CHAPTER 4

COLUMNS:
COMBINED AXIAL LOAD & BENDING
Abrham E.
Sophonyas A.
1

4.0 Introduction
A column is a vertical structural member supporting
axial compressive loads, with or without moments.
The cross-sectional dimensions of a column are
generally considerably less than its height.
Columns support vertical loads from floors and roof and
transmit these loads to the foundations.
Columns may be classified based on the following
criteria:
a) On the basis of geometry; rectangular, square, circular,
L-shaped, T-shaped, etc. depending on the structural
or architectural requirements
b) On the basis of composition; composite columns, infilled columns, etc.
2

c) On the basis of lateral reinforcement; tied columns,

spiral columns.
d) On the basis of manner by which lateral stability is
provided to the structure as a whole; braced columns,
un-braced columns.
e) On the basis of sensitivity to second order effect due
to lateral displacements; sway columns, non-sway
columns.
f) On the basis of degree of slenderness; short column,
slender column.
g) On the basis of loading: axially loaded column,
columns under uni-axial bending, columns under
biaxial bending.
3

4.0 Introduction

4.0 Introduction
The more general terms compression members and
members subjected to combined axial loads & bending
are used to refer to columns, walls, and members in
concrete trusses and frames.
These may be vertical, inclined, or horizontal.
A column is a special case of a compression member
that is vertical.
Although the theory developed in this chapter applies to
columns in seismic regions, such columns require
special detailing to resist the shear forces and repeated
cyclic loading from the EQ.
In seismic regions the ties are heavier & more closely
spaced.
5

4.1 Tied and Spiral Columns

Most of the columns in buildings in nonseismic regions
are tied columns.
Occasionally, when high strength and/or ductility are
required, the bars are placed in a circle, and the ties
are replaced by a bar bent into a helix or a spiral, with a
pitch from 35 to 85 mm.
Such a column, is called a spiral column. (Fig. 11-3)
The spiral acts to restrain the lateral expansion of the
column core under axial loads causing crushing and, in
doing so, delays the failure of the core, making the
column more ductile.
6

4.1 Tied and Spiral Columns

4.1 Tied and Spiral Columns

4.1.1 Behavior of Tied and Spiral Columns
Fig. 11-4a shows a portion of the core of a spiral column
enclosed by one and a half turns of a spiral.
Under a compressive load, the concrete in this column
shortens longitudinally under the stress f1 and so, to
satisfy the Poissons ratio, it expands laterally.
This lateral expansion is especially pronounced at
stresses in excess of 70% of the cylinder strength.
In spiral column, the lateral expansion of the concrete
inside the spiral (the core) is restrained by the spiral.
These stresses the spiral in tension (see fig 11.14).
8

4.1 Tied and Spiral Columns

f1
fsp
f2

fsp

f2

fsp

Dc
f1

fsp

f1
f2
f2

f2

f2

Fig 11-4 Triaxial stresses

in core of spiral column

f2

f2
f1
9

4.1 Tied and Spiral Columns

For equilibrium the concrete is subjected to lateral
compressive stresses, f2.
An element taken out of the core (see fig) is subjected
to triaxial compression which increases the strength of
concrete: f1 = fc+4.1f2.
In a tied column in a non-seismic region, the ties are
spaced roughly the width of the column apart and thus
provide relatively little lateral restraint to the core.
Hence, normal ties have little effect on the strength of
the core in a tied column.

10

4.1 Tied and Spiral Columns

They do, however, act to reduce the unsupported length
of the longitudinal bars, thus reducing the danger of
buckling of those bars as the bar stresses approach
yield.
Fig 11-5 presents load-deflection diagrams for a tied
column and a spiral column subjected to axial loads.
The initial parts of these diagrams are similar.
As the maximum load is reached, vertical cracks and
crushing develop in the concrete shell outside the ties
or spiral, and this concrete spalls off.

