SEISMIC SENSOR

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

INTRODUCTION

There are two basic types of seismic sensors: inertial seismometers which measure ground
motion relative to an inertial reference (a suspended mass), and strain meters or which measure the
motion of one point of the ground relative to another. Since the motion of the ground relative to an
inertial reference is in most cases much larger than the differential motion within a vault of
reasonable dimensions, inertial seismometers are generally more sensitive to earthquake signals.
However, at very low frequencies it becomes increasingly difficult to maintain an inertial
reference, and for the observation of low-order free oscillations of the Earth, tidal motions, and
quasi-static deformations, strain meters may outperform inertial seismometers. Strain meters are
conceptually simpler than inertial seismometers although their technical realization and installation
may be more difficult.
An inertial seismometer converts ground motion into an electric signal but its properties cannot
be described by a single scale factor, such as output volts per millimeter of ground motion. The
response of a seismometer to ground motion depends not only on the amplitude of the ground
motion (how large it is) but also on its time scale (how sudden it is). This is because the seismic
mass has to be kept in place by a mechanical or electromagnetic restoring force. When the ground
motion is slow, the mass will move with the rest of the instrument, and the output signal for a given
ground motion will therefore be smaller. The system is thus a high-pass filter for the ground
displacement. This must be taken into account when the ground motion is reconstructed from the
recorded signal, and is the reason why we have to go to some length in discussing the dynamic
transfer properties of seismometers.

The dynamic behavior of a seismograph system within its linear range can, like that of any linear
time-invariant (LTI) system, be described with the same degree of completeness in four different
ways: by a linear differential equation, the Laplace transfer function, the complex frequency
response, or the impulse response of the system. The first two are usually obtained by a

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

mathematical analysis of the physical system (the hardware). The latter two are directly related to
certain calibration procedures and can therefore be determined from calibration experiments where
the system is considered as a black box (this is sometimes called an identification procedure).
However, since all four are mathematically equivalent, we can derive each of them either from
knowledge of the physical components of the system or from a calibration experiment.
Practically, the mathematical description of a seismometer is limited to a certain bandwidth of
frequencies that should at least include the bandwidth of seismic signals. Within this limit then any
of the four representations describe the system's response to arbitrary input signals completely and
unambiguously. The viewpoint from which they differ is how efficiently and accurately they can be
implemented in different signal-processing procedures.
While for a purely electrical filter it is usually clear what the amplitude response is - a
dimensionless factor by which the amplitude of a sinusoidal input signal must be multiplied to obtain
the associated output signal - the situation is not always as clear for seismometers because different
authors may prefer to measure the input signal (the ground motion) in different ways: as a
displacement, a velocity, or an acceleration. Both the physical dimension and the mathematical form
of the transfer function depend on the definition of the input signal, and one must sometimes guess
from the physical dimension to what sort of input signal it applies. The output signal, traditionally a
needle deflection, is now normally a voltage, a current, or a number of counts.

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

1.1 PROJECT ORGANISATION

This project work presented the design and implementation of seismic sensors for industrial
and domestic purpose using the piezo element and a piezo buzzer with its underlining principle of
piezoelectricity. The circuit uses readily available components and the design is straight forward.

A standard Piezo sensor is used to detect vibrations/sounds due to pressure changes. The
piezo element acts as a small capacitor having a capacitance of a few nanofarads. Like a capacitor, it
can store charge when a potential is applied to its terminals. It discharges through VR1, when it is
disturbed.

The project work is organized as follows: chapter two will concentrate on the hardware
description which is mostly on TL071 JFET op-amp, NE555 timer ICs, Resistors, Transistors,
Capacitors and piezoelectricity in detail, chapter three focuses on the design and implementation of
the seismic sensor with piezoelectricity along with detailed explanation of the project. Chapter four,
chapter five and chapter six discuss about Applications, Conclusions and Future scope, and
References respectively.

