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Numericalmethodsfortransientproblems
Transientproblemsofsolidmechanicsintheirdiscretizedformareusuallydescribedbyasystemofordinarysecondorderdifferential
equations.Thespatialdomainisusuallydiscretizedbyfiniteelements,bywhichthepartialdifferentialequationsofcontinuainspaceand
timevariablesarereplacedbyasystemofordinarydifferentialequationsintime.Thissystemisthendiscretizedintimeusingvarioustime
integrationmethods.
Theaimofcomputationalproceduresusedforthesolutionoftransientproblemsistosatisfytheequationofmotion,notcontinually,butat
discretetimeintervalsonly.Itisassumedthatintheconsideredtimespan 0,tmax allthediscretizedquantitiesattimes0, t,2 t,3
t,...,tareknown,whilethequantitiesattimest+
constantthroughouttheintegrationprocess.
t,...,tmaxaretobefound.Thequantity
t,beingthetimestep,neednotnecessarilybe
Timeintegrationmethodscanbebroadlycharacterizedasexplicitorimplicit.
Explicittimeintegrationalgorithms
Explicitformulationsfollowfromtheequationsofmotionwrittenattimet.Correspondingquantitiesaredenotedwithaleftsuperscriptas
intheequationofmotionwrittenintheform
t =t
.Theresidualforce
=
isthedifferenceofexternaland
internalforces.
Thevectorofinternalforcescanalternativelybewrittenast
=t
t +t
t where
,t
andt
arethemass,viscous
doesnotchangewithtime.
Aclassicalrepresentativeoftheexplicittimeintegrationalgorithmisthecentraldifferencescheme.
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Ifthetransientproblemislinear,thenthestiffnessanddampingmatricesareconstantaswell.Substitutingthecentraldifference
approximationsforvelocitiesandaccelerations
(5.55)
intotheequationsofmotionwrittenattimetwegetasystemofalgebraicequationsfromwhichwecansolvefordisplacementsattimet+
tnamely
t+ t =
wheretheeffectivequantitiesare
(5.56)
Thelasttermintheexpressionfortheeffectiveforceindicatesthattheprocessisnotselfstarting.ApossibleMatlabimplementationisas
follows.
function[disn,veln,accn]=...VTRcedif(dis,diss,vel,acc,xm,xmt,xk,xc,p,h)
a0=1/(h*h)a1=1/(2*h)a2=2*a0a3=1/a2
r=p(xka2*xm)*dis(a0*xma1*xc)*dissdisn=xmt
accn=a0*(diss2*dis+disn)veln=a1*(diss+disn)
Theprocessiseffectiveifthemassmatrixismadediagonalbyasuitablelumpingprocess.Thedampingmatrixneedstobediagonalas
well.Theinversionof
isthentrivialandinsteadofamatrixequationwesimplyhavethesetofindividualequationsforeachdegree
offreedomandnomatrixsolverisneeded.
Stabilityanalysisofexplicitandimplicitschemeshasbeenstudiedforalongtime.Park[#!Park1977!#]hasinvestigatedstabilitylimitsand
stabilityregionsforbothlinearandnonlinearsystems.AcomprehensivesurveyshowingavarietyofapproachesispresentedbyHughesin
[#!Bely1986!#].Seealso[#!Bath1996!#].
Theexplicitmethodsareonlyconditionallystablethestabilitylimitisapproximatelyequaltothetimeforelasticwavestotransversethe
smallestelement.Thecriticaltimestepsecuringthestabilityofthecentraldifferencemethodforalinearundampedsystemis(see
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[#!Park1977!#])
Numericalmethodsfortransientproblems
tcr=2/
eigenvalueproblem
beingthemaximumeigenfrequency,relatedtothemaximumeigenvalue
by
ofthegeneralized
.Practicalcalculationsshowthattheresultisalsoapplicabletononlinearcases,since
eachtimestepinnonlinearresponsecanroughlybeconsideredasalinearincrementofthewholesolution.
Findingthemaximumeigenvalueofthesystemisanexpensivetask,especiallyinnonlinearcaseswhereeigenvaluesofthesystemchange
withtimeandeconomyconsiderationsrequireustochangethetimestepasthesolutionevolves.Ithasbeenproved,however,thatthe
maximumeigenvalueofthesystemisboundedbythemaximumeigenvalueofalltheelementsassembledintheconsideredsystem(see
[#!Frie1971!#])whichsimplifiestheproblemconsiderablyandpermitstomarchintimeefficiently,usingavariabletimestep.Thisallows,
forexample,decreasingthevalueofthetimestepifthesystemstiffens.Theproperchoiceoftimestepforexplicitmethodswasuntil
recentlyamatterofajudiciousengineeringjudgment.Today,manyfiniteelementtransientcodesdonotrelyontheuserandcalculatethe
correcttimestepautomatically.
