CHAPTER 1

DYNAMICS OF EXTENDED BODIES

1.1 TORQUES AND ROTATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM
Our discussion in this chapter is based on an idealized body, rigid body:
an object extended in space does not change in its size or shape when
subjected to a force. Objects such as steel beams, and bones are rigid
enough and have a negligible deformation on subjecting to a force, which is
not the case for real objects. Such objects will vibrate or bend under the
effect of the force. When the net force on the rigid body is zero i.e. the whole
body will not accelerate, the body is in translational equilibrium. If two forces
or more are applied on the rigid body that the net force equal zero but the
body rotates around a pivot, we say there is a torque on the body. If the net
torque on the body equal zero the body is in rotational equilibrium. Torque is
denoted by the symbol and is defined as TORQUE
=
FORCE
X
MOMENT ARM
Moment arm is the perpendicular distance between the line along which
the force act and the axis about which the body rotates.
= F x r or = F x r
Here the subscript means perpendicular.
is a vector, its direction is determined by the right hand rule. If the
fingers of the right hand point in the direction of the rotation that the torque
induces, the thumb will point in the direction of the torque vector, as
illustrated in figure (1.1).

EXAMPLE 1.1
Find the torque acting on the bar shown in figure (1.1), if the
force F=5.00N and the length of the bar is 2.00m.
= F x
(sin60)=8.66N.m

r or

F x

= F r sin

= (5.00)(2.00)

The torqueses that tend to produce a counterclockwise rotation are

conventionally taken to be positive and those causing clockwise rotation are
conventionally taken to be negative.
Couples: A pair of forces with equal magnitudes but opposite directions
acting along different lines of action is called couple. Couples do not exert a
net force on an object even though they do exert a net torque.

F
P

X1

X2

-F

Figure (1.2): The torque due to a couple is the same about every point.

The rotation of the object around the pivot point P is independent on the
location of P as shown in figure (1.2). The following example illustrates this
property.

EXAMPLE 1.2
Two forces with equal magnitudes but opposite directions act on
an object with different lines of action figure (1.2). Find the net
torque on the object resulting from these forces.

1 2 1 F 2 F 1 2 F F
The negative sign means the net torque tends to cause clockwise
rotation. The magnitude of the torque depends only on which
means that the torque is independent on the location of P.

1.2 EQUILIBRIUM OF RIGID BODY

In addition to the condition that the sum of all forces acting on the body
vanishes, the sum of all torques acting on the body must also vanish. Thus
for equilibrium we have:

F 0

1) The sum of forces on the body must be zero,

2) The sum of torques on the body computed about any convenient point
must be zero,

0
Applications to Muscles and Joints
The techniques for calculating forces and torques on bodies in equilibrium
can be readily be applied to the human body. This is of great use in studying
the forces on muscles, bones and joints. Generally a muscle is attached, via
tendons, to two different bones figure (1.3). The points of attachment are
called insertions. The two bones are flexibly connected at a joint, such as

those at the elbow, knee and ankle. A muscle exerts a pull when its fiber
contract under simulation by a nerve, but it cannot exert a push.

Figure (1.3): The forearm and a model for the forearm.

EXAMPLE 1.3
The forearm is considered as pivoted bar supported by a cable,
figure (1.3). As shown in the figure the weight of the forearm is 12N
and concentrated at a point 0.15m from the pivot (elbow point).
Find the tension T exerted by the biceps muscle and the force E
exerted by the elbow point.

F 0

TEw0
Apply the equation
,
Apply the equation take the torques around the pivot P
0 0.15w 0.05T 0
T 36 N
,
or
E T w 36 12 24 N
Then,
N.B. The values of both T and E are higher than the value of w; this is
because the lever arm of the weight w is larger than that of the muscle.

