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30
Chapter 3
CONCRETE
3.1 Properties of Fresh Concrete
3.2 Water Cement Ratio and Workability
3.3 Strength and Grade of Concrete
3.4 Concrete Preparation; Mixing, Placing, Delivery, Compaction, Curing
3.5 Standard Testing for Fresh and Harden Concrete
3.6 Properties of Harden Concrete; Durability and Permeability
3.7 Concrete Mixture and Design
3.8 Types of Concrete
3.9 Admixture for Concrete
3.10 High strength concrete
Concrete a composite man made material, is the most widely used material
in the construction industry. It consist of a rotationally chosen mixture of
binding material such as lime or cement, well graded fine and coarse
aggregate, water and admixture. In a concrete mix, cement and water form a
paste or matrix which fills the voids of the fine aggregate and binds them (fine
and coarse) together. The mixture than placed in forms and allowed to cure
and becomes hard like stone. The hardening of concrete is caused by
chemical reaction between water and cement and it continues for a long time,
and consequently the concrete grows stronger with age.
Water
Coarse Aggregate
Fine Aggregate
Cement
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Fresh concrete
Hardened concrete
b)
c)
Workability of the fresh concrete that is the ease with which concrete
is placed and consolidated/vibrated.
3.2
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Cubes, cylinders and prisms are the three types of compression test
specimens used to determine the compressive strength. The cubes are
usually of 100 mm or 150 mm side, the cylinders are 150 mm diameter
by 300 mm height, and the prisms are 100 mm x l00 mm x 500 mm in
size.
To estimate the load at which the concrete members may crack,
normally flexural tensile strength test will be conducted. From this
test, the flexural tensile strength or the modulus of rupture is thus
determined. The modulus of rupture is determine by testing standard
test specimens of 150 mm x 150 mm x 700 mm over a span 600mm or
100mm x 100mm x 500mm over a span 400 mm under symmetrical
two point loading.
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3.3.1.1
Factors Influencing the Strength of Concrete
There are several factors that influence the strength development of
concrete. Normally as time passes by, with proper curing the concrete
strength should increase. Nevertheless the strength gain can be put to a
halt and consequently creating durability problems if proper curing is not
done and the durability aspects are not considered. Factors influencing the
strength of concrete can be grouped into two categories:
1)
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
2)
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3.4
Characteristic Strength
(N/mm2)
7
10
7.0
10.0
Mass concrete
15
15.0
20
25
20.0
25.0
30
30.0
40
50
60
40.0
50.0
60.0
Concrete Preparation
1)
Weight batching
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Volume Batching
For most small job, volume batching is adopted by the amount of each
solid ingredient is measured by loose volume using measuring boxes,
gauge box, hopper or wheel barrows. In batching by volume,
allowance has to be made for the moisture present in sand which
results in its bulking. It also advisable to set the volumes in term of
whole bags of cement.
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Machine mixing
Machine mixing can either be in rotation or stirring operation. The
rotation operation is used in tilting drum mixer, non-tilting drum mixer,
and dual drum mixer and continues mixer, while the stirring operation
is used in pan-type mixer see Figure 3.5.
(a)
(b)
Hand mixing
There may be occasions when the concrete has to be mixed by hand,
and because of this case uniformity is more difficult to achieve,
therefore particular care and effort are necessary.
The aggregate should be spread in a uniform layer on a hard, clean
and non-porous base. Cement is then spread over the aggregate and
the dry material are mixed by turning over from one end of the heap to
another and cutting with a shovel until the mix appear uniform. The
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(a)
(b)
Figure 3.7: (a) Wheel barrow; (b) Bucket
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3.4.6 Compaction
The objective of compaction is to eliminate air holes and to achieve
maximum density of concrete.
During mixing of concrete a considerable quantity of air is entrapped and
during its transportation there is a possibility of partial segregation taking
place. If the entrapped air is not removed and the segregation of coarse
aggregate not corrected, the concrete may be porous, non-homogeneous
and reduced the concrete strength.
Therefore the process of removal of entrapped air and of uniform placement
of concrete to form homogeneous dense mass is termed compaction.
To compact the concrete, it should be mechanically vibrated or hand spading
as it goes into the form. The reason for compaction are to ensure the
requirement of strength, impermeability and durability of harden concrete.
