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Training Code EE-04 Generators 2- Excitation
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Training Code EE-04 Generators 2- Excitation

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Table of Contents
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0

6.0

7.0

8.0

9.0

10.0

11.0

12.0
13.0

Objectives
Introduction
Glossary
Basic Operation of Excitation Systems
Types of Excitation Systems
5.1
Brushless Rotating Excitation Systems - Overview
5.2
Brushless Excitation System
5.3
Static Excitation Systems - Overview
5.4
Static Excitation system
Brushless versus Static Excitation
6.1
Brushless Excitation Systems
6.2
Static Excitation Systems
Modes of Operation
7.1
Automatic
7.2
Manual
7.3
VAr and Power Factor Control
Operational Limiters
8.1
Over Excitation Limiter
8.2
Under Excitation Limiter
8.3
Volts / Hertz Limiter
Protection
9.1
Rotor Temperature Protection
9.2
Field Over Voltage Protection
9.3
Field Over Current Protection
9.4
Rotor Earth Fault Protection
9.5
Brushless Excitation Specific Protection
9.6
Static Excitation Specific Protection
Other Procurement Options
10.1
Power System Stabiliser (PSS)
10.2
Redundancies
10.3
Field Circuit Breaker
10.4
De-excitation Circuits
Installation and Interfacing Considerations
11.1
Environment
11.2
Seismic
11.3
Local Auxiliary Power Supplies
11.4
Space Requirements
11.5
Communication Options, Hardwired or via Serial Communication
Supplier Technical Support
References

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Training Code EE-04 Generators 2- Excitation

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Objectives

This training text EE-04 and the associated lecture of PLN Competence Building Training programme aims to give
the participants an overview on the basic concepts of excitation systems, and discusses the some of the key
parameters when selecting an excitation system. This document will help junior engineers and engineers with little
experience in excitation systems to gain an understanding on excitation fundamentals.

2.0

Introduction

The excitation system, in particular the Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR), is used to regulate the voltage output
of the generator at a fixed set point. The excitation system achieves this by adjusting the DC current to the
generator field windings, also known as increasing or decreasing excitation.
This design guide will cover the following topics:
-

Basic operation of excitation systems

Types of excitation systems, in particular brushless and static excitation systems

Operation modes for the excitation systems

Typical limiters and protection systems

Procurement options

And installation and interfacing considerations.

3.0

Glossary

AC

Alternating current. The flow of electricity periodically switches polarity forming a sinusoidal wave
form.

AVR

Automatic voltage regulator. The voltage regulator in an excitation system. In modern excitation
systems the AVR is an electronic controller.

CT

Current transformer. A transformer that is used to step down a high current to a more manageable
level to allow the measurement and monitoring of the current.

Diode

An electronic device that only allows the flow of current only in one direction through the device.

DC

Direct current. The flow of electricity where the polarity does not change.

FCR

Field current regulator. Also known as the manual mode in as excitation system. The set point of the
field current is manually set to adjust the generator terminal voltage.

PMG

Permanent magnet generator. Used in brushless excitation systems to provide a power source for
the AVR.

PSS

Power system stabiliser. A function of the AVR that can be used to help dampen the power
oscillations in the network.

Thyristor

A semiconductor that is used in circuits to regulate power. Input current is fed into a thyristor bridge
circuit, the control of the switching on and off of each thyristor determines the level of output power.

VA

Volt-amperes. This unit is a measure of apparent power

VAr

Volt-amperes reactive. This unit is a measure of reactive power.

VT

Voltage transformer. A transformer that is used to step down a high voltage to a more manageable
level to allow the measurement and monitoring of the voltage.

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Training Code EE-04 Generators 2- Excitation

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Basic Operation of Excitation Systems

The excitation system produces DC current to the generator field windings. This creates a magnetic flux in the
winding. As the generator rotor spins due to the prime mover, this magnet flux rotates as well. As the magnetic
flux rotates it passes through the stationary stator windings in the generator. This then induces a voltage in the
stator windings.
The amount of excitation required to maintain a constant generator voltage output is a function of the system load.
As the generator load increases, the required excitation also increases and vice-versa.
The AVR regulates the output of the generator to ensure that the voltage at the generator terminal is within 5%
of the nominal voltage. This is the voltage range that generators are typically designed to be operated at.

5.0

Types of Excitation Systems

Currently the two most common types of excitation systems are brushless rotating excitation systems and static
excitations system. There are several different types of rotating excitation systems with different methods to
produce and regulate the DC current to the generator field winding. This design guide will however only focus on
the brushless type of rotating excitation systems.
In thermal power plants, brushless excitation systems are more commonly used to avoid the potential issues with
brushes; such as brush wear and potential arcing issues in locations classed as hazardous zones.