Explicittimeintegrationmethodsareemployedmostlyforthesolutionofnonlinearproblems,sinceimplementingcomplexphysical
phenomenaandconstitutiveequationsisthenrelativelyeasy.Thestiffnessmatrixneednotbeassembledsothatnomatrixsolveris
required,whichsavescomputerstorageandtime.Themaindisadvantageistheconditionalstability,whichclearlymanifestsitselfinlinear
problems,wherethesolutionquicklyblowsupifthetimestepislargerthanthecriticalone.Innonlinearproblemsresultscalculatedwitha
'wrong'stepcouldcontainasignificanterrorandmaynotshowimmediateinstability.
Implicittimeintegrationalgorithms
Theimplicitformulationsstemfromequationsofmotionwrittenattimet+ tunknownquantitiesareimplicitlyembeddedinthe
formulationandthesystemofalgebraicequationsmustbesolvedto'free'them.Instructuraldynamicproblemsimplicitintegrationschemes
giveacceptablesolutionswithtimestepsusuallyoneortwoordersofmagnitudelargerthanthestabilitylimitofexplicitmethods.
PerhapsthemostfrequentlyusedimplicitmethodsbelongtotheNewmarkfamily.TheNewmarkintegrationschemeisbaseduponan
extensionofthelinearaccelerationmethod,inwhichitisassumedthattheaccelerationsvarylinearlywithinatimestep.
TheNewmarkmethodconsistsofthefollowingequations[#!Newm1959!#]
t+ t
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+t+ t
t+ t
+t+ t
t+ t
=t+ t
(5.57)
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(5.58)
=1/4and
and
determinethestability
=1/2thussecuringtheunconditionalstabilityof
themethod,whichmeansthatthesolution,foranysetofinitialconditions,doesnotgrowwithoutboundregardlessofthetimestep.
Unconditionalstabilityitselfdoesnotsecureaccurateandphysicallysoundresults,however.See[#!Bely1986!#],[#!Hugh1987!#],
[#!Subb1989!#].
Withthevaluesof
and
mentionedabove,themethodissometimesreferredtoastheconstantaverageaccelerationversionofthe
Newmarkmethod,andiswidelyusedforstructuraldynamicproblems.Inthiscasethemethodconservesenergy.
Forlinearproblemsthemass,dampingandstiffnessmatricesareconstantandthemethodleadstotherepeatedsolutionofthesystemof
linearalgebraicequationsateachtimestepgivingthedisplacementsattimet+
tbysolvingthesystem,
t+ t =
wherethe
effectivequantitiesare
(5.59)
where
(5.60)
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Thelasttwoparametersareusedforcalculatingoftheaccelerationsandvelocitiesattimet+
t
(5.61)
AnefficientimplementationoftheNewmarkmethodsforlinearproblemsrequiresthatdirectmethods(e.g.Gausselimination)beusedfor
thesolutionofthesystemofalgebraicequations.Theeffectivestiffnessmatrixispositivedefinite,whichallowsproceedingwithouta
searchforthemaximumpivot.Furthermorethematrixisconstantandthuscanbefactorizedonlyonce,beforetheactualtimemarching,
andateachsteponlyfactorizationoftherighthandsideandbackwardsubstitutioniscarriedout.ThismakesNewmarkmethodvery
efficientthetreatmentofaproblemwithaconsistentmassmatrixrequiresevenlessfloatingpointoperationsthanthatusingthecentral
differencemethod.
ApossibleMatlabimplementationisasfollows.
function[disn,veln,accn]=...VTRnewmd(beta,gama,dis,vel,acc,xm,xd,xk,p,h)a1=1/(beta*h*h)a2=1/(beta*h)a3=1/(2*beta)1a4=(1gama)*ha5=gama*h
a1d=gama/(beta*h)a2d=gama/beta1a3d=0.5*h*(gama/beta2)r=p+...xm*(a1*dis+a2*vel+a3*acc)+xd*(a1d*dis+a2d*vel+a3d*acc)disn=xkaccn=a1*(disn
dis)a2*vela3*accveln=vel+a4*acc+a5*accn
ExamplesofusingcentraldifferenceandtheNewmarkmethodsarein5.10.2.