The process of compaction consists of elimination of entrapped air and
forcing the particles into a close configuration.
Method of compaction can either be hand compaction or machine
compaction;
a)
Hand Compaction
Hand compaction methods consist of rodding, tamping and spading
with suitable tools. Concrete mixes that normally use for hand
compaction are of fairly workable mix if the sections are at narrow and
the reinforcement closely packed.
b)
Machine compaction
Compaction by using vibrators makes possible the placement of stiff,
harsh concrete mixes that cannot be placed and consolidated readily
by hand. Vibration makes it possible to use less workable mixes,
resulting in increased strength and lower drying shrinkage for given
mix proportions. Vibrating machines are usually operated by petrol
engines, compressed air or electricity. The vibrating machines that are
suitable for site use are of 3 main types, namely:
o Internal vibrator-pocker
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Water Curing
Curing by flooding, ponding, or mist spraying is widely used. It is the
most effective of all known curing methods for the prevention of mix
water evaporation. This method is not always practical, however,
because of job conditions. Continuous sprinkling with water is also
an excellent method of curing. If the sprinkling is done at intervals,
the concrete must not be allowed to dry between applications of
water. A constant supply of water prevents the .possibility of crazing
or cracking due to alternate wetting and drying.
2)
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4)
5)
Steam Curing
In steam curing, the heating of the concrete products is caused by
steam either at low pressure or high pressure. The method ensures
even heating of products all over, even if the space between the
stacked precast concrete products is very small.
Steam curing is more favourable to mixes of concrete with low watercement ratio than mixes with higher water-cement ratio. The choice of
steam curing cycle will be governed by:
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3.5
Plan view
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(2)
When physical laws are not fully understood testing can simulate
expected conditions to evaluate performance;
(3)
(4)
Quality control.
The testing of hardened concrete can be classified into two types which are
destructive test and non-destructive test.
a)
Destructive test
1)
Cube test (BS 1881: Part 116)
This is currently the most common type of destructive test for concrete, owing
to the cheapness of the cube moulds and the comparative simplicity of
manufacture and testing of cubes.
Carefully obtained samples of the concrete mix are placed and compacted in
accurately formed steel moulds, with machine inner surface. Bonding with the
steel mould is prevented by coating with release agent. The surface of each
cube is covered with impermeable sheet or the entire mould sealed. After 24
hours the cube is removed and cured under water at about 20 oC, until tested
at age of 7th, 14th and 28th days.
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At the testing day, the cube with size of 150mm x 150mm x 150mm or
100mm x 100mm x 100mm, then place centrally between the platens of a
compression testing machine, trowelled face sideways, and the load is
applied such that the stress increase at a given constant rate until failure.
The maximum load is recorded and the values were divided with the cross
sectional area of the cube to obtained the compressive strength of the cube.
2)
Cylinder Splitting Test (BS 1881: Part 117)
In this test, cylinders which are typically 300mm long and 150mm in diameter,
are loaded in a compression tester with their cylindrical axes horizontal,
stress concentrations being avoided by use the hardboard or plywood strips
about 12mm wide.
The successful operation of the test requires careful alignment of the cylinder
(or use of a jig) and packing strips should be used once only to ensure
uniform bedding, especially in the case of weak concretes, for which plywood
is more suitable material. Except near the packing pieces, a tensile stress is
induced by concrete on the vertical plane and the tensile strength ft at failure
is given by:
ft
2W
DL
Equation 3.1
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Where;
W = Load at failure
D = Diameter of cylinder
L = Length of cylinder
Note that, since the failure area is DL, the expression is the same as
ft
load
2
failure _ area
Equation 3.2
Figure 3.19: The cylinder splitting test for measurement of the tensile
strength of concrete
b)
Non-destructive tests
These tests are useful to: (1) quality control; (2) determination of the time for
form removal; and (3) help assess the soundness of existing concrete
structures.
Surface Hardness Methods - One of the oldest nondestructive tests,
developed in Germany in the 1930's. Basically, the surface is impacted
with a mass and the size of the resulting indention is measured. The
accuracy of these types of tests is only 20 to 30%.