11

4.1 Tied and Spiral Columns

When this occurs in a tied column, the capacity of the
core that remains is less than the load on the column.
The concrete core is crushed, and the reinforcements
buckle outward b/n ties.
This occurs suddenly, w/o warning, in a brittle manner.
When the shell spalls off a spiral column, the column
does not fail immediately because the strength of the
cores has been enhanced by the triaxial stresses.
As a result, the column can undergo large deformations,
eventually reaching a 2nd maximum load, when the
spirals yield and the column finally collapses.
12

4.1 Tied and Spiral Columns

Fig 11-5

13

4.1 Tied and Spiral Columns

Such a failure is much more ductile and gives warning
of impending failure, along with possible load
redistribution to other members
Fig 11-6 and 11-7 show tied and spiral columns,
respectively, after an EQ. Both columns are in the same
building and have undergone the same deformations.
The tied column has failed completely, while the spiral
column, although badly damaged, is still supporting a
load.
The very minimal ties in Fig 11-6 were inadequate to
confine the core concrete.
Had the column been detailed according to ACI Section
21.4, the column would have performed much better.
14

4.1 Tied and Spiral Columns

15

4.1 Tied and Spiral Columns

16

Sway Frames vs. Nonsway Frames

A nonsway (braced) frame is one in which the lateral
stability of the structure as a whole is provided by walls,
bracings, or buttresses, rigid enough to resist all lateral
forces in the direction under consideration.

A sway (unbraced) frame is one that depends on

moments in the columns to resist lateral loads and
lateral deflections. The applied lateral-load moment, Vl,
and the moment due to the vertical loads, P shall be
equilibrated by the sum of the moments at the top and
bottom of all the columns as shown in the figure below.
17

Sway Frames vs. Nonsway Frames

18

Sway Frames vs. Nonsway Frames

Fig. Non-sway Frame / Braced

columns

Fig. Sway Frame/ Un-braced

columns
19

Sway Frames vs. Nonsway Frames

For design purpose, a given story in a frame can
be considered non-sway if horizontal
displacements do not significantly reduce the
vertical load carrying capacity of the structure.
In other words, a frame can be non-sway if the
P- moments due to lateral deflections are small
compared with the first order moments due to
lateral loads.
In sway frames, it is not possible to consider
columns independently as all columns in that
frame deflect laterally by the same amount.
20

Slender Columns vs. Short Columns

Columns are broadly categorized in to two as short
and slender columns.
Short columns are columns for which the strength is
governed by the strength of the materials and the
geometry of the cross section.
In short columns, Second-order effects are negligible.
In these cases, it is not necessary to consider
slenderness effects and compression members can
be designed based on forces determined from firstorder analyses.
21

Slender Columns vs. Short Columns

When the unsupported length of the column is long,
lateral deflections shall be so high that the moments
shall increase and weaken the column.
Such a column, whose axial load carrying capacity is
significantly reduced by moments resulting from
lateral deflections of the column, is referred to as a
slender column or sometimes as a long column.
Significant reduction, according to ACI, has been
taken to be any value greater than 5%.

22

Slender Columns vs. Short Columns

When slenderness effects cannot be neglected, the
design of compression members, restraining beams
and other supporting members shall be based on the
factored forces and moments from a second-order
analysis.

Fig. Forces in slender column

23

4.2 Strength of Axially Loaded Columns

When a symmetrical column is subjected to a
concentric axial load, P, longitudinal strains , develop
uniformly across the section as shown in Fig 11-8a.
Because the steel & concrete are bonded together, the
strains in the concrete & steel are equal.
For any given strain, it is possible to compute the
stresses in the concrete & steel using the stress-strain
curves for the two materials.
Failure occurs when Po reaches a
maximum:
Po = fcd(Ag As,tot ) + fydAs,tot
24

4.3 Interaction Diagrams

Almost all compression members in concrete structures
are subjected to moments in addition to axial loads.
These may be due to misalignment of the load on the
column, as shown in Fig 11-9b, or may result from the
column resisting a portion of the unbalanced moments
at the ends of the beams supported by the columns (Fig
11-9c).
The distance e is referred to as the eccentricity of load.
These two cases are the same, because the eccentric
load can be replaced by an axial load P plus a moment
M=Pe about the centroid.
25

4.3 Interaction Diagrams

Fig. 11-9 Load and moment

on column.