5.1

Brushless Rotating Excitation Systems - Overview

The excitation to the generator field windings is provided by the DC output of a rotating exciter. An AVR excites
the stator windings of the rotating exciter. An AC voltage is induced in the rotor of the rotating exciter when the
prime mover rotates the generator. This AC voltage then passes through a diode wheel (located on the rotor of
the rotating exciter) where the AC voltage is rectified to a DC voltage. From here the DC voltage is fed into the
generator field windings located in the rotor.
The voltage output from the AVR in this instance is in the tens to hundreds of volts and current output is in the
tens of amps. The output of the rotating exciter is typically in the hundreds of volts and the current is in the
hundreds to possibly thousands of amps.
The AVR has an internal rectifier bridge to supply excitation to the rotating exciter. The supply to this rectifier is
typically from a shaft mounted Permanent Magnet Generator (PMG). Alternatively this supply can come from an
external source such as the local station local services LV supply.

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5.2

Training Code EE-04 Generators 2- Excitation

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Brushless Excitation System

Figure 1 below shows a simplified schematic of a typical brushless excitation system.

Figure 1

Simplified schematic diagram of a Brushless Excitation System

Component

Description

PMG

The permanent magnetic generator (PMG) provides an independent supply

to the AVR. This means that the generator can be started without an external
power source.
As the name suggest, the rotor of the PMG has a magnet of fixed flux. As the
magnet rotates an AC voltage is induced in the stator windings, where it then
goes to the rectifier in the AVR.

Rotating exciter

he rotating exciter produces the excitation to the generator.

AVR

Modern AVRs are based on micro controllers. The operation and functionality
of the excitation system is largely controlled via the AVR.

Diode wheel

The diode wheel is used to rectify the AC output of the rotating exciter to
produce the DC feed to the generator field windings.

VTs

There are a set of Voltage Transformers (VT) that are used to monitor the
voltage output of the generator. The voltage measurement is fed into the
AVR control loops.

CTs

Not shown on the schematic, but There are a set of Current Transformers
(CT) that are used to monitor the current output of the generator. The current
measurement is fed into the AVR control loops.

5.3

Static Excitation Systems - Overview

The excitation to the generator field winding is provided by a stationary AVR and power electronics cabinet suite;
hence the name static excitation. The power electronics are typically a thyristor bridge. The DC current to the
generator field winding is produced from the rectified output of the thyristor bridge. The AVR regulates the output
of the thyristor bridge by adjusting the firing angles of the individual thyristors. The AC input to the thyristor bridge
is from the secondary windings of an excitation transformer. The primary side of the excitation transformer is
supplied from a tee off from the generator output terminals.
During start up an external power source, either from the local services supply or the station batteries, provides
the initial excitation, this is called field flashing.

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Some static excitation systems are configured to have the excitation transformer connected to the step-up
transformer side of the generator circuit breaker where during start-up the excitation transformer is energised by
back-fed power from the grid. In this case, external source for initial excitation is not required.
The output voltage from the thyristor bridge is typically in the hundreds of volts and the current output is typically
in the hundreds to thousands of amps.

5.4

Static Excitation system

Figure 2 below shows a simplified schematic of a typical static excitation system.

Figure 2

Simplified schematic diagram of a Static Excitation System

Component

Description

Thyristors

The thryistor bridge typically consists of 6 thyristors that are used to rectify
the AC voltage from the excitation transformer to produce the DC
excitation to the generator field windings.

AVR

Modern AVRs are based on micro controllers. The operation and

functionality of the excitation system is largely controlled via the AVR.

Excitation transformer

The excitation transformer provides the power for the excitation circuit to
the generator field windings.

Slip rings

The DC output of the thyristor bridge is fed to the generator field winding
via the slip rings.

VTs

There are a set of Voltage Transformers (VT) that are used to monitor the
voltage output of the generator. The voltage measurement is fed into the
AVR control loops.

CTs

Not shown on the schematic, but there are a set of Current Transformers
(CT) that are used to monitor the current output of the generator. The
current measurement is fed into the AVR control loops.

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Training Code EE-04 Generators 2- Excitation

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Brushless versus Static Excitation

This section discusses the advantages and disadvantages of brushless and static excitation systems.

6.1

Brushless Excitation Systems

Table 1

Brushless Excitation Systems Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages

Disadvantages

No brushes or slip rings to maintain. No carbon

brush dust

When compared with static excitation systems the

excitation response is relatively slow (>500ms).
This is due to the time constant associated with the
rotating exciter.
However this response time is more than
acceptable.