Rebound Hardness - The most common nondestructive test is the
rebound test. The test measures the rebound of a hardened steel
hammer impacted on the concrete by a spring. This method has the
same limitations as the surface hardness tests. The results are
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3.6
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3.6.3 Permeability
Concrete has a tendency to be porous due to the presence of voids formed
during or after placing. To produce concrete of low permeability, full
compaction and proper curing is essential. For a given aggregate, the
permeability of concrete can be reduced by reducing the water content
or by increasing the cement content. Low permeability of concrete is
important in increasing resistant to frost action and chemical attack and in
protecting embedded steel against corrosion.
Therefore the study of permeability of concrete is important in case of
reinforced concrete, ingress of moisture and air will result in corrosion of steel
which leads to an increase in the volume of steel, and to cracking and
spalling of concrete cover.
Factors influencing permeability are:
Water-cement ratio.
Workability
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3.6.4 Shrinkage
Shrinkage is a contraction deformation suffered by concrete even under no
load. The shrinkage of concrete is dependent on the amount of drying that
can take place. It is therefore influenced by the humidity and temperature of
the surrounding air, the rate of air flow over the surface and the proportion of
the surface area to volume of concrete.
The two types of shrinkage strains are: Plastic shrinkage.
Drying shrinkage.
Plastic shrinkage is cause due to the hydration of cement which results in
reduction in the volume of the system of cement plus water to an extent of
about 1 percent of the volume of dry cement. This contraction is known as
plastic strain and it is aggravated due to loss of water by evaporation from
the surface of concrete, particularly under hot climates and high winds. This
can result in surface cracking.
Drying shrinkage is shrinkage which takes place after the concrete has set
and hardened. It takes place in the first few months. Drying shrinkage is
cause due to withdrawal of water from concrete stored in unsaturated air
voids. A part of this shrinkage can be recovered on immersion of concrete in
water.
3.7
Concrete Mixture and Design
Concrete mix design has a number of different approaches such as ACI
(American Concrete Institution) developed in U.S.A. and the most popular
and widely used is the DOE (Department of Environmental) method. It is the
British method of concrete mix design and it is being used in United Kingdom
and other parts of the world. This method is based on extensive laboratory
and field experiments carried out by the Road Research Laboratory U.K.
3.7.1 DOE Method for Normal Concrete
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Equation 3.3
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Given the type of cement and aggregate, use Table 3.4 to obtain the
compressive strength at the specified ages that correspond to a free water
cement ratio of 0.5.
For example: ordinary Portland cement and crushed aggregate are used.
From the Table 3.4 of the compressive strength of 49 N/mm2 at 28 days (and
36 N/mm2 at 7 days and etc.)
In Figure 3.21 follow the starting line to locate the curve which passes
through the point. (49 N/mm2, w/c=0.5), in this particular case, it is the third
curve from the top of the figure. This curve shows that to obtain our target
mean strength of 43 N/mm2, we need a water/cement ratio of 0.54.
If the w/c ratio obtained in previous step exceeds the maximum w/c ratio
specified for durability (Table 3.5 BS8110) then adopt the lower valueresulting in a concrete having a higher strength than required.
Table 3.4: Approximate compressive strengths of concrete made with a
free water/cement ratio of 0.5 according to the DOE Method
Type of
cement
Ordinary
Portland
(Type I)
Type of
coarse
aggregate
28
91
Uncrushed
22 (3200)
30 (3200)
42 (6100)
49 (7100)
Crushed
27 (3900)
36 (5200)
49 (7100)
56 (8100)
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Rapidhardening
Portland
(Type III)
Uncrushed
29 (4200)
37 (5400)
48 (7000)
54 (7800)
Crushed
34 (4900)
43 (6200)
55 (8000)
61 (8900)
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20
35
0.60
300
35
20
30
40
50
0.55
325
40
20
20
25
30
0.45
400
50
2)
Determining the water content
Given the slump or VB time, determine the water content from Figure 3.21.
Using Table 3.4, when coarse aggregate and fine aggregates of different
types are used, the water content W is estimated as follows:
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2
1
W f Wc
3
3
Wf
Wc
(Equation 3.4)
10 (3/8)
20 (3/4)
40 (11/2)
Slump
mm (in.)