26

4.3 Interaction Diagrams

The load P and moment M are calculated w.r.t. the
geometric centroidal axis because the moments and
forces obtained from structural analysis are referred to
this axis.
For an idealized homogeneous and elastic column with a
compressive strength, fcu, equal to its tensile strength,
ftu, failure would occur in compression when the
maximum stresses reached fcu, as given by:

+
= fcu

Dividing both sides by fcu gives:

+
=1
fcu fcu
27

4.3 Interaction Diagrams

The maximum axial load the column can support occurs
when M = 0 and is Pmax = fcuA.
Similarly, the maximum moment that can be supported
occurs when P = 0 and M is Mmax = fcuI/y.

Substituting Pmax and Mmax gives:

Pmax

Mmax

=1

This equation is known as an interaction equation,

because it shows the interaction of, or relationship
between, P and M at failure.
Points on the lines plotted in this figure represent
combinations of P and M corresponding to the
resistance of the section.
28

4.3 Interaction Diagrams

A point inside the diagram, such as
E, represents a combination of P
and M that will not cause failure

Combinations of P and M falling on

the line or outside the line, such as
point F, will equal or exceed the
resistance of the section and hence
Fig. 11-10 Interaction diagram for an
will cause failure
elastic column, |fcu| = |ftu|.

29

4.4 Interaction Diagrams for Reinforced

Concrete Columns
Since reinforced concrete is not elastic & has a tensile
strength that is lower than its compressive strength,
the general shape of the diagram resembles fig. 11.13
4.4.1 Strain Compatibility Solution
Interaction diagrams for columns are generally
computed by assuming a series of strain distributions
at the ULS, each corresponding to a particular point on
the interaction diagram, and computing the
corresponding values of P and M.
Once enough such points have been computed, the
results are summarized in an interaction diagram.
30

4.4 Interaction Diagrams for Reinforced

Concrete Columns
Assume strain distribution and select the location of the
neutral axis.
Compute the strain in each level of reinforcement from
the strain distribution.
Using this information, compute the size of the
compression stress block and the stress in each layer of
reinforcement.
Compute the forces in the concrete and the steel layers,
by multiplying the stresses by the areas on which they
act.
31

4.4 Interaction Diagrams for Reinforced

Concrete Columns
Finally, compute the axial force Pn by summing the
individual forces in the concrete and steel, and the
moment Mn by summing the moments of these forces
about the geometric centroid of the cross section.
These values of Pn and Mn represent one point on the
interaction diagram.
Other points on the interaction diagram can be
generated by selecting other values for the depth, c, to
the neutral axis from the extreme compression fiber.

32

4.4 Interaction Diagrams for Reinforced

Concrete Columns
B
=3.5o/oo

10o/oo
(3/7)h
A
10o/oo

=2.0o/oo

33

4.4 Interaction Diagrams for Reinforced

Concrete Columns
Uniform compression

Axial load resistance

Onset of cracking

Balanced failure

Moment resistance

Fig 11-13 Strain distributions

corresponding to points on
the interaction diagram
34

 In the actual design, interaction charts prepared for

uniaxial bending can be used. The procedure involves:
Assume a cross section, d and evaluate d/h to choose
appropriate chart
Compute:
Normal force ratio: = /
Moment ratios: = / 2
Enter the chart and pick (the mechanical steel ratio), if
the coordinate (, ) lies within the families of curves. If
the coordinate (, ) lies outside the chart, the cross
section is small and a new trail need to be made.
Compute , = /
Check Atot satisfies the maximum and minimum provisions
Determine the distribution of bars in accordance with the
charts requirement
35

36

4.4 Interaction Diagrams for Reinforced

Concrete Columns
Draw the interaction diagram for the column cross
section. Use C-30 concrete and S-460 steel.
Show a minimum of 6 points on the interaction
diagram corresponding to
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Pure axial compression