If a PMG is fitted to the generator, this independent

source for excitation will provide voltage support in
the event of short circuit currents in the power grid.

Field discharge is also slow when compared with

static excitation systems. The field discharges with
a natural time constant, based on the decay of the
magnetic flux in the rotor.

Less floor space is required for the AVR cubicle.

Cabling cost between the AVR and the rotating
exciter will be relatively low, due to the low voltage
and current output from the AVR.

6.2

Static Excitation Systems

Table 2

Static Excitation Systems Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages

Disadvantages

Fast excitation response (>20ms). This is helpful

for dynamic stability and performance.

Brush and slip ring maintenance will be required.

Fast field discharge capabilities through a deexcitation circuit.

Short circuit voltage support is very limited. Special

compound transformers can be ordered to provide
a level of voltage support.

A static excitation system can be specified to have

multiple thyristor bridges for redundancy.

Floor space requirements are greater. There is a

suite of cabinets for the AVR and thyristor bank.
Plus room is required for the excitation
transformer.

If there is a thyristor failure, this can be repaired

relatively quickly.

Higher cabling costs when compared with

brushless excitation systems. The voltage and
current output from the thyristor is quite high. Also
cables rated for the high generator terminal
voltages are required between generator and
excitation transformer.

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7.0

Modes of Operation

Excitation systems can operate under several different regulation modes. Typically these are:
Table 3

Excitation System Modes of Operation

Operation Mode

Description

Automatic

The generator voltage output is automatically regulated.

Manual

This mode is also known as Field Current Regulation

(FCR). As indicated by the name, the field current of the
generator is regulated.

VAr control

The VAr output of the generator is regulated.

Power Factor control

The generator power factor is regulated.

7.1

Automatic

Automatic mode is when the excitation system regulates the voltage output of the generator automatically. If there
is a drop in the power grid voltage, the excitation system will automatically try and compensate this by increasing
excitation to bring the voltage back up. Alternatively if there is a rise in the power grid voltage, the excitation
system will automatically reduce excitation to try and lower the voltage.

7.2

Manual

When the excitation system is in the field current regulation mode, FCR, this is known as the Manual mode. The
reason why the FCR mode is called the Manual mode is because the generator output voltage is not automatically
regulated. Instead only the generator field current is regulated at a desired set point. However the generator
output voltage can still be manually adjusted by increasing or decreasing the field current set point.

7.3

VAr and Power Factor Control

Under these two modes the generator is either over excited or under excited to achieve the required VAr or Power
Factor set point.

8.0

Operational Limiters

The operation of the excitation system can be limited to ensure that the generator operates within its design
parameter. The operational capabilities of a generator are normally shown on generator capability diagrams, also
known as circle diagrams. These capability diagrams shows operating region that the generator can operate, such
as the maximum power rating and how much the generator can be over or under excited to produce reactive
power. A typical capability diagram is shown in Figure 3. The common excitation limiters are described in
sections 8.1 to 8.3.

8.1

Over Excitation Limiter

The primary function of the over excitation limiter is to prevent overheating the rotor field windings. The over
excitation limiter effectively acts as a current limiter.
It is possible to exceed the over excitation limiter for short periods of time without overheating the rotor, as it takes
certain amount of time to heat the rotor. This is useful when field forcing (increased excitation above the limit) is
required to provide voltage support when there is a fault in the power grid.
Typically the over excitation limiter is set in steps. There will be a higher instantaneous current limit for the short
periods where field forcing is required. Then a lower current limit that activates after a time delay to prevent rotor
overheating.

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Training Code EE-04 Generators 2- Excitation

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Under Excitation Limiter

The under excitation limiter is used to prevent the overheating of the stator windings and to go beyond the stability
limit of the generator i.e. when the generator loses synchronism.
As the excitation to the rotor is lowered to create more negative VArs, the stator current increases. If left
unchecked the generator would trip on over current. The under excitation limiter acts instantaneously as there is
no need to go below this limit.

8.3

Volts / Hertz Limiter

The volts / hertz limiter is used to prevent over fluxing of the generator. When over fluxing occurs the generator
could become over heated, and damage can occur to the various insulation systems.
The amount of flux in the generator is proportional to the generator terminal voltage divided by the frequency.
Therefore the volts / hertz limiter is to prevent over fluxing during overvoltage or under frequency events. This can
occur during the start up or shut down of the generator.
Figure 3 - Typical generator capability diagram.