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

CHAPTER 2
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
2.1 PIEZO ELEMENT
Introduction
This is a focus on piezoelectricity as the backbone behind the operation of this proposed circuit.
We are going to look at the history of piezoelectricity, features of Piezo element, buzzer, the
proposed circuit diagram and some applications of the piezoelectricity.

A piezoelectric sensor shown in Fig 2.1 is a device that uses the piezoelectric effect to
measure pressure, acceleration, strain or force by converting them to an electrical signal.

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

Fig 2.1 Piezo electric sensor

History of Piezoelectricity
Piezoelectricity is a form of electricity created when certain crystals are bent or otherwise
deformed. These same crystals can also be made to bend slightly when a small current is run through
them, encouraging their use in instruments for which great degrees of mechanical control are
necessary. This is called converse piezoelectricity. For example, scanning tunneling microscopes
(STMs) use piezoelectric crystals to scan the surface of a material and create images of great
detail. Piezoelectricity is related to pyroelectricity, in which a current is created by heating or cooling
the crystal.

The property of piezoelectricity is dictated by both the atoms in the crystal and the particular way
in which that crystal was formed. Some of the first substances that were used to demonstrate
piezoelectricity are topaz, quartz, tourmaline, and cane sugar. Today, we know of many crystals
which are piezoelectric, some of which can even be found in human bone. Certain ceramics
and polymers have exhibited the effect as well.

A piezoelectric crystal consists of multiple interlocking domains which have positive and
negative charges. These domains are symmetrical within the crystal, causing the crystal as a whole to

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

be electrically neutral. When stress is put on the crystal, the symmetry is slightly broken, generating
voltage. Even a tiny bit of piezoelectric crystal can generate voltages in the thousands.

Piezoelectricity is used in sensors, actuators, motors, clocks, lighters, and transducers. A quartz
clock uses piezoelectricity, as does any cigarette lighter without a flint. Medical ultrasound devices
create high-frequency acoustic vibrations using piezoelectric crystals. Piezoelectricity is used in
some engines to create the spark which ignites the gas. Loudspeakers use piezoelectricity to convert
incoming electricity to sound. Piezoelectric crystals are used in many high-performance devices to
apply tiny mechanical displacements on the scale of nanometers. Even though a piezoelectric crystal
never deforms by more than a few nanometers when a current is run through it, the force behind this
deformation is extremely high, on the order of meganewtons. This deformational power is used in
mechanics experiments and for aligning optical elements many times heavier than the piezoelectric
crystal itself.

The first experimental demonstration of a connection between macroscopic piezoelectric

phenomena and crystallographic structure was published in 1880 by Pierre and Jacques Curie. Their
experiment consisted of a conclusive measurement of surface charges appearing on specially
prepared crystals (tourmaline, quartz, topaz, cane sugar and Rochelle salt among them) which were
subjected to mechanical stress. These results were a credit to the Curies' imagination and
perseverance, considering that they were obtained with nothing more than the foil, glue, wire,
magnets, and a jewelers saw.

Sensor Design
Based on piezoelectric technology various physical quantities can be measured; the most
common are pressure and acceleration. For pressure sensors, a thin membrane and a massive base is
used, ensuring that an applied pressure specifically loads the elements in one direction.
For accelerometers, a seismic mass is attached to the crystal elements. When the accelerometer
Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

experiences a motion, the invariant seismic mass loads the elements according to Newtons second
law of motion
F = ma.
The main difference in the working principle between these two cases is the way forces are
applied to the sensing elements. In a pressure sensor a thin membrane is used to transfer the force to
the elements, while in accelerometers the forces are applied by an attached seismic mass.

Sensors often tend to be sensitive to more than one physical quantity. Pressure sensors show
false signal when they are exposed to vibrations. Sophisticated pressure sensors therefore use
acceleration compensation elements in addition to the pressure sensing elements. By carefully
matching those elements, the acceleration signal (released from the compensation element) is
subtracted from the combined signal of pressure and acceleration to derive the true pressure
information.