Balanced failure
Zero tension (Onset of cracking)
Pure flexure
A point b/n balanced failure and pure flexure
A point b/n pure axial compression and zero tension
37

4.4 Interaction Diagrams for Reinforced

Concrete Columns

38

4.4 Interaction Diagrams for Reinforced

Concrete Columns
Solution
1. Pure axial compression
s2

Cs2

Cc

s1

Cs1

= 2/oo
Cross section

Strain distribution Stress resultant

(ULS)
39

4.4 Interaction Diagrams for Reinforced

Concrete Columns
Contd
Pu = Cs2 + Cs1 + Cc = s2As2 + s1As1 + fcdbh
yd = fyd/Es = 400/200000 = 0.002
reinforcement has yielded
Pu = fydAs,tot/2 + fydAs,tot/2 + fcdbh = fydAs,tot + fcdbh
u = Pu / fcdbh = (fydAs,tot )/ (fcdbh)+ (fcdbh)/(fcdbh)
= fyd/fcd + 1 = + 1 ; where is called the
mechanical reinforcement ratio and equal to
= (6800/(400500))(400/13.6) = 1.0
u = 1 + 1 = 2.0
NB: u= Relative design axial force (Pu/ (fcdAc))

40

4.4 Interaction Diagrams for Reinforced

Concrete Columns

41

4.4 Interaction Diagrams for Reinforced

Concrete Columns

2. Balanced failure

cm=3.5 /oo
X

Cross section

s2
yd = 2/oo

Cs2
Cc

cd

Ts1

strain distribution stress resultant

(ULS)

x/3.5 = d/(3.5+2)
x = (400/5.5)3.5 = 254.5454mm
s2/(254.54-100)=3.5/254.54
s2 = 2.125 %0 > 2 %0 reinforcement has yielded
Cs2 = Ts1 = 3400400 = 1360000N
42

4.4 Interaction Diagrams for Reinforced

Concrete Columns
Contd
cm > o and NA is within the section
c = kx(3cm 2)/3cm
= (254.54/400)(33.5-2)/(33.5) = 0.5151
Cc = cfcdbd = 0.5113.6400400 = 1120967.7 N
c = kx(cm(3cm-4)+2)/(2cm(3cm-2))
= (254.54/400)(3.5(33.5-4)+2)/(23.5(33.5-2))
= 0.2647 cd = 0.2647400 = 105.882 mm
Mu = Cc(h/2- cd) + Cs2(h/2-h) + Ts1(h/2-h)
43

4.4 Interaction Diagrams for Reinforced

Concrete Columns

Contd
= 1120969.7(250-105.882) + 1360000(250-100) +
1360000(250-100)
= 569551912.2 Nmm
Pu= Cc+Ts1+Cs2 = Cc = 1120969.7
u = P/(fcdbh)
= 1120969.7/(13.6400500)
= 0.412
u = Mu/(fcdbh2) = 569551912.2/(13.64005002)
= 0.419
NB: u = Mu/(fcdbh2) is called relative moment

44

4.4 Interaction Diagrams for Reinforced

Concrete Columns
6. A point b/n pure axial compression and zero
tension
cm=3.0 /oo
(3/7)h
1.0
b
C
cb

e
a
= 2/oo

Cs2
Cc
Cs1

Cross Section Strain Distribution Stress Resultant

(ULS)
45

4.4 Interaction Diagrams for Reinforced

Concrete Columns

Choose cm = 3 %o (strain profile passes also through C)

Strain in the bottom concrete fiber cb from:
a = ((4/7)/(3/7))1 = 4/3 = 1.33
cb = 2 -1.33 = 0.667 %o
(entire cross section under compression as assumed)
Determine strain in reinforcement from:
b/114.286 = 1/214.286 b = 0.533 %o
s2 = 2 + 0.533 = 2.533 %o > 2 %o reinforcement has
yielded and
from e/185.714 = 1.33/285.714 e = 0.867 %o
s1 = 2-0.867 = 1.133 %o < 2 %o reinforcement has
not yielded
46