1.3 CENTER OF MASS AND CENTER OF GRAVITY

When you calculate the motion of a system of particles due to a net

external force, the total mass can be thought as concentrated at the center
of mass (CM). An extended body is just such a system of particles.
The center of gravity (CG) of a body is the point at which the body can
be suspended without experiencing any torque due to gravitational forces. If
the gravitational field is uniform, the CG and the CM coincide. The centers of
gravity of uniform dense symmetric objects are at their geometric centers.
For less symmetric objects the CG can be calculated mathematically or
located experimentally. The location of the CG is illustrated in figure (1.4).

Figure (1.4) when a flat object is suspended from any point the
vertical line passing through the line passing through the point of
support also pass through the CG. If the gravitational field is
uniform CM coincides with CG.

1.4

LEVERS ; MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE

Simple machines, such as levers, pulleys, gears, and the wheel are
designed to reduce the force needed to lift a heavy load. In each case there
is an applied force Fa and a load force F is balanced. The mechanical
advantage (M.A.) of the machine is defined as the ratio of the magnitudes of
these forces,
F
Fa
Mechanical Advantage = M.A. =
A lever in its simplest form is a rigid bar used with a fulcrum figure
(1.5).There is three classes of levers are defined according to the relative
positions of fulcrum, Fa and F Figure (1.5a, b, c) show the relative positions
of Fa, F and the fulcrum for class I, II, and III levers, with examples of such
levers in the human body.

Figure (1.5): examples of the three levers in the human body

EXAMPLE 1.4
Suppose in figure (1.5a) the load force F=2000N. A person
Xa
X
exerts a force Fa= 500N to balance the load. (i) Find the ratio
? (ii) Find M.A.?
X F X a Fa 0
Take the torque around the fulcrum
Xa
F

2000
4
X
Fa
500
And
M.A. = 4
A good example for a lever in the human body is the spinal column.
Spinal column is a third class lever with a very small mechanical advantage.
Hence, bending over to pick up even a very small object produces a very
large force ( see one of the last examples) on the lumbrosacral disk ( fulcrum
) which separates the last vertebra from the sacrum ( the bone supporting
the spine). Since bending over without lifting a load puts a great stress on
the spine, it should be avoided. If, instead, one flexes the knees but keeps
the back vertical (figure 1.6), then the centers of gravity of all the weights lie
almost directly above the sacrum. Consequently their torqueses about the
sacrum are small, and the muscles need not exert an appreciable force.

Figure (1.6): (a) incorrect and (b) correct ways to lift a weight.

PROBLEMS

1- In figure (1.7), find the torques due to F1

and F2 relative to point P.
Fi
gure (1.7)
2- In figure (1.8), the wire band has a
tension T of 2.0 N along it. It is therefore exerts
a force of 2.0 N on the tooth (to which it is
attached) in the two directions shown. Calculate
the resultant force on the tooth due to the wire.

Figure (1.8)
3- In orthodonture, forces applied to the
teeth lead to forces on the supporting bones.
Gradually the bone tissue breaks down
and permits the tooth to rotate or translate.
New bone tissue grows in the space left
behind. The forces must be small to avoid
damaging the root of the tooth. Find the forces
F1 and F2 on the tooth in figure (1.9).

Figure (1.9)
4- Figure (1.10) shows the
forearm. When a person is
holding a 12 N weight (w1) in the
hand (w is weight of the forearm).
(i) Find the force T exerts by the
biceps muscle and the force E
exerted by the elbow joint. (ii)
Compare your results with those
mentioned in example 3.3 and
explain why these forces are
large here?

Figure (1.10)
5- Figure (1.11) shows a pair of
tweezers. What is its mechanical
advantage?

Figure (1.11)
6- In figure (1.10) T is the force exerted by the biceps muscle.
(i) What class of lever does this represent? (ii) What is the M.A. of
the forearm supporting its own weight, w? (iii) What is its M.A. for
supporting a load W1 held in the hand?
7- The head pivots about the atlanto-occipital joint figure
(1.12). The splenius muscles attached behind the joint support the
head. (i) What class of lever does this represent?
(ii) The anterior
muscles produce forward motions of the head. What class of lever
does their action represent? (iii) Which muscles have the larger
M.A.?

Figure (1.12)