Vibration sensors can also be used to harvest otherwise wasted energy from mechanical
vibrations. This is accomplished by using piezoelectric materials to convert mechanical strain into
usable electrical energy. The Fig 2.2 shows metal disks with Piezo material.

Fig 2.2 Metal disks with Piezo material, used in buzzers or as contact microphones

Sensing Materials

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

Two main groups of materials are used for piezoelectric sensors: piezoelectric ceramics and
single crystal materials. The ceramic materials (such as PZT ceramic) have a piezoelectric constant
or sensitivity that are roughly two orders of magnitude higher than those of single crystal materials
and can be produced by inexpensive sintering processes. The Piezo effect in Piezo ceramics is
trained, so unfortunately their high sensitivity degrades over time. The degradation is highly
correlated with temperature. The less sensitive crystal materials (gallium phosphate, quartz, and
tourmaline) have a much higher when carefully handled, almost infinite long term stability.

Principle of Operation
Depending on how a piezoelectric material is cut, three main modes of operation can be
distinguished: transverse, longitudinal, and shear.

Transverse effect
A force is applied along a neutral axis (y) and the charges are generated along the (x)

direction, perpendicular to the line of force. The amount of charge depends on the geometrical
dimensions of the respective piezoelectric element. When dimensions a, b, c apply,
Cx = dxyFyb / a
Where a is the dimension in line with the neutral axis, b is in line with the charge
generating axis and d is the corresponding piezoelectric coefficient.

Longitudinal effect
The amount of charge produced is strictly proportional to the applied force and is

independent of size and shape of the piezoelectric element. Using several elements that are
mechanically in series and electrically in parallel is the only way to increase the charge output. The
resulting charge is
Cx = dxxFxn

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

10

where dxx is the piezoelectric coefficient for a charge in x-direction released by forces applied
along x-direction. Fx is the applied Force in x-direction and n corresponds to the number of stacked
elements.

Shear effect
Again, the charges produced are strictly proportional to the applied forces and are

independent of the elements size and shape. For n elements mechanically in series and electrically
in parallel the charge is
Cx = 2dxxFxn.
In contrast to the longitudinal and shear effects, the transverse effect opens the possibility to
fine-tune sensitivity on the force applied and the element dimension.
Electrical Properties
A piezoelectric transducer has very high DC output impedance and can be modeled as a
proportional voltage source and filter network. The voltage V at the source is directly proportional to
the applied force, pressure, or strain. The output signal is then related to this mechanical force as if it
had passed through the equivalent circuit. Here Fig 2.3 shows the frequency response of a
piezoelectric sensor.

Fig 2.3 Frequency response of a piezoelectric sensor; output voltage vs applied force
A detailed model includes the effects of the sensor's mechanical construction and other nonidealities. The inductance Lm is due to the seismic mass and inertia of the sensor itself. Ce is inversely
proportional to the mechanical elasticity of the sensor. C0 represents the static capacitance of the
transducer, resulting from an inertial mass of infinite size. Ri is the insulation leakage resistance of

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

11

the transducer element. If the sensor is connected to a load resistance, this also acts in parallel with
the insulation resistance, both increasing the high-pass cutoff frequency.
The below Fig 2.4 shows the equivalent circuit of a sensor.

Fig 2.4 Equivalent circuit of sensor

For use as a sensor, the flat region of the frequency response plot is typically used, between
the high-pass cutoff and the resonant peak. The load and leakage resistance need to be large enough
that low frequencies of interest are not lost.

Fig 2.5 Schematic symbol and electronic model of a piezoelectric sensor

The schematic symbol and electronic model of a Piezo electric sensor is shown in Fig 2.5.A
simplified equivalent circuit model can be used in this region, in which Cs represents the capacitance
of the sensor surface itself, determined by the standard formula for capacitance of parallel plates. It

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

12

can also be modeled as a charge source in parallel with the source capacitance, with the charge
directly proportional to the applied force, as above.