4.4 Interaction Diagrams for Reinforced

Concrete Columns

Contd
cm > o and NA outside of the section
c = (1/189)(125+64cm-16cm2)
= (1/189)(125+64(3)-16(3)2) = 0.915344
Cc = cfcdbd = 0.91534413.6400400 = 1991788.4 N;
Cs2 = (As,tot/2)fyd = 3400400 = 1360000 N;
Cs1 = (As,tot/2)s1 = 3400(1.133/1000)200000
= 770666.67 N
c = 0.5-(40/7)(cm-2)2/(125+64cm-16cm2)
= 0.5-(40/7(3-2)2/(125+643-1632) = 0.467
cd = 0.467400 = 186.788 mm
47

4.4 Interaction Diagrams for Reinforced

Concrete Columns
Contd
Pu = Cc+Cs1+Cs2 = 4122455.1 N
Mu = 1991788.4(250-186.788)+1360000(250100)-770666.67(250-100) = 214304927.8 Nmm
u = Pu/(fcdbh) = 4122455.1/(13.6400500) =
1.516
u = Mu/(fcdbh2) = 214304927.8/(13.64005002)
= 0.1576
48

4.4 Interaction Diagrams for Reinforced

Concrete Columns
4. Pure flexure
Start with cm/s1 = 3.5 / / 5 / and repeat until
u 0.00
oo

cm=3.5 /oo

X
s1=5.0 /oo

oo

Cs2
Cc

cd

Ts1

Cross section strain distribution stress resultant

49

4.4 Interaction Diagrams for Reinforced

Concrete Columns
Contd
Use cm/s1 = 3.5 / / 6.227 /
kx= 3.5/(3.5+6.227)=0.359823 x=143.9293mm
s2 = ((x-100)/x)3.5 = 1.06825 /
Cs2=3400(1.06825/1000)200000=726410N
c = kx(3cm 2)/3cm
= (143.9293/400)(33.5-2)/(33.5) = 0.291285
Cc = cfcdbd = 0.29128513.6400400 = 633837.1N
Pu=Cc+Ts1+Cs2 = 633837.1-1360000+726410 = 247.1N
u = Pu/(fcdbh) = 247.1/(13.6400500) = 0.00
oo

oo

oo

50

4.4 Interaction Diagrams for Reinforced

Concrete Columns
c = kx(cm(3cm - 4) + 2)/(2cm(3cm - 2))
= (143.9293/400)(3.5(33.5-4)+2)/(23.5(33.5-2))
= 0.149674
cd = 0.149674400 = 59.8696 mm
Mu = Cc(h/2- cd) + Cs2(h/2-h) + Ts1(h/2-h)
= 633837.1(250-59.8696) + 726410(250-100) +
1360000(250-100)
= 433473111 Nmm
u = Mu/(fcdbh2)
= 433473111 /(13.6 400 5002) = 0.319
51

4.4 Interaction Diagrams for RC Columns

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

52

4.5 Biaxially Loaded Columns

All columns are (in a strict sense) to be treated as
being subject to axial compression combined with
biaxial bending, as the design must account for
possible eccentricities in loading (emin at least) with
respect to both major and minor principal axes of the
column section.
Uniaxial loading is an idealized approximation which
can be made when the e/D ratio with respect to one
of the two principal axes can be considered to be
negligible.
53

4.5 Biaxially Loaded Columns

Also, if the e/D ratios are negligible with respect to
both principal axes, conditions of axial loading may
be assumed, as a further approximation.
For a given cross section and reinforcing pattern, one
can draw an interaction diagram for axial load and
bending about either axis.
These interaction diagrams form the two edges of an
interaction surface for axial load and bending about
2 axes.