Under
excitation limit

Over excitation
limit

The image was reproduced from, Schierz, T. Generator Protection. Retrieved (12 September 2013) from
http://www.pacw.org/issue/march_2013_issue/lessons_learned/selfhealing_solution_for_medium_voltage_feeders_on_the_isle_of_wigh t/article/2.html .

9.0

Protection

Excitation systems can be procured with the following protection systems as well to protect the excitation
equipment itself and other external equipment such as the generator:

9.1

Rotor Temperature Protection

One method to monitor the rotor temperature is to measure the field resistance. As the rotor heats up, the
resistance of the field winding heats up. The excitation system can be set to trip if a high temperature set point is
exceeded.

9.2

Field Over Voltage Protection

Over voltage protection is often a built in function of an AVR. Usually a voltage limit is set with a time delay before
activation, to allow for brief over voltages during field forcing.

9.3

Field Over Current Protection

Field over current protection is either provided by the field circuit breaker (if a DC breaker is used) or via a
separate protection relay (typically used with an AC field circuit breaker). Typically two current tripping values will
be set, a lower thermal setting and a higher instantaneous setting.
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Training Code EE-04 Generators 2- Excitation

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Rotor Earth Fault Protection

Another common protection system to be procured with excitation systems are rotor earth fault relays. These are
also known as ground insulation monitoring relays. The purpose of this protection device is to prevent potentially
damaging short circuits to occur in the field windings.
The generator field windings are a floating system with no earth reference. However as rotor insulation
deteriorates due to age, heat and vibration, the chances of an earth fault to the rotor shaft increases.
The first rotor earth fault typically will not cause any damage. The field winding circuit will now be referenced to
earth. But if there is a second rotor earth fault, a short circuit will form. Potentially damaging arcing could occur as
well as severe vibration due to the now unbalanced magnetic flux in the rotor. This vibration can damage the
generator.

9.5

Brushless Excitation Specific Protection

Monitoring of the diodes in the diode wheel rectifier is very important to prevent damage to the exciter. Monitors
are available that can detect when the diodes either short circuit or open circuit.
When a diode short circuits, the exciter current will significantly increase, potentially causing heating damage to
the exciter. Often the diodes in the diode wheel are fused to help prevent damage to the exciter.
When a diode open circuits, the AVR will try and increase excitation to support the current operating level. This
can lead to tripping of the unit due to over excitation.
The diode monitors can shut down the unit before damage occurs.

9.6

Static Excitation Specific Protection

Thermal and overcurrent protections are typically specified for the excitation transformer. These protection
devices are to prevent thermal damage to the transformer, from high currents, during sustained field forcing or
fault events.
The thyristor bridges are typically fitted with thyristor over temperature protection, thyristor fuse failure detection
and thyristor cooling fan failure detection. All three protection systems will trip the unit before further damage to
the thyristor bridge can occur.

10.0

Other Procurement Options

Both brushless and static excitation systems can be specified with various optional features. Some of the common
items are discussed in the following sections.

10.1

Power System Stabiliser (PSS)

The PSS stabiliser can help dampen low frequency power oscillations in the network. These oscillations can be
caused by faults in the network, sudden changes in the power output of a connected generator, etc.
The PSS actively monitors the network and then adjusts the output of the AVR to produce an electrical torque to
dampen the oscillations. The PSS is often a built in feature in the AVR.

10.2

Redundancies

The excitation systems can be specified to have multiple redundancies to improve the reliability and availability of
the generators. Common redundant systems are listed below:
a)

The AVR Excitation systems can be specified with only one AVR (single channel) or two AVRs (two
channels) depending on the required redundancies. Two channel systems operate as a dual redundant pair.
One AVR will operate as the primary device and the second AVR will act as a backup. The second AVR can
seamlessly take over the automatic voltage control if there is a fault in the primary AVR.

b)

Multiple diodes in the diode wheel Due to multiple diodes in the diode wheel rectifier, the rectifier in a
brushless excitation system can still operate in the event of failure of one diode.

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c)

Multiple thyristor bridges in static excitation systems multiple thyristor bridges can be specified to allow
the excitation system to switch between the bridges in the event of thyristor failure.

d)

Power supplies to the control and auxiliary systems The power supplies can be ordered as dual
redundant systems to ensure a reliable source of power to the excitation system control circuits and auxiliary
systems.

The level of redundancy required will needs to considered on a case by case basis. For example if on a site there
is only a single large generator, the reliability and therefore availability of this unit will be critical. Therefore extra
redundancies in the excitation system will be justified. Alternatively if there are multiple smaller generators at a
site, the level of redundancy in the excitation system may not need to be that high, as there is already redundancy
in the multiple generators on site.