Applications
Piezoelectric sensors have proven to be versatile tools for the measurement of various processes.

They are used for quality assurance, process control and for research and development in many
different industries.

It has been successfully used in various applications, such as in medical, aerospace,

nuclear instrumentation, and as a pressure sensor in the touch pads of mobile phones. In
the automotive industry, piezoelectric elements are used to monitor combustion when
developing internal combustion engines. The sensors are either directly mounted into additional
holes into the cylinder head or the spark/glow plug is equipped with a built in miniature piezoelectric
sensor.

Advantages
The rise of piezoelectric technology is directly related to a set of inherent advantages. The

high modulus of elasticity of many piezoelectric materials is comparable to that of many metals and
goes up to 105 N/m. Even though piezoelectric sensors are electromechanical systems that react to
compression, the sensing elements show almost zero deflection. This is the reason why piezoelectric
sensors are so rugged, have an extremely high natural frequency and an excellent linearity over a
wide amplitude range.
Additionally, piezoelectric technology is insensitive to electromagnetic fields and radiation,
enabling measurements under harsh conditions. Some materials used (especially gallium
phosphate or tourmaline) have an extreme stability even at high temperature, enabling sensors to
have a working range of up to 1000C. Tourmaline shows pyroelectricity in addition to the
piezoelectric effect; this is the ability to generate an electrical signal when the temperature of the
crystal changes. This effect is also common to piezo ceramic materials.
One disadvantage of piezoelectric sensors is that they cannot be used for truly static
measurements. A static force will result in a fixed amount of charges on the piezoelectric material.
While working with conventional readout electronics, imperfect insulating materials, and reduction

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

13

in internal sensor resistance will result in a constant loss of electrons, and yield a decreasing signal.
Elevated temperatures cause an additional drop in internal resistance and sensitivity. The main effect
on the piezoelectric effect is that with increasing pressure loads and temperature, the sensitivity is
reduced due to twin-formation. While quartz sensors need to be cooled during measurements at
temperatures above 300C, special types of crystals like GaPO4 gallium phosphate do not show any
twin formation up to the melting point of the material itself.
However, it is not true that piezoelectric sensors can only be used for very fast processes or at
ambient conditions. In fact, there are numerous applications that show quasi-static measurements,
while there are other applications with temperatures higher than 500C.

Piezoelectric sensors are also seen in nature. Dry bone is piezoelectric, and is thought by
some to act as a biological force sensor.

2.2 PIEZO BUZZER

A buzzer or beeper is an audio signaling device, which may be mechanical, electromechanical, or electronic. Typical uses of buzzers and beepers include alarms, timers and
confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or keystroke. The Fig 2.6 shows piezoelectric disk
beeper.

Fig 2.6 piezoelectric disk beeper

Mechanical
A joy buzzer is an example of a purely mechanical buzzer.

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

14

Electromechanical
Early devices were based on an electromechanical system identical to an electric

bell without the metal gong. Similarly, a relay may be connected to interrupt its own
actuating current, causing the contacts to buzz. Often these units were anchored to a wall or ceiling
to use it as a sounding board. The word "buzzer" comes from the rasping noise that
electromechanical buzzers made.

Electronic
A piezoelectric element may be driven by an oscillating electronic circuit or other audio

signal source. Sounds commonly used to indicate that a button has been pressed are a click, a ring or
a beep. Electronic buzzers find many applications in modern days.

2.3 TL071
This will focus on the features of the TL071 Low noise JFET single operational amplifier
such as its description, electrical characteristics and its operations.

Description
The TL071 is a high-speed JFET input single operational amplifier. This JFET input
operational amplifier incorporates well matched, high-voltage JFET and bipolar transistors in a
monolithic integrated circuit. The device features high slew rates, low input bias and offset currents,
and low offset voltage temperature coefficient. The Fig 2.7 shows the pin out configuration of the
IC.