54

Interaction diagram for compression plus

bi-axial bending

55

4.5 Biaxially Loaded Columns

As shown in the figure above, the interaction diagram
involves a three-dimensional interaction surface for
axial load and bending about the two axes.
The calculation of each point on such a surface involves
a double iteration:
The strain gradient across the section is varied, and
The angle of the neutral axis is varied.

There are different methods for the design of Biaxially

loaded columns:

Strain compatibility method

The equivalent eccentricity method
Load contour method
Bresler reciprocal load method
56

4.5 Biaxially Loaded Columns

Biaxial interaction diagrams calculated and prepared as
load contours or P-M diagrams drawn on planes of
constant angles relating the magnitudes of the biaxial
moments are more suitable for design (but difficult to
derive).
Interaction diagrams are prepared as load contours for
biaxially loaded columns with different reinforcement
arrangement (4-corner reinforcement, 8-rebar
arrangement, uniformly distributed reinforcement on
2-edges, uniformly distributed reinforcement on 4edges and so on.
57

4.5 Biaxially Loaded Columns

The procedure for using interaction diagrams for
columns under biaxial bending involves:
Select cross section dimensions h and b and also h
and b
Calculate h/h and b/b and select suitable chart
Compute:
Normal force ratio: = /
Moment ratios: = / and
= /
58

4.5 Biaxially Loaded Columns

Select suitable chart which satisfy and h/h and b/b
ratio:
Enter the chart to obtain
Compute , = /
Check Atot satisfies the maximum and minimum
provisions
Determine the distribution of bars in accordance
with the charts requirement.

59

Fig. Sample
Interaction
diagram

60

Analysis of columns according to EBCS 2

(short and slender)
Classification of Frames
A frame may be classified as non-sway for a given
load case if the critical load ratio for that load case
satisfies the criterion:

0.1

Where: Nsd is the design value of the total vertical load

Ncr is its critical value for failure in a sway mode

 In Beam-and-column type plane frames in building

structures with beams connecting each column at each
story level may be classified as non-sway for a given
load case, when first-order theory is used, the
horizontal displacements in each story due to the
design loads (both horizontal & vertical), plus the initial
sway imperfection satisfy the following criteria.

0.1

Where: is the horizontal displacement at the top of the

story, relative to the bottom of the story
L is the story height
H is the total horizontal reaction at the bottom of the story
N is the total vertical reaction at the bottom of the story,

The displacement in the above equation shall

be determined using stiffness values for beams
and columns corresponding to the ultimate
limit state.
All frames including sway frames shall also be
checked for adequate resistance to failure in
non-sway modes.

Determination of story buckling Load Ncr

Unless more accurate methods are used, the buckling load
of a story may be assumed to be equal to that of the
substitute beam-column frame defined in Fig. and may be
determined as:
2
=
2
Where: EIe is the effective stiffness of the substitute column
designed using the equivalent reinforcement area.
Le is the effective length. It may be determined using the
stiffness properties of the gross concrete section for both
beams and columns of the substitute frame (see Fig. 4.4-1c )

 In lieu of a more accurate determination, the effective

stiffness of a column EIe may be taken as:
= 0.2 +
Where: Ec = 1100fcd
Es is the modulus of elasticity of steel
Ic, Is, are the moments of inertia of the concrete and
reinforcement sections, respectively, of the substitute
column, with respect to the centroid of the concrete
section (see Fig. 4.4-1c).

or alternatively

=
0.4
(1 )

Where: Mb is the balanced moment capacity of the

substitute column

1/rb is the curvature at balanced load & may be taken as

5
3
1
=
10

The equivalent reinforcement areas, As, tot, in the substitute

column to be used for calculating Is and Mb may be obtained
by designing the substitute column at each floor level to
carry the story design axial load and amplified sway moment
at the critical section.

Slenderness Ratio
Slenderness ratio, of a column is defined as the ratio
of the effective length lei to the radius of gyration.
NB: also provides a measure of the vulnerability to
failure of the column by elastic instability (buckling)

where: Le is the effective buckling length

i is the minimum radius of gyration.
The radius of gyration is equal to

Where: I is the second moment of area of the section,

A is cross sectional area

Limits of Slenderness
The slenderness ratio of concrete columns shall not
exceed 140.
Second order moment in a column can be ignored if:
25
For sway frames, the greater of:
15/
= /
For non-sway frames: 50

1
25
2

Where: M1 and M2 are the first-order end moments, M2

being always positive and greater in magnitude than M1,
and M1 being positive if member is bent in single curvature
and negative if bent in double curvature

Effective Length of Columns

Effective buckling length is the length between points
of inflection of columns and it is the length which is
effective against buckling.
The greater the effective length, the more likely the
column is to be buckle.
Le = kL
where k is the effective length factor (i.e., the ratio of
effective length to the unsupported length whose value
depends on the degrees of rotational and translation
restraints at the column ends.

For idealized boundary conditions:

 The rotational restraint at a column end in a building

frame is governed by the flexural stiffnesses of the
members framing into it, relative to the flexural
stiffness of the column itself.
Hence, it is possible to arrive at measures of the
degree of fixity at column ends, and thereby arrive at
a more realistic estimate of the effective length ratio of
a column than the estimates (for idealized boundary
conditions).
These involve use of alignment charts or approximate
equations.

 The alignment chart (Nomograph): for members

that are parts of a framework

 Approximate equations
The following approximate equations can be used
provided that the values of 1 and 2 dont exceed 10
(see EBCS 2).
Non-sway mode
+ 0.4
=
0.7

+ 0.8
In Sway mode

7.5+4 1 +2 +1.61 2
7.5+1 +2

Or Conservatively,

1.15

1 + 0.8 1.15

 Where 1 and 2 are as defined above and m is

defined as:
1 + 2
=
2
Note that: for flats slab construction, an equivalent
beam shall be taken as having the width and
thickness of the slab forming the column strip.
The effect of end restrainet is quantified by the two
end restrain factors 1 and 2
/
1 2 =
/

 Where Ecm is modulus of elasticity of concrete

Lcol is column height
Lb is span of the beam
Icol, Ib are moment of inertia of the column and beam
respectively
is factor taking in to account the condition of
restraint of the beam at the opposite end
= 1.0 opposite end elastically or rigidly restrained
= 0.5 opposite end free to rotate
= 0 for cantilever beam

 Note that: if the end of the column is fixed, theoretically,

= 0, but an value of 1 is recommended for use.
On the other hand, if the end of the member is pinned,
the theoretical value of is infinity, but an value of 10
is recommended for use.
The rationale behind the foregoing recommendations is
that no support in reality can be truly fixed or pinned.

Design of columns, EBSC-2 1995

General:
The internal forces and moments may generally be
determined by elastic global analysis using either first
order theory or second order theory.
First-order theory, using the initial geometry of the
structure, may be used in the following cases
Non-sway frames
Braced frames
Design methods which make indirect allowances for
second-order effects.

Second-order theory, taking into account the influence

of the deformation of the structure, may be used in all
cases.

Design of Non-sway Frames

Individual non-sway compression members shall be
considered to be isolated elements and be designed
accordingly.

Design of Isolated Columns

For buildings, a design method may be used which
assumes the compression members to be isolated.
The additional eccentricity induced in the column by
its deflection is then calculated as a function of
slenderness ratio and curvature at the critical section

Total Eccentricity
The total eccentricity to be used for the design of
columns of constant cross-section at the critical
section is given by:
= + + 2
Where: ee is equivalent constant first-order
eccentricity of the design axial load
ea is the additional eccentricity allowance
for imperfections.
For isolated columns:

=
20
300
e2 is the second-order eccentricity

First order equivalent eccentricity

i.

For first-order eccentricity e0 is equal at both ends of

a column
=
ii. For first-order moments varying linearly along the
length, the equivalent eccentricity is the higher of the
following two values:
= 0.62 + 0.41
= 0.4
Where: e01 and e02 are the first-order eccentricities at the
ends, e02 being positive and greater in magnitude than e01.
e01 is positive if the column bents in single curvature and
negative if the column bends in double curvature.

iii. For different eccentiries at the ends, (2) above, the

critical end section shall be checked for first order
moments:
= 2 +

Second order eccentricity

i.

