functions related to nose,
eyes, tongue and teeth. It basically is further divided in three branches that are ophthalmic, maxillary and
mandibular nerve. This is a type of mixed nerve that performs sensory and motor functions in brain.

6.

Abducens. This is again a type of motor nerve that supplies to the pons and perform function of turning eye
laterally.

7.

Facial. This motor nerve is responsible for different types of facial expressions. This also performs some
functions of sensory nerve by supplying information about touch on face and senses of tongue in mouth. It is
basically present over brain stem.

8.

Vestibulocochlear. This motor nerve is basically functional in providing information related to balance of
head and sense of sound or hearing. It carries vestibular as well as cochlear information to the brain and is
placed near inner ear.

9.

Glossopharyngeal. This is a sensory nerve which carries sensory information from pharynx (initial portion of
throat) and some portion of tongue and palate. The information sent is about temperature, pressure and other
related facts. It also covers some portion of taste buds and salivary glands. The nerve also carries some motor
functions such as helping in swallowing food.

10. Vagus. This is also a type of mixed nerve that carries both motor and sensory functions. This basically deals
with the area of pharynx, larynx, esophagus, trachea, bronchi, some portion of heart and palate. It works by
constricting muscles of the above areas. In sensory part, it contributes in the tasting ability of the human
being.

11. Spinal accessory nerve. As the name intimates this motor nerve supplies information about spinal cord,
trapezius and other surrounding muscles. It also provides muscle movement of the shoulders and surrounding
neck.

12. Hypoglossal nerve. This is a typical motor nerve that deals with the muscles of tongue.