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

15

Fig 2.7 pin connection of Tl071 IC

1 - Offset null 1
2 - Inverting input
3 - Non-inverting input
4 - VCC5 - Offset null 2
6 - Output
7 - VCC+
8 - N.C.
Features of TL071 IC
Tl071 IC is a slightly for powerful JFET single input operational amplifier which has the
following features;

Wide common-mode (up to VCC+) and differential voltage range

Low input bias and offset current
Low noise en = 15nV/ Hz
Output short-circuit protection
High input impedance JFET input stage
Low harmonic distortion: 0.01%

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

16

Internal frequency compensation

Latch-up free operation
High slew rate: 16V /s

All voltage values, except differential voltage, are with respect to the zero reference level
(ground) of the supply voltages where the zero reference level is the midpoint between VCC+ and
VCC. The magnitude of the input voltage must never exceed the magnitude of the supply voltage or
15 volts, whichever is less. Differential voltages are the non-inverting input terminal with respect to
the inverting input terminal. Short-circuits can cause excessive heating. Destructive dissipation can
result from simultaneous short-circuits on all amplifiers. Rth are typical values. The output may be
shorted to ground or to either supply. Temperature and/or supply voltages must be limited to ensure
that the dissipation rating is not exceeded.

Human body model: 100pF discharged through a 1.5k resistor between two pins of the
device, done for all couples of pin combinations with other pins floating. Machine model: a 200pF
cap is charged to the specified voltage, then discharged directly between two pins of the device with
no external series resistor (internal resistor < 5 ), done for all couples of pin combinations with
other pins floating. Charged device model: all pins plus package are charged together to the specified
voltage and then discharged directly to the ground. The input bias currents are junction leakage
currents which approximately double for every 10C increase in the junction temperature.

2.4 NE555 Timer IC

Overview
The 555

Timer

IC is

an integrated

circuit (chip)

implementing

variety

of timer and multivibrator applications. The IC was designed by Hans R. Camenzind in1970 and
brought to market in 1971 by Signetics (later acquired by Philips). The original name was the SE555
(metal can)/NE555 (plastic DIP) and the part was described as "The IC Time Machine".

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

17

It has been claimed that the 555 gets its name from the three 5 k resistors used in typical
early implementations, but Hans Camenzind has stated that the number was arbitrary. The part is still
in wide use, thanks to its ease of use, low price and good stability. As of 2003, it is estimated that 1
billion units are manufactured every year.

Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package includes over 20 transistors,
2 diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line package (DIP8). Variants available include the 556 (a 14-pin DIP combining two 555s on one chip), and the 558 (a
16-pin DIP combining four slightly modified 555s with DIS & THR connected internally, and TR
falling edge sensitive instead of level sensitive).

Ultra-low power versions of the 555 are also available, such as the 7555 and TLC555. The
7555 requires slightly different wiring using fewer external components and less power.
The 555 has three operating modes:

Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a one-shot. Applications include timers,
missing pulse detection, bounce free switches, touch switches, frequency divider, capacitance
measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM) etc

Astable - free running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include LED and
lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms, pulse position
modulation, etc.

Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not
connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce free latched switches, etc.

Pin Outs & Descriptions

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

18

The 555 integrated circuit is a highly accurate timing circuit that is capable of producing
either time delays or oscillation. The Fig 2.8 shows the pin out diagram of IC NE555 timer.

Fig 2.8 Pin out diagram of NE555 Timer IC

V+ is the supply voltage. GND is also Ground (0V) connection for supply voltage. Threshold
is an active high input pin that is used to monitor the charging

of the timing capacitor. Control

Voltage is used to adjust the threshold voltage if required. This should be left disconnected if the
function is not required. A 0.01uF capacitor to Gnd can be used in electrically noisy circuits. The
Trigger is also an active low trigger input that starts the timer. Discharge is the output pin that is used
to discharge the timing capacitor. Out is known as the Timer output pin. Reset is also an active low
reset pin normally connected to V+ if the reset function is not required. The Fig 2.9 shows the block
diagram of IC NE555 timer.