The second-order eccentricity e2 of an isolated

column may be obtained as
1 2 1
2 =
( )
10

Where: Le is the effective buckling length of the column

k1= /20 - 0.75 for 15 35
k1= 1.0 for >35
l/r is the curvature at the critical section.

ii. The curvature is approximated by:

1
5
= 2
103

 Where: d is the effective column dimension in the plane of

buckling
k2 =Md /Mb
Md is the design moment at the critical section including
second-order effects
Mb is the balanced moment capacity of the column.

iii. The appropriate value of k2 may be found iteratively

taking an initial value corresponding to first-order
actions.

Reinforcement Detail
Size
The minimum lateral dimension of a column shall be
at least 150mm
Longitudinal Reinforcement
The minimum number of bars to be used in columns
shall be:
Four in rectangular columns (One at each corner)
Six in circular columns

The minimum bar diameter shall be 12 mm.

The minimum area of steel shall be 0.008 Ac for
ductility.

 The maximum area of steel shall be 0.08 Ac, including

laps.
Lateral Reinforcement
Minimum bar size shall be times the largest
compression bar, but not less than 6mm.
Center to center spacing shall not exceed:
12 times minimum diameter of longitudinal bars
Least dimension of column
300 mm.

Spiral or circular ties may be used for longitudinal

bars located around the perimeter of a circle. The
pitch of spirals shall not exceed 100 mm.

Design of Sway Frames

Nonsway moments, Mns, are the factored end
moments on a column due to loads that cause
no appreciable sidesway as computed by a
first-order elastic frame analysis. They result
from gravity loads.
Sway moments, Ms, are the factored end
moments on a column due to loads which
cause appreciable sidesway, calculated by a
first-order elastic frame analysis.

First-order vs. Second-order Frame

Analyses:
A first-order frame analysis is one in which the effect of
lateral deflections on bending moments, axial forces,
and lateral deflections is ignored.
The resulting moments and deflections are linearly
related to the loads.
When slenderness effects cannot be neglected, the
design of compression members, restraining beams and
other supporting members shall be based on the
factored forces and moments from a second-order
analysis.

First-order vs. Second-order Frame

Analyses:
A second-order frame analysis, is one which considers
the effects of deflections on moments, and so on.
The resulting moments and deflections include the
effects of slenderness and hence are nonlinear with
respect to the load.
The stiffness, EI, used in the analysis should represent
the stage immediately prior to yielding of the flexural
reinforcement since the moments are directly affected
by the lateral deflections.

Methods of Second Order Analysis

a) Iterative P- Analysis:
When a frame is displaced by an amount due to
lateral loads, additional moments shall be induced
due to the vertical loads (P).
This shall be loaded as sway force (P/l) and the
structure shall be re-analyzed until convergence is
achieved.
The values can be assumed to converge when the
change in deflection between two consecutive
analyses is less than 2.5 percent . (ACI)
89

Fig. 4 Determination of sway forces

90

b) Direct P- analysis
It describes the iterative P- analysis mathematically
as an infinite series.
An estimate of final deflections is obtained directly
from the first-order deflections (from the sum of the
terms in the series).
0

1 ( Pu ) 0 (Vl )

Thus the second-order moments are sMs

1
(Pu ) 0

1
.
0
Where: s
and Q
1 Q

vl

91

c) Amplified Sway Moments Method:

First-order sway moments are multiplied by a sway
moment magnifier, s, to obtain the second order
moments.
M1 = M1ns + sM1s
M2 = M2ns + sM2s
1
Where: s
1 (According to ACI)
1 Pu (0.75 Pc )

1 N Sd

(According to EBCS)
Where: Pu, NSd is the design value of the total vertical load
Pc, Ncr is its critical value for failure in a sway mode
cr

92