If
and
process.With
parameters
themethodisstillunconditionallystablebutapositivealgorithmicdampingisintroducedintothe
< anegativedampingisintroduced,whicheventuallyleadstoanunboundedresponse.Withdifferentvaluesof
,theNewmarkschemedescribesawholeseriesoftimeintegrationmethods,whicharesometimescalledtheNewmark
family.Forexampleif
= and
and
= ,itisawellknownFoxGoodwinformula,whichisimplicitandconditionallystable,elseif
=0,thentheNewmark'smethodbecomesacentraldifferencemethod,whichisconditionallystableandexplicit.
ThealgorithmicdampingintroducedintotheNewmarkmethod,bysettingtheparameter
+
< andcalculatingtheotherparameteras =
isfrequentlyusedinpracticalcomputations,sinceitfiltersoutthehighfrequencycomponentsofthemechanicalsystem's
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response.Thisdampingisgenerallyviewedasdesirable,sincethehighfrequencycomponentsareveryoftenmereartifactsoffiniteelement
modelling,theyhavenophysicalmeaningandareconsequencesofthediscretenatureofthefiniteelementmodelanditsdispersive
properties.See[#!Okro1993!#].
Itisknownthatalgorithmicdampingadverselyinfluencesthelowermodesinthesolution.Tocompensateforthenegativeinfluenceof
algorithmicdampingonthelowermodesbehaviourHilber[#!Hilb1978!#],HilberandHughes[#!Hilb1977!#]modifiedNewmarkmethod
withtheintentionofensuringadequatedissipationinthehighermodesandatthesametimeguaranteeingthatthelowermodesarenot
affectedtoostrongly.TheresultsofdetailednumericaltestingofHilberandclassicalNewmarkintegrationmethodsappearin
[#!Okro1985!#].
AcomprehensivesurveyofthealgorithmizationsofNewmarkmethodsandalsoofotherimplicitintegrationmethodsispresentedin
[#!Subb1989!#].
Matlaboffersveryefficienttoolsfortheintegrationofordinarydifferentialequationsofthefirstorder.TheyarebasedonRungeKutta
methods(see[#!Wilk1965!#])ofdifferentorderswithanautomaticchoiceofthetimestep.UseMatlabcommands
helpODEFILEandODE23,ODE45,ODE113,ODE15S,ODE23S,ODE23T,ODE23TBoptionshandling:ODESET,ODEGEToutputfunctions:ODEPLOT,
ODEPHAS2,ODEPHAS3,ODEPRINTodefileexamples:ORBITODE,ORBT2ODE,RIGIDODE,VDPODE
formoredetails.
AnexampleshowingapossibleuseofMatlabbuildinprocedurenamedode45forthesolutionoftheforcedvibrationofanonedegreeof
freedomsystemwithprescribedinitialconditionsisprovidedbytheprogramVTRtode.mandfunctionalprocedurevtronedofnum.m.
Usingodeproceduresonehastorewriteeachdifferentialequationofthesecondorderintoasystemoftwodifferentialequationsofthefirst
order.Inourcasewecouldproceedasfollows
m +b +kx=Asin(
Defining
t).
(5.62)
=k/m,B=b/mandA0=A/mwehave
+B +
x=A0sin(
t).
(5.63)
Introducinganewvariablez= wegettwofirstorderdifferentialequationsinsteadof(5.65),namely
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Renamingvariablessothattheyforma'vector'by
wefinallyhave
cleary0=[10]tspan=[02.5]m=400k=60000b=1000B=b/mOMEGA2=k/momega=10*sqrt(OMEGA2)A0=1000
[t,y]=ode45('vtronedofnum',tspan,y0,[],B,OMEGA2,A0,omega)figure(1)subplot(2,1,1)plot(t,y(:,1),'k','linewidth',2)title('displacement')gridsubplot(2,1,2)
plot(t,y(:,2),'k','linewidth',2)title('velocity')grid[omegasqrt(OMEGA2)]printVTRtodedepsprintVTRtodedmeta
functiondy=vtronedofnum(t,y,flag,B,OMEGA2,A0,omega)
dy=zeros(2,1)dy(1)=y(2)dy(2)=B*y(2)OMEGA2*y(1)+A0*sin(omega*t)
TheoutputofVTRtodeisinFig.5.15
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Figure:Particledisplacementandvelocityoftheonedegreeoffreedomsystemnumerical
solutionbyode45procedure
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