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

19

Fig 2.9 NE555 Timer IC block diagram

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

20

Monostable Operation
The circuit diagram shown in Fig 2.10 illustrates the monostable configuration of the NE555
Timer IC.

Fig 2.10 Monostable configuration of Timer IC NE555

In monostable mode the device produces a 'one shot' pulsed output. The pulse is started by a
taking the trigger input from a high (V+) to a low voltage. Once triggered the circuit remains in this
state even if triggered again during the pulse interval.
The pulse high time is given by: t = 1.1 x R1 x C1
The high to low voltage transition on the trigger input causes the Flip-Flop to become set.
This releases the short circuit (created by holding of the discharge pin low) across capacitor C1. At
this point the output goes high. Capacitor C1 then begins to charge and the voltage across it begins

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

21

to increase. When it reaches 2/3 V+ the Flip-Flop is reset. This causes capacitor C1 to discharge very
quickly and the output goes low.
Minimum output pulse = 5 S
Maximum output pulse = 5 minutes
R1 minimum resistance = 1K ohm
R1 maximum resistance = 1Mohm

Here in our project, we are operating IC 555 timer in monostable mode of operation.

2.5 TRANSISTOR

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals. It is

made of a solid piece of semiconductor material, with at least three terminals for connection to an
external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the
current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be
much more than the controlling (input) power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal.
Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated
circuits.

The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is
ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its release in the early 1950s the transistor
revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and cheaper radios, calculators,
and computers, amongst other things.

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

22

Types of Transistors
There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit symbols.
The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most
transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to make from silicon. The Fig 3.11
shows the transistor circuit symbols.

Fig 2.11 Transistor Circuit Symbols

The leads are labeled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).These terms refer to the
internal operation of a transistor but they are not much helpful in understanding how a transistor is
used.
NPN
NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, in which the letters "N" and "P" refer to
the majority charge carriers inside the different regions of the transistor. Most bipolar transistors
used today are NPN, because electron mobility is higher than hole mobility in semiconductors,
allowing greater currents and faster operation.
NPN transistors consist of a layer of P-doped semiconductor (the "base") between two Ndoped layers. A small current entering the base in common-emitter mode is amplified in the collector
output. In other terms, an NPN transistor is "on" when its base is pulled high relative to the emitter.
The arrow in the NPN transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and points in the direction of the
conventional current flow when the device is in forward active mode.

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

23

PNP
The other type of BJT is the PNP with the letters "P" and "N" referring to the majority charge
carriers inside the different regions of the transistor. PNP transistors consist of a layer of N-doped
semiconductor between two layers of P-doped material. A small current leaving the base in commonemitter mode is amplified in the collector output. In other terms, a PNP transistor is "on" when its
base is pulled low relative to the emitter. The arrow in the PNP transistor symbol is on the emitter leg
and points in the direction of the conventional current flow when the device is in forward active
mode.
Working of Transistor
The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small signal applied
between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at another pair of terminals. This
property is called "gain". A transistor can control its output in proportion to the input signal; this is
called an "amplifier". Or, the transistor can be used to turn current on or off in a circuit like an
electrically controlled "switch", where the amount of current is determined by other circuit elements.

The two types of transistors have slight differences in how they are used in a circuit. A
bipolar transistor has terminals labeled base, collector and emitter. A small current at base terminal
can control or switch a much larger current between collector and emitter terminals. For a fieldeffect transistor, the terminals are labeled gate, source, and drain, and a voltage at the gate can
control a current between source and drain.

With a field-effect transistor, a small voltage at the input is made to control a current at the
output. The current is made to flow through a load, which can be a fairly large resistance. As a result,
the output voltage can be many times larger than the input. With the bipolar junction transistor, it is a
tiny current at the input that is used to control a much larger current at the output.

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

24

Uses

The bipolar junction transistor, or BJT, was the most commonly used transistor in the 1960s and
70s. Even after MOSFETs became widely available, the BJT remained the transistor of choice for
many analog circuits such as simple amplifiers because of their greater linearity and ease of
manufacture. Desirable properties of MOSFETs, such as their utility in low-power devices, usually
in the CMOS configuration, allowed them to capture nearly all market share for digital circuits; more
recently MOSFETs have captured most analog and power applications as well, including modern
clocked analog circuits, voltage regulators, amplifiers, power transmitters, motor drivers, etc.

BC 548 transistor
The transistor we are using in this project is BC548. It is general purpose silicon, NPN,
bipolar junction transistor found commonly in European electronic equipment. It is electrically
similar to the North American 2N3904 and Japanese 2SC1815 but has different lead assignments.
If the TO-92 package is held in front of one's face with the flat side facing toward you and the leads
downward, in the Fig 2.12 the order of the leads, from left to right is collector, base, emitter. Note
that the pin assignment of the complementary PNP device BC558 is exactly the same.

Fig 2.12 BC548 transistor

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

25

Advantages
The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace their vacuum tube predecessors in
most applications are

Small size and minimal weight, allowing the development of miniaturized electronic devices.

Highly automated manufacturing processes, resulting in low per-unit cost.

Lower possible operating voltages, making transistors suitable for small, battery-powered
applications.

No warm-up period for cathode heaters required after power application.

Lower power dissipation and generally greater energy efficiency.

Higher reliability and greater physical ruggedness.

Extremely long life. Some transistorized devices have been in service for more than 50 years.

Complementary

devices

available,

facilitating

the

design

of complementary-

symmetry circuits, something not possible with vacuum tubes.

Insensitivity to mechanical shock and vibration, thus avoiding the problem of micro
phonics in audio applications.

Limitations

Silicon transistors do not operate at voltages higher than about 1,000 volts (Sic devices can
be operated as high as 3,000 volts). In contrast, electron tubes have been developed that can
be operated at tens of thousands of volts.

High power, high frequency operation, such as that used in over-the-air television
broadcasting,

is better achieved in electron tubes due to improved electron mobility in a

vacuum.

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

26

Silicon transistors are much more vulnerable than electron tubes to an electromagnetic
pulse generated by a high-altitude nuclear explosion.

2.6 RESISTOR
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its terminals
that is proportional to the electric current through it in accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR

Fig 2.13 A typical axial-lead resistor

Here Fig 2.13 shows a typical axial lead resistor. Resistors are elements of electrical
networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors
can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a highresistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome).

The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, the maximum
working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise,
and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation
limits the maximum permitted current, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical
resistance is determined by the design, materials and dimensions of the resistor.

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

27

Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated circuits. Size,
and position of leads (or terminals), are relevant to equipment designers; resistors must be physically
large enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.

Units
The ohm (symbol: ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm.
Commonly used multiples and submultiples in electrical and electronic usage are the milliohm
(1x103), kilohm (1x103), and megohm (1x106).

Theory of operation
Ohm's law
The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's law:

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I)
through it where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).
Equivalently, Ohm's law can be stated:

This formulation of Ohm's law states that, when a voltage (V) is maintained across a
resistance (R), a current (I) will flow through the resistance.

VARIABLE RESISTOR
There are two kinds of resistors, FIXED and VARIABLE. The fixed resistor will have one
value and will never change (other than through temperature, age, etc.). There are two types of
variable resistors, one called a POTENTIOMETER and the other a RHEOSTAT. An example of the

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

28

potentiometer is the volume control on your radio, and an example of the rheostat is the dimmer
control for the dash lights in an automobile. There is a slight difference between them.

Rheostats usually have two connections, one fixed and the other moveable. Any variable
resistor can properly be called a rheostat. The potentiometer always has three connections, two fixed
and one moveable. Generally, the rheostat has a limited range of values and a high current-handling
capability. The potentiometer has a wide range of values, but it usually has a limited currenthandling capability. Potentiometers are always connected as voltage dividers. Fig 2.14 shows a
variable Resistor.

Fig 2.14 Variable Resistor

2.7 CAPACITOR
Function
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits because it
takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC supplies by acting
as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because capacitors easily pass AC
(changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

29

Capacitance
This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means that more
charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads (F). However 1F is very large, so prefixes
are used to show the smaller values.
Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, (micro), n (nano) and p (Pico):

means 10-6 (millionth),

n means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF

= 1F

p means 10-12(million-millionth),

= 1nF

so 1000000F

so 1000pF

= 1F

Capacitor values can be very difficult to find because there are many types of capacitor with
different labeling systems! There are many types of capacitor but they can be split into two groups,
polarized and unpolarized. Each group has its own circuit symbol.

Polarized Capacitors (large values, 1F +)

Here Fig 2.15 shows polarized capacitors and fig 2.16 shows circuit symbol.

Fig 2.15 Polarized capacitors

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

30

Fig 2.16 Circuit Symbol of Polarized Capacitor

Electrolytic Capacitors
Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be connected the correct way round, at
least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by heat when soldering. There
are two designs of electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are attached to each end and radial
where both leads are at the same end. Radial capacitors tend to be a little smaller and they stand
upright on the circuit board.

It is easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitors because they are clearly printed with their
capacitance and voltage rating. The voltage rating can be quite low (6V for example) and it should
always be checked when selecting an electrolytic capacitor. If the project parts list does not specify a
voltage, choose a capacitor with a rating which is greater than the project's power supply voltage.
25V is a sensible minimum most battery circuits. Fig 2.17 shows electrolytic Capacitor.

Fig 2.17 Electrolytic Capacitor

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

31

Tantalum Bead Capacitors

Tantalum bead capacitors are polarized and have low voltage ratings like electrolytic
capacitors. They are expensive but very small, so they are used where a large capacitance is needed
in a small size. Fig 2.18 shows tantalum bead capacitor.

Fig 2.18 Tantalum Bead Capacitor

2.8 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

A light-emitting-diode (LED) is a semiconductor diode that emits light when an electric
current is applied in the forward direction of the device, as in the simple LED circuit. The effect is a
form of electroluminescence where incoherent and narrow-spectrum light is emitted from the p-n
junction in a solid state material. In all semiconductor PN junctions, some energy will be radiated as
heat and some in the form of photons.
In materials such as gallium phosphide or gallium arsenide phosphide, the number of
photons of light energy emitted is sufficient to create a visible light source. Here, the charge carrier
recombination takes place when electrons from the N-side cross the junction and recombine with the
holes on the p-side.

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

32

Fig 2.19 LEDs

Blue, green, and red LEDs shown in Fig 2.19, can be combined to produce most perceptible
colors, including white. Infrared and ultraviolet (UVA) LEDs are also available. Fig 3.8b shows
Schematic of LED.

Fig 2.20 Schematic of LED

2.9 BATTERY
Battery, a device that converts energy stored in chemicals into energy in the form of
electricity. It consists of two or more electric cells connected in series or parallel. A number of new
types of batteries have been designed for use in electric vehicles. Improved versions of conventional
storage batteries have been developed for electric cars, but they still suffer the drawbacks of short
range, high expense, bulkiness, or environmental problems.

Advanced batteries that show promise for use in electric vehicles include lithium-iron
sulphide, zinc-chlorine, nickel metal hydride, and sodium-sulphur. Such batteries are also being
developed by electricity supply companies to be used for load levelling, to compensate for
momentary system load fluctuations. Such battery modules could be installed close to sites of
variable demand. They cause few environmental problems and occupy little space.

9V battery
A 9V battery, also called a PP3 battery, is shaped as a rounded rectangular prism and has a
nominal output of nine volts. Its nominal dimensions are 48 mm 25 mm 15 mm. 9v batteries are
Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

33

commonly used in pocket transistor radios, smoke detectors, carbon monoxide alarms, guitar
effect units, and radio-controlled vehicle controