BEYOND SILICON COMPUTING

AUTHORS:
JIGAR PUROHIT (03CE117)
GUNJAN DHOLAKIYA(03CE116)
INSTITUE:
CHAROTAR INSTITUE OF
TECHNOLOGY

(CITC)

ABSTRACT
 “Everything looks good when it is mounted on a chip.”

To challenge the limits of speed and miniaturization scientists of silicon chip the bio-
chip has been invented and made up of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid). The function of 0’s and
1’s are done by the specified combinations of the four nucleotides. Their speed is billion times
faster. As its processing is parallel and not serial it can compute problem with large
possibilities much faster. With application in various fields of genetics basically DNA
recognition as well as chemistry development of medicines and detecting diseases it has more
utilities.

INDEX
1) INTRODUCTION TO DNA COMPUTER 4

2
2) HAMILTON PATH PROBLEM 5

3) WORKING OF DNA 7

4) PROGRAMMING OF PROBLEM USING DNA________________________ 9

5) APPLICATION 15

6) EFFICIENCY______________________________________________________17

7) ADVANTAGES-DISADVANTAGES 18

8) FUTURE
19

9) CONCLUSION_____________________________________________________21

3
 FIGURES INDEX

2.1 Possible flight routes between seven cities________________6

2.2 Connecting Block___________________________________7

2.3 Double Helics______________________________________ 7

2.4 Long Chain________________________________________7

2.5 Different Colour____________________________________ 7

3.1 Linking Pieces of DNA_______________________________ 8

3.2 Sequence of Sticky Pieces_____________________________9

4.1 Synthetic DNA_____________________________________10

4.2 Memory Unit Structure________________________________11

4.3 Complmentary Coupling

Nuclotide_______________________11

4.4 Coupling Rings Long Chain____________________________

12

4.5 Complmentary
Coupling_______________________________12

4.6 Double Helix

Structure_______________________________12

4.7 Complementary
Strands______________________________13

4.8 Split Doouble Stranded Enzymes_______________________

13

4.9 Complementary
Strands______________________________13
4
4.10 Copy Of Complementary Strands_____________________
14

5.1 DNA MicroArray___________________________________

17

5
1. INTRODUCTION TO DNA COMPUTER
Computer chip manufactures are furiously racing to make the next microprocessor that
will topple speed records. Sooner or later, though, this competition is bound to hit a wall.
Microprocessor made of silicon will eventually reach their limits of speed and miniaturization.
Chip makers need a new material to produce faster computing speeds.

You won’t believe where scientists have found the new material they need to build the
next generation of microprocessors. Millions of natural supercomputers exist inside living
organisms, including your living body. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules, the material
our genes are made of, have the potential to perform calculations many faster than the world’s
most powerful human-built computers.

What is a DNA Computer?

Research in the development of DNA computers is really only at its beginning stages,
so a specific answer isn't yet available. But the general sense of such a computational device is
to use the DNA molecule as a model for its construction.

Although the feasibility of molecular computers remains in doubt, the field has opened
new horizons and important new research problems, both for computer scientists and
biologists. The computer scientist and mathematician are looking for new models of
computation to replace with acting in a test tube.

The massive parallelism of DNA strands may help to deal with computational problems
that are beyond the reach of ordinary digital computers -- not because the DNA strands are
smarter, but because they can make many tries at once. It's the parallel nature of the beast. For
the biologist, the unexpected results in DNA computing indicate that models of DNA
computers could be significant for the study of important biological problems such as
evolution. Also, the techniques of DNA manipulation developed for computational purposes
could also find applications in genetic engineering.

DNA computer can’t be still found at your local electronics store yet. The technology
is still in their development, and didn’t exist as concept before a decade. In 1994, LEONARD
ADELMAN introduced the idea of using DNA to solve complex mathematical problems.
Adelman, computer scientist at the university of Southern California, came to the conclusion
that DNA had computational potential after reading the book “MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
OF THE GENE” written by JAMES WASTON, who co-discovered the structure of DNA in
1953.In fact, DNA is more similar to computer. DNA is very similar to a computer hard drive
in how it stores permanent information about your genes.

2. HAMILTON PATH PROBLEM

Adelman is often called the inventor of the DNA computers. His article in a 1994 issue
of Journal Science outlined how to use DNA to solve a well-known mathematical problem,
called the “Directed Hamilton Path problem”, also known as the “Traveling Salesman
6
Problem”. The goal of the problem is to find the shortest route between a numbers of cities,
going through each city only once. As you add more cities the problem becomes more
difficult.
Figure 2.1 shows a diagram of the Hamilton path problem. The objective is to find a
path from start to end going through all the points only once. This problem is difficult for the
conventional (serial logic) computers because they try must try each path one at a time. It is
like having a whole bunch of keys and trying to see which fits into the lock. Conventional
computers are very good at math, but poor at “key into lock” problems. DNA based
computers can try all the keys at the same time (massively parallel) and thus are very good at
key into lock problems, but much slower at simple mathematical problems like multiplication.
The Hamilton path problem was chosen because every key-into-lock problem can be solved
as a Hamilton Path Problem.

Figure 2.1

Figure showing the possible flight routes between the seven cities.
The following algorithm solves the Hamilton Path Problem, regardless of the type
computers used.

1. Generate random paths through the graph.

2. Keep only those paths that begin with the start city (A) and conclude with the end city
(G).
3. Because the graph has 7 cities, keep only those paths with 7 cities.
4. Keep only those paths that enter all cities at least once.
5. Any remaining paths are solutions.

The key to solving the problem was using DNA to perform the five steps in solving the
above algorithm.

These interconnecting blocks can be used to model DNA:

Figure 2.2
DNA likes to form long double helices:

7
 Figure 2.3

The two helices are joined by “bases”, which will be represented by

coloured blocks. Each base binds only to one other specific base. In our example, we will
say that each coloured block will bind only with the block of same colour. For example, if
we only had red coloured blocks, they would form a long chain like this:

Figure 2.4

Any other colour will not bind with red:

Figure 2.5

3.PROGRAMMING OF THE PROBLEM USING DNA

STEP 1: Create a unique DNA sequence for each city A through G. For each path,
for example, from A to B, creates a linking pieces of DNA that matches the last half of A
and first half of B:

Figure 3.1
8
Here the red block represents the city a, while the orange block represents the city B.
the half-red half-orange block connecting the two other blocks represents the path
from A to B.

In a test tube, all different pieces of DNA will randomly link with each other, forming
paths through the graph.

STEP 2: Because it is difficult to "remove" DNA from solution, the target DNA, the
DNA which started from A and ended at G was copied over and over again until the test
tube contained a lot of it relative to other random sequences. This is essentially the same
as removing all the other pieces. Imagine a sock drawer which initially contains one or
two coloured socks. If you put in a hundred black socks, the chances are that all you
will get if you reach in is black socks.

STEP 3: Going by weight, the DNA sequences which were 7 "cities" long were
separated from the rest. A "sieve" was used which would allow smaller pieces of DNA to
pass quickly, while larger segments are slowed down. the procedure used actually allows
you to isolate the pieces which are precisely 7 cities long from any shorter or longer
paths.

STEP 4: To ensure that the remaining sequences went through each of cities, “sticky”
pieces of DNA attached to magnets were used to separate the DNA. The magnets were
used to ensure that the target DNA remained in the test tube, while the unwanted DNA
was washed away. First, the magnets kept all the DNA which went through city A in the
test tube, then B, then C, and D, and so on. In the end, the only DNA which remained in
the tube was that which went through all seven cities.

Figure 3.2
STEP 5: all that was left to sequences the DNA, revealing the path from A to B to C
to D to E to F to G.

9
4. WORKING OF DNA

DNA is the major information storage molecule in living cells, and billions of years of
evolution have tested and refined both this wonderful informational molecule and highly
specific enzymes that can either duplicate the information in DNA molecules or transmit this
information to other DNA molecules.

Instead of using electrical impulses to represent bits of information, the DNA computer
uses the chemical properties of these molecules by examining the patterns of combination or
growth of the molecules or strings. DNA can do this through the manufacture of enzymes,
which are biological catalysts that could be called the 'software' used to execute the desired
calculation.

DNA computers use deoxyribonucleic acids--A (adenine), C (cytosine), G (guanine)

and T (thymine)--as the memory units, and recombinant DNA techniques already in existence
carry out the fundamental operations. In a DNA computer, computation takes place in test
tubes or on a glass slide coated in 24K gold. The input and output are both strands of DNA,
whose genetic sequences encode certain information. A program on a DNA computer is
executed as a series of biochemical operations, which have the effect of synthesizing,
extracting, modifying and cloning the DNA strands.

10
 Figure 4.1
The only fundamental difference between conventional computers and DNA computers
is the capacity of memory units: electronic computers have two positions (on or off), whereas
DNA has four (C, G, A or T). The study of bacteria has shown that restriction enzymes can be
employed to cut DNA at a specific word(W). Many restriction enzymes cut the two strands of
double-stranded DNA at different positions leaving overhangs of single-stranded DNA. Two
pieces of DNA may be rejoined if their terminal overhangs are complementary. Complements
are referred to as 'sticky ends'. Using these operations, fragments of DNA may be inserted or
deleted from the DNA.

Figure 4.2

As stated earlier DNA represents information as a pattern of molecules on a strand.

Each strand represents one possible answer. In each experiment, the DNA is tailored so that all
conceivable answers to a particular problem are included. Researchers then subject all the
molecules to precise chemical reactions that imitate the computational abilities of a traditional
computer. Because molecules that make up DNA bind together in predictable ways, it gives a
powerful "search" function. If the experiment works, the DNA computer weeds out all the
wrong answers, leaving one molecule or more with the right answer. All these molecules can
work together at once, so you could theoretically have 10 trillion calculations going on at the
same time in very little space.

The hardware key to biological life is a very stable chemicals called nucleic acid. It is
11
the equivalent of silicon computer system. It can exist in the form of chains of molecules
known as nucleotides. There are only four different nucleotides but each of them have a pair of
complementary coupling points due to an element of oxygen on one side and a phosphate site
on the other. The oxygen atom of any of the four nucleotides can bind to the phosphate site of
any other.

Figure 4.3

Nucleotides have an affinity to stick together due to a chemical formation at each side
which provides a physical coupling supplemented by electromagnetic attraction

This ability of the nucleotides to bind side by side allows them to form long chains
without it mattering which type of nucleotide is binding to which other type (see figure 3.2).

Figure 4.4

DNA can form digital strings of information because the four nucleotides cannot be
linked to each other in any order

A long string of these four bases can thus contain a massive amount of information.
The nucleotides also have another pair of complementary coupling sites which, from a
hardware point of view, give DNA other very important characteristics. They allow each
nucleotide to link up to a third nucleotide. These extra binding sites are not universal
coupling points like the chain building coupling sites, these binding sites allow only specific
pairs of nucleotides to bond - A will bind with T and T with A; C will bind with G and G with
C. These specific coupling pairs are illustrated in figure 3.3.

12
 Figure 4.5

Nucleotides have additional binding sites which attract specific complementary

nucleotides to bind to them

This extra bonding site allows the formation of double strand, with one strand being
the complement of other. This forms the famous "double helix" structure which carries
genetic code.

Figure 4.6
The complementary coupling sites allow strings of DNA to form into double strands
with one strand being the complement of the other. The two strands form into a double
helix

The first advantage of the double strand structure is the increased stability it provides.
Although nucleotide bonding is quite secure there is so much jostling in the environment of a
cell that individual nucleotides can get displaced.

A double stranded structure of complementary strands allows damaged sections

of the strand to be repaired by referring to the complement nucleotides

Figure 4.7

Enzymes can split a double stranded DNA into a two chain of nucleotides

13
 Figure 4.8

The splitting process forms two separate chains with one the complement of the other

Figure 4.9

The two halves of a DNA section which has been split down the middle can each rapidly
build an additional complementary strand. These results in the splitting operation producing
two copies of the original (see figure 3.8).

Figure 4.10
The splitting of strands and then regrowing the complementary strands results in
the original strand being copied and is exactly analogous to the way in which binary
data is copied within a computer program.

DNA computing is a field that holds the promise of ultra-dense systems that pack
megabytes of information into devices the size of a silicon transistor. Each molecule of DNA is
roughly equivalent to a little computer chip. Conventional computers represent information in
terms of 0's and 1's, physically expressed in terms of the flow of electrons through logical
circuits, whereas DNA computers represent information in terms of the chemical units of
DNA. Computing with an ordinary computer is done with a program that instructs electrons
to travel on particular paths; with a DNA computer, computation requires synthesizing
particular sequences of DNA and letting them react in a test tube or on a glass plate. In a
scheme devised by Richard Lipton, the logical command "and" is performed by separating
DNA strands according to their sequences, and the command "or" is done by pouring together
DNA solutions containing specific sequences, merging.

By forcing DNA molecules to generate different chemical states, which can then be
examined to determine an answer to a problem by combination of molecules into strands or
the separation of strands, the answer is obtained.

14
 Most of the possible answers are incorrect, but one or a few may be correct, and the
computer's task is to check each of them and remove the incorrect ones using restrictive
enzymes. The DNA computer does that by subjecting all of the strands simultaneously to a
series of chemical reactions that mimic the mathematical computations an electronic computer
would perform on each possible answer. When the chemical reactions are complete,
researchers analyze the strands to find the answer -- for instance, by locating the longest or the
shortest strand and decoding it to determine what answer it represents.
Computers based on molecules like DNA will not have a vonNeumann architecture,
but instead function best in parallel processing applications. They are considered promising for
problems that can have multiple computations going on at the same time. Say for instance, all
branches of a search tree could be searched at once in a molecular system while vonNeumann
systems must explore each possible path in some sequence.
Information is stored in DNA as CG or AT base pairs with maximum information
density of 2bits per DNA base location. Information on a solid surface is
stored in a NON-ADDRESSED array of DNA words(W) of a fixed length (16 mers). DNA
Words are linked together to form large combinatorial sets of molecules.
DNA computers are massively parallel, while electronic computers would require
additional hardware, DNA computers just need more DNA. This could make the DNA
computer more efficient, as well as more easily programmable.
5.APPLICATIONS
DNA2DNA Applications
Another area of DNA computation exists where conventional computers clearly have
no current capacity to compete is the concept of DNA2DNA computations as suggested and
identified as a potential killer app. DNA2DNA computations involve the use of DNA
computers to perform operations on unknown pieces of DNA without having to sequence
them first. This is achieved by re-coding and amplifying unknown strands into a redundant
form so that they can be operated on according to techniques similar to those used in the
sticker model of DNA computation. Many of the errors inherent in other models of DNA
computing can hopefully be ignored in DNA2DNA computing because there will be such a
high number of original strands available for operations.

The potential applications of re-coding natural DNA into a computable form are
many:
• DNA sequencing;
• DNA fingerprinting;
• DNA mutation detection or population screening;
• Other fundamental operations on DNA.

In the case of DNA mutation detection, the strand being operated on would already
be partially known and therefore fewer steps would need to be taken to re-code the DNA
into a redundant form applicable for computational form.

There are other models of DNA computation that suggest that DNA might be used to
detect and evaluate other chemical and biochemical substances. It is suggested that nucleic
acid structures, could play an important role in molecular computation. Various shapes of
folded nucleic acid can be used to detect the presence of drugs, proteins, or other molecules.

Engineered riboenzymes could be used as operators to affect rewrite rules and to

detect the presence of such non-nucleic acid molecules. Using these structures and operators
to sense levels of substances, it would then be possible to compute an output readable using
15
proposed biosensors that detect fluorescence or polarization. These biosensors could
potentially allow communication between molecular sensory computers and conventional
electronic computers.

Implications to Biology, Chemistry, and Medicine

While the development of DNA computational methods may have many directly
applicable applications, the biggest contribution of research in this area may be much more
fundamental and will likely fuel many indirect benefits. In many papers, it is stressed that high
levels of collaboration between academic disciplines will be essential to affect progress in DNA
computing. Such collaboration may very well lead to the development of a DNA computer
with practical advantages over a conventional computer but has an even greater likelihood of
contributing to an increased understanding of DNA and other biological mechanisms. The
need for additional precision could affect progress in biomolecular techniques by placing
demands on biochemists and their tools that might not otherwise be considered.

A particular area within the natural and applied sciences that may benefit from
advances in - DNA computation is combinatorial chemistry. Combinatorial chemistry involves
the construction of enzymes, sequences of RNA, and other molecules, for use in biomolecular
engineering or medicine. The combinatorial chemistry involves generating large sets of random
RNA sequences and searches for molecules with the desired properties. Advances in either
area could easily benefit the other field or even pave a way to combining the two fields,
producing both products and related computational results in parallel.
Several papers also extend the use of biomolecular computing into applications in the
emerging science of nanotechnology, specifically nano-fabrication, making use of both the
small scale computational abilities of DNA and the manufacturing abilities of RNA. Since
both fields are still very embryonic, the practical or even experimental implementation of this
use is still highly speculative but promising.
Applying the techniques of DNA2DNA computing could result in improved laboratory
interfaces capable of performing computations prior to input into conventional computers and
may lead to improved methods of sequencing DNA by motivating the use of magnetic beads,
optical scanners, and other emerging techniques that may allow DNA to be read directly into
an electronic interface.

DNA MICROARRAY

16
 Figure 5.1
DNA microarray, or DNA chips are fabricated by high-speed robotics, generally on
glass but sometimes on nylon substrates, for which probes* with known identity are used to
determine complementary binding, thus allowing massively parallel gene expression and gene
discovery studies. An experiment with a single DNA chip can provide researchers information
on thousands of genes simultaneously - a dramatic increase in throughout.

There are two major application forms for the DNA microarray technology: 1)
Identification of sequence (gene / gene mutation); and 2) Determination of expression level
(abundance) of genes.

6.Efficiency :
In both the solid-surface glass-plate approach and the test tube approach, each
DNA strand represents one possible answer to the problem that the computer is trying to
solve. The strands have been synthesized by combining the building blocks of DNA, called
nucleotides, with one another, using techniques developed for biotechnology. The set of DNA
strands is manufactured so that all conceivable answers are included. Because a set of strands
is tailored to a specific problem, a new set would have to be made for each new problem.

Most electronic computers operate linearly--they manipulate one block of data

after another--biochemical reactions are highly in parallel: a single step of biochemical
operations can be set up so that it affects trillions of DNA strands. While a DNA computer
takes much longer than a normal computer to perform each individual calculation, it performs
an enourmous number of operations at a time and requires less energy and space than normal
computers. 1000 litres of water could contain DNA with more memory than all the computers
ever made, and a pound of DNA would have more computing power than all the computers
ever made.

The Restricted model of DNA computing in test tubes is simplified to:

Separate : isolate a subset of DNA from a sample.
Merge : pour two test tubes into one to perform union.
Detect : Confirm presence/absence of DNA in a given test tube Despite these
restrictions, this model can still solve Hamiltonian Path problems.

Error control can also be achieved mainly through logical operations, such as
running all DNA samples showing positive results a second time to reduce false positives.
Some molecular proposals, such as using DNA with a peptide back bone for stability, have
also been recommended.

17
7. ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
ADVANTAGES
There are several advantages to using DNA instead of silicon:
• Perform millions of operations simultaneously;
• Generate a complete set of potential solutions;
• Conduct large parallel searches; and
• Efficiently handle massive amounts of working memory.
• As long as there are cellular organisms, there will always be a supply of DNA.
• The large supply of DNA makes it a cheap resource.
• Unlike the toxic materials used to make traditional microprocessors, DNA
biochips can be made cleanly.
• DNA computers are many times smaller than today's computers.

Storage and Associative Memory

DNA might also be used to mirror, and even improve upon, the associative
capabilities of the human brain. A content addressable memory occurs when a data entry
can be directly retrieved from storage by entering an input that most closely resembles it
over other entries in memory. This input may be very incomplete, with a number of
wildcards, and in an associative memory might even contain bits that do not actually occur
within the closest match. This contrasts with a conventional computer memory, where the
specific address of a word must be known to retrieve it. The use of this technique would
replicate what is thought by many to be a key factor in human intelligence.

Baum has further speculated that a memory could be constructed where only portions
of the data are content addressable and associative, with other information on an object
compactly stored in addresses relative to the associative portion of the entry. To save on
operating costs and reduce error frequency, this portion of the memory could be kept in
double stranded form.

DISADVANTAGES
These models also have some of the following drawbacks:

• Each stage of parallel operations requires time measured in hours or days, with
extensive human or mechanical intervention between steps.

18
 • Generating solution sets, even for some relatively simple problems, may require
impractically large amounts of memory.
• Many empirical uncertainties, including those involving: actual error rates, the
generation of optimal encoding techniques, and the ability to perform necessary bio-
operations conveniently in vitro or in vivo.

8. FUTURE
DNA computing is -few years old (November 11, 1994), and for this reason, it is too
early for either great optimism of great pessimism. Early computers such as ENIAC filled
entire rooms, and had to be programmed by punch cards. Since that time, computers have
since become much smaller and easier to use. DNA computers will become more common for
solving very complex problems; Just as DNA cloning and sequencing were once manual tasks,
DNA computers will also become automated.

In addition to the direct benefits of using DNA computers for performing complex
computations, some of the operations of DNA computers already have, and perceivably more
will be used in molecular and biochemical research.

DNA's Role in Computer Science

The study of DNA as both a natural storage medium, and as a tool of computation,
could shed new light on many areas of computer science. Despite the high error rates
encountered in DNA computing, in nature DNA has little understood but resilient mechanisms
for maintaining data integrity. By studying genetic code for these properties, new principles of
error correction may be discovered, having, use within conventional electronic computation in
addition to the new biomolecular paradigms.

With the advent of DNA computational paradigms, especially those directed towards
improved methods of solving NP-hard problems, will come an increased understanding about
the limitations of computation. DNA based computers may postpone certain expected
thermodynamic obstacles to computation as well as exploring the limitations of Turing
machines and questioning theories of computation based on electronic and mechanical models.

Developments in parallel Processing algorithms to take advantage of the massive

parallelism of "classic" DNA based computation may serve as a foundation for future
developments in other parallel processing architectures using more conventional electronic
computers

DNA based computing may also be able to contribute to other unconventional areas of
computation. Through the use of its massive parallelism and potentially non-deterministic
mechanisms, DNA based models of computation might be useful for simulating or modeling
other emerging computational paradigms, such as quantum computing, which may not be
feasible until much later. As well, the trials and tribulations experienced by DNA computing
researchers may very well be related to the future obstacles expected to face other
revolutionary ideas within computer science and information systems.

Future Outlook
19
 With so many different methods and models emerging from the current research, DNA
computing can be more accurately described as a collection of new computing paradigms
rather than a single focus. Each of these different paradigms within biomolecular computing
can be associated with different potential applications that may prove to place them at an
advantage over conventional methods. Many of these models share certain features that lend
them to categorization by these potential advantages. However, there exist enough similarities
and congruencies that hybrid models will be possible, and that advances made in both "classic"
and "natural" areas of DNA computing will be mutually beneficial to both areas of research.
Advancements in DNA computing may also serve to enhance understanding of both the
natural and computer sciences. For these reasons, and due to the many areas dependent on
each of computer science, mathematics, natural science, and engineering, continued
interdisciplinary collaboration is very important to any future progress in all areas of this new
field.

A "killer app" is yet to be found for DNA computation, but might exist outside the bulk
of current research, in the domain of DNA2DNA applications and other more natural models
and applications of manipulated DNA. This direction is particularly interesting because it is an
area in which DNA based solutions are not only an improvement over existing techniques, but
may prove to be the only feasible way of directly solving such problems that involve the direct
interaction with biological matter.

On the "classical" front, problem specific computers may prove to be the first practical
use of DNA computation for several reasons. First, a problem specific computer will be easier
to design and implement, with less need for functional complexity and flexibility. Secondly,
DNA computing may prove to be entirely inefficient for a wide range of problems, and
directing efforts on universal models may be diverting energy away from its true calling.
Thirdly, the types of hard computational problems that DNA based computers may be able to
effectively solve are of sufficient economic importance that a dedicated processor would be
financially reasonable. As well, these problems will be likely to require extensive time they
would preclude the need for a more versatile and interactive system that may be able to be
implemented with a universal computing machine.

Even if the current difficulties found in translating theoretical DNA computing models
into real life are never sufficiently overcome, there is still potential for other areas of
development. Future applications might make use of the error rates and instability of DNA
based computation methods as a means of simulating and predicting the emergent behavior of
complex systems. This could pertain to weather forecasting, economics, and lead to more a
scientific analysis of- social science and the humanities. Such a system might rely on inducing
increased error rates and mutation through exposure to radiation and deliberately inefficient
encoding schemes. Similarly, methods of DNA computing might serve as the most obvious
medium for use of evolutionary programming for applications in design or expert systems.
DNA computing might also serve as a medium to implement a true fuzzy logic system.

20
9.CONCLUSION:
DNA computers will become more common for solving very complex
problems; Just as DNA cloning and sequencing were once manual tasks, DNA computers will
also become automatedes. Studying DNA computers may also lead us to a better future
enhancement.

With so many possible advantages over conventional techniques, DNA computing has
great potential for practical use. Future work in this field should begin to incorporate cost-
benefit analysis so that comparisons can be more appropriately made with existing techniques
and so that increased funding can be obtained for this research that has the potential to benefit
many circles of science and Industry.

21