10.3

Field Circuit Breaker

In static excitation systems there are two options for the field circuit breaker, either a DC circuit breaker or an AC
circuit breaker. A DC circuit breaker can be specified to be installed in between the output of the thyristor bridge
and the generator field windings. However, these circuit breakers are typically very large (and therefore
expensive) as they must be rated to break the high DC current supplied to the field windings (typically in the
thousands of amps). The main advantage of a DC field circuit breaker is that the generator field windings are
directly protected from overloads.
Alternatively static excitation systems can be specified with is AC circuit breakers installed between the secondary
windings of the excitation transformer and the input to the thyristor bridge. The AC circuit breakers are smaller
(and therefore cheaper) than the DC circuit breakers as they only have to be rated for the relatively low AC
currents from the excitation transformer (typically in the hundreds of amps). The option for AC circuit breakers is
available because the AC circuit breaker is intended to operate in conjunction with the de-excitation system.
When a generator is shut down, the de-excitation circuit operates first to de-energise the generator field, and then
the AC circuit breaker will open.
Brushless excitation systems only have the option of a DC circuit breaker on the output of the AVR.

10.4

De-excitation Circuits

The de-excitation circuits for static excitation system can be ordered with either a linear resistor or a non-linear
resistor. The difference between these two types of resistors is that the non-linear resistor can de-excite the field
winding quicker.
The resistor in the de-excitation circuit is used to dissipate the energy from the field windings.

11.0

Installation and Interfacing Considerations

Once the type and specifications of an excitation system has been decided, how the excitation system will be
installed on site and interfaced to the rest of the power station will need to be considered. The following design
considerations will need to be considered as well.

11.1

Environment

The local environment of the intended installation location of the excitation equipment will need to be carefully
considered. The ambient temperature, humidity levels, the level of air borne dust, possible corrosive gases, etc
will influence the specification of the required ingress protection rating of the excitation equipment. At sites where
dust (or other airborne pollutants) is a concern, sealed excitation system cabinets may be required with some
form of air filtration system.

11.2

Seismic

One area that is often overlooked when selecting electrical equipment is the seismic rating of the equipment. The
cabinets and enclosures used to house the excitation equipment should be suitably rated for the expected seismic
conditions at the installation site. As a rule of thumb cabinets rated for Zone 4 seismic zones as per the Telecordia
GR-63 standard should be suitable for most sites.

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10

However it is important to check the expected seismic load at each site to ensure that the equipment selection is
suitable. Zone 4 cabinets are rated up to 5 g ground accelerations. This may be too conservative for some site,
where a Zone 3 rated cabinet may be more suitable. Zone 3 cabinets are rated up to 3 g.
The equipment anchoring / restraint system, such as hold down bolts, will need to be suitably sized to ensure that
excitation system cabinets and equipment do not fall over.

11.3

Local Auxiliary Power Supplies

Excitation systems do require various local power supplies for the auxiliary systems of the excitation system.
Typically excitation systems can accept either or both AC and DC supplies for the various auxiliary systems such
as the control circuits for the AVR, cabinet lighting and the initial field forcing supply.
The availability of the local supplies will need to be checked at each intended installation site and the excitation
system specified to suit.

11.4

Space Requirements

The physical location of the excitation will need to be considered as well. The excitation equipment should be
installed such that there is enough space to open the cabinet doors, theres enough airflow around the equipment
for cooling, etc.

11.5

Communication Options, Hardwired or via Serial Communication

Modern excitation systems are now very flexible in terms of compatibility with the station control system. The
excitation controls, such as the excitation raise and lower commands, can be hardwired as digital I/O.
Alternatively the raise and lower commands could be achieved as new set points sent from the station control
system to the excitation system via a serial communication link. Most excitation systems will accept a variety of
serial communication protocols.
The excitation systems can allow for local control at the excitation cabinets via local pushbuttons or even through
touchscreen panels. Or alternatively the excitation system can be set up to be only operated remotely from the
station control room SCADA system.
The operating philosophy of the excitation system will need to fit in with the overall operating philosophy of the
station control system.

12.0

Supplier Technical Support

Another important consideration when selecting an excitation system is where the technical support for the
excitation system is located. Modern excitation systems requirement little maintenance, however if a problem
does occur having close technical support is very valuable.
Some excitation system companies have their technical support staff located in Europe, which can cause some
inconveniences and possible delays in getting responses for technical queries. There are some excitation
companies that have technical staff located closer to Indonesia, such as in Singapore and Australia.

13.0

References

[1] IEEE, IEEE STD 421.4-2004, IEEE Guide for the Preparation of Excitation System Specifications, New York:
IEEE, 2004.

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