Vebe
time, s
Type
Uncrushe
d
Crushed
Uncrushe
d
Crushed
Uncrushe
d
Crushed
60 80
(2 - 7)
> 12
6 12
36
03
150 (255)
180 (305)
180 (305)
205 (345)
205 (345)
230 (390)
225 (380)
250 (420)
135 (230)
170 (285)
160 (270)
190 (320)
180 (305)
210 (355)
195 (330)
225 (380)
115 (195)
155 (260)
140 (235)
175 (295)
160 (270)
190 (320)
175 (295)
205 (345)
3)
Determining the cement content
The value given by Equation 3.1 should be checked against any maximum or
minimum cement contents that may have been specified for durability. Refer
Table 3.5.
watercontent
water cement ratio
(Equation 3.5)
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Chapter 3: Concrete
cementcontent watercontent
c
w
5)
Determining of the fine and coarse aggregate contents
Total aggregate content consists of fine aggregate will depends on the
grading zone 1, 2, 3 and 4 (see Table 3.5). The general principle in mix
design is the finer the grading of the fine aggregate. The larger its structure
area per unit weight, the lower will be the proportion expressed as a
percentage of the total aggregate required to produce a concrete.
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For a given slump and w/c ratio, the proportion of fine aggregate can be
determined from Figure 3.22 in which the grading zones are those of Table
3.7.
Table 3.7: Grading limits for DOE mix design procedure
Percentage by weight passing standard sieves
Standard Sieve sizes
10 mm
5 mm
No. 7 (2.36 mm)
No. 14 (1.18 mm)
No. 25 (600 m)
No. 52 (300 m)
No. 100 (150 m)
Grading
Zone 1
100
90 100
60 95
30 70
15 34
5 20
0 10
Grading
Zone 2
100
90 100
75 100
55 90
35 59
8 30
0 10
Grading
Zone 3
100
90 100
85 100
75 100
60 79
12 40
0 10
Grading
Zone 4
100
95 100
95 100
90 100
80 100
15 50
0 15
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Ease of mixing
Ease of placing
Ease of compaction
Ease of finishing
Generally, mixes of the stiffest consistency that can still be placed adequately
should be used (ACI, 2000). Typically slump is specified, but Table 3.6
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Chapter 3: Concrete
Type of Construction
(mm)
(inches)
25 - 75
1-3
25 - 75
1-3
25 - 100
1-4
Building columns
25 - 100
1-4
25 - 75
1-3
Mass concrete
25 - 50
1-2
Fixed Form
Slip Form
(mm)
(inches)
(mm)
(inches)
25 - 75
1-3
0 - 75
0-3
as low as 25
as high as
175
as low as 1
as high as 7
as low as 0
as high as
125
as low as 0
as high as 5
2)
Maximum Aggregate Size
Maximum aggregate size will affect such PCC parameters as amount of
cement paste, workability and strength. In general, ACI recommends that
maximum aggregate size be limited to 1/3 of the slab depth and 3/4 of the
minimum clear space between reinforcing bars. Aggregate larger than these
dimensions may be difficult to consolidate and compact resulting in a
honeycombed structure or large air pockets. Pavement PCC maximum
aggregate sizes are on the order of 25 mm (1 inch) to 37.5 mm (1.5 inches).
3)
Mixing Water and Air Content Estimation
Slump is dependent upon nominal maximum aggregate size, particle shape,
aggregate gradation, PCC temperature, the amount of entrained air and
certain chemical admixtures. It is not generally affected by the amount of
cementitious material. Therefore, ACI provides a table relating nominal
maximum aggregate size, air entrainment and desired slump to the desired
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Table 3.8: Approximate Mixing Water and Air Content Requirements for Different Slumps and Maximum Aggregate Sizes
Mixing Water Quantity in kg/m3 (lb/yd3) for the listed Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size
9.5 mm
(0.375 in.)
12.5 mm
(0.5 in.)
19 mm
(0.75 in.)
25 mm
(1 in.)
37.5 mm
(1.5 in.)
50 mm
(2 in.)
75 mm
(3 in.)
100 mm
(4 in.)
25 50 (1 - 2)
207 (350)
199 (335)
190 (315)
179 (300)
166 (275)
154 (260)
130 (220)
113 (190)
75 100 (3 - 4)
228 (385)
216 (365)
205 (340)
193 (325)
181 (300)
169 (285)
145 (245)
124 (210)
150 175 (6 - 7)
243 (410)
228 (385)
216 (360)
202 (340)
190 (315)
178 (300)
160 (270)
2.5
1.5
0.5
0.3
0.2
25 50 (1 - 2)
181 (305)
175 (295)
168 (280)
160 (270)
148 (250)
142 (240)
122 (205)
107 (180)
75 100 (3 - 4)
202 (340)
193 (325)
184 (305)
175 (295)
165 (275)
157 (265)
133 (225)
119 (200)
150 175 (6 - 7)
216 (365)
205 (345)
197 (325)
184 (310)
174 (290)
166 (280)
154 (260)
Slump
Non-Air-Entrained PCC
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
Moderate Exposure
6.0
5.5
5.0
4.5
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
Severe Exposure
7.5
7.0
6.0
6.0
5.5
5.0
4.5
4.0
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28-Day Compressive
Strength in MPa (psi)
Non-Air-Entrained
Air-Entrained
41.4 (6000)
0.41
34.5 (5000)
0.48
0.40
27.6 (4000)
0.57
0.48
20.7 (3000)
0.68
0.59
13.8 (2000)
0.82
0.74
2.60
2.80
3.00
0.50
0.48
0.46
0.44
0.59
0.57
0.55
0.53
19 mm (0.75 inches)
0.66
0.64
0.62
0.60
25 mm (1 inches)
0.71
0.69
0.67
0.65
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37.5 mm (1.5 inches)
0.75
0.73
0.71
0.69
50 mm (2 inches)
0.78
0.76
0.74
0.72
Notes:
1. These values can be increased by up to about 10 percent for
pavement applications.
2. Coarse aggregate volumes are based on oven-dry-rodded weights
obtained in accordance with ASTM C 29.
7)
At this point, all other constituent volumes have been specified (water,
portland cement, air and coarse aggregate). Thus, the fine aggregate
volume is just the remaining volume:
8)
Unlike HMA, PCC batching does not require dried aggregate. Therefore,
aggregate moisture content must be accounted for. Aggregate moisture
affects the following parameters:
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3.8
Types Of Concrete
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2. High bearing stresses are generated in anchorage zones.
3. The shrinkage cracks are reduced, with higher modulus of elasticity and
smaller creep strain.
The loss of prestress at the initial stages is very high and for it high strength
steel is required. Prestressing is achieved by either pretensioning or posttensioning. In the former the wires or cables are anchored, tensioned and
concrete is cast in the moulds. After the concrete has gained strength the
wires are released. This sets up compression in concrete which counteracts
tension in concrete because of bending in the member. In the post-tensioning
the prestressing force is applied to the steel bars or cables, after the concrete
has hardened sufficiently. After applying the full prestress the cable passages
are grouted.
It is widely used for construction of precast units such as beams, floors,
roofing systems, bridges, folded plate roofs, marine structures, towers and
railway sleepers.
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76
The applications of light weight concrete are: Low density cellular concrete is used for precast floor and roofing
units.
Load bearing walls using cellular concrete blocks.
As insulation cladding to exterior walls of structures.
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Air entrainers
Water reducers
Retarders
Hydration controller admixtures
Accelerators
Supplementary cementitious admixtures
The Portland Cement Association (PCA) identifies four major reasons for
using admixtures:
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79
When superplasticizers are used, the fresh concrete stays workable for a
short time, 30 min to 60 min, and is followed by rapid loss in workability.
Superplasticizers are usually added at the plant to ensure consistency of the
concrete. In critical situations, they can be added at the jobsite, but the concrete should be thoroughly mixed following the addition of the admixture. The
setting time varies with the type of agents, the amount used, and the interactions with other admixtures used in the concrete.
3.9.3 Retarders
Some construction conditions require that the time between mixing and
placing or finishing the concrete be increased. In such cases, retarders can
be used to delay the initial set of concrete. Retarders are used for several
reasons, such as the following:
Retarders can reduce the strength of concrete at early ages (e.g., one to
three days). In addition, some retarders entrain air and improve workability.
Other retarders increase the time required for the initial set but reduce the
time between the initial and final set. The properties of retarders vary with the
materials used in the mix and with job conditions. Thus, the use and effect of
retarders must be evaluated experimentally during the mix design process.
3.9.4 Hydration-Control Admixture
These admixtures have the ability to stop and reactivate the hydration
process of concrete. They consist of two parts: a stabilizer and an activator.
Adding the stabilizer completely stops the hydration of the cementing materials for up to 72 hours, while adding the activator to the stabilized concrete
reestablishes normal hydration and setting. These admixtures are very useful
in extending the use of ready-mixed concrete when the work at the jobsite is
stopped for various reasons. They are also useful when concrete is being
hauled for a long time.
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3.9.5 Accelerators
Accelerators are used to develop early strength of concrete at a faster rate
than that developed in normal concrete. The ultimate strength, however, of
high early strength concrete is about the same as that of normal concrete.
Accelerators are used to
The first three reasons are particularly applicable to concrete work placed
during cold temperatures. The increased strength gained helps to protect the
concrete from freezing and the rapid rate of hydration generates heat that
can reduce the risk of freezing.
Calcium chloride, CaCl2, is the most widely used accelerator (ASTM D98).
Both initial and final set times are reduced with calcium chloride. The initial
set time of 3 hours for a typical concrete can be reduced to 1.5 hours by
adding an amount of calcium chloride equal to 1% of the cement weight; 2%
reduces the initial set time to 1 hour. Typical final set times are 6 hours, 3
hours, and 2 hours for 0%, 1%, and 2% calcium chloride. Concrete with
CaCI2, develops higher early strength compared with plain concrete cured at
the same temperature.
The PCA recommends against using calcium chloride under the following
conditions:
concrete is prestressed
concrete contains embedded aluminum such as conduits, especially if
the aluminum is in contact with steel
concrete is subjected to alkali-aggregate reaction
concrete is in contact with water or soils containing sulfates
concrete is placed during hot weather
mass applications of concrete
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Fly Ash
Fly ash is the most commonly used pozzolan in civil engineering
structures. Fly ash is a by-product of the coal industry. Combusting
pulverized coal in an electric power plant burns off the carbon and
most volatile materials. However, depending on the source and type of
coal, a significant amount of impurities passes through the combustion
chamber.
The carbon contents of common coals ranges from 70 to 100 percent.
The noncarbon percentages are impurities (e.g., clay, feldspar, quartz,
and shale), which fuse as they pass through the combustion chamber.
Exhaust gas carries the fused material, fly ash, out of the combustion
chamber. The fly ash cools into spheres, which may be solid, hollow
(cenospheres), or hollow and filled with other spheres (plerospheres).
Particle diameters range from 1 m to more than 0.1 mm, with an
average of 0.015 mm to 0.020 mm, and are 70% to 90% smaller than
0.045 mm. Fly ash is primarily a silica glass composed of silica (SiO2),
alumina (Al2O3), iron oxide (Fe203), and lime (Ca0).
The spherical shape of fly ash increases the workability of the fresh
concrete. In addition, fly ash extends the hydration process, allowing a
greater strength development and reduced porosity. Studies have
shown that concrete containing more than 20% fly ash by weight of
cement has a much smaller pore size distribution than portland
cement concrete without fly ash. The lower heat of hydration reduces
the early strength of the concrete. The extended reaction permits a
continuous gaining of strength beyond what can be accomplished with
plain portland cement.
b.
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developed in a molten condition simultaneously with iron in a blast
furnace. The molten slag is rapidly chilled by quenching in water to
form a glassy sandlike granulated material. The material is then
ground to less than 45 microns. The specific gravity of GGBF slag is in
the range of 2.85 to 2.95.
The rough and angular-shaped ground slag in the presence of water
and an activator, NaOH or CaOH, supplied by portland cement,
hydrates and sets in a manner similar to portland cement.
Ground slag has been used as a cementitious material in concrete
since the beginning of the 1900s. Ground granulated blast furnace
slag commonly constitutes between 30% and 45% of the cementing
material in the mix. Some slag concretes have a slag component of
70% or more of the cementitious material. ASTM C 989 (AASHTO M
302) classifies slag by its increasing level of reactivity as Grade 80,
100, or 120.
c.
Silica Fume
Silica fume is a byproduct of the production of silicon metal or
ferrosilicon alloys. One of the most beneficial uses for silica fume is as
a mineral admixture in concrete. Because of its chemical and physical
properties, it is a very reactive pozzolan. Concrete containing silica
fume can have very high strength and can be very durable. Silica fume
is available from suppliers of concrete admixtures and, when
specified, is simply added during concrete production either in wet or
dry forms. Placing, finishing, and curing silica fume concrete require
special attention on the part of the concrete contractor.
Silicon metal and alloys are produced in electric furnaces. The raw
materials are quartz, coal, and woodchips. The smoke that results
from furnace operation is collected and sold as silica fume.
Silica fume consists primarily of amorphous (noncrystalline) silicon
dioxide (SiO2). The individual particles are extremely small,
approximately 1/100th the size of an average cement particle.
Because of its fine particles, large surface area, and the high SiO 2,
content, silica fume is a very reactive pozzolan when used in concrete.
The quality of silica fume is specified by ASTM C 1240 and AASHTO
M 307.
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In addition to producing high-strength concrete, silica fame can reduce
concrete corrosion induced by deicing or marine salts. Silica fume
concrete with low water content is highly resistant to penetration by
chloride ions.
Natural Pozzolans (palm-oil fuel ash, rice husk ash)
A pozzolan is a siliceous and aluminous material which, in itself,
possesses little or no cementitious value but will, in finely divided form
and in the presence of moisture, react chemically with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to form compounds possessing
cementitious properties (ASTM C595). Naturally occurring pozzolans,
such as fine volcanic ash, combined with burned lime, were used
about 2000 years ago for building construction and pozzolan
continues to be used today. Calcium hydroxide is one of the products
generated by the hydration of C3 S and C2S. In fact, up to 15% of the
weight of Portland cement is hydrated lime. Adding a pozzolan to
portland cement generates an opportunity to convert this free lime to a
cementitious material.
3.10
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remain popular in the production of high strength concretes.
c. Naphtalene sulfonate available under greater number of brand
names. Available in powder or brown liquids and have solid
contents of 40%. Avalable in sodium or calcium salts. Has control
on the rheological properties of high strength concretes.
3.10.3 Retarders
Only used as the last resort to minimize the problem of over rapid
slum loss. Since it is difficult to maintain the compatibility between
minimizing slump lost and without excessively reducing early strength
gain.
3.10.4 Age at test
Apart of using strength at 28 days for opc concrete, for high strength
concrete requirement of 56 and 90 days strength is common. The
increase in strength between 28 days and 56 or 90 days is
considerable (i.e. between 10% to 20%) increase in strength.
3.10.5 Curing conditions
The highest concrete strengths will be obtained with specimens
continuously moist cured (at 100% relative humidity) until the time of
testing. Research by Carrascillo, shows that HSC moistly cured for 7
days and air dried at 50% relative humidity until 28 days suffers
strength loss of 10%. In another case, up to 15 days specimen treated
with a curing compound and allowed to cure at ambient conditions
yields higher strength than moistly cured specimen. Only at later days
(56 and 90 days) did the strength of moistly cured specimen surpass
those field-cured specimen.
3.10.6 Material Proportions in HSC
Water / cementetious ratio (w/c) : determine the strength of the
concrete at the end. Several combinations are as shown in Figure
3.27. At a w/c ratio of 0.45, the range in strength is from 37 MPa to 66
MPa; while at w/c of 0.26 the range is from 78MPa to 120 MPa.
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3.10.8
3.11
Tutorial 3
Q1.
Q2.
Q3.
Q4.
Q5.
Summary of Chapter 3
From this chapter, we can conclude that, concrete is conglomerate, stone like
material composed essentially of three materials which are cement,
aggregate and water. Sometimes a fourth material namely an admixture is
added for variety of specific purposes, such as acceleration or retardation of
setting or hardening. The strength and quality of concrete depend not only on
the quality and quantity of the materials, but on the procedures used in
combining these materials and the skill involved in the placing and curing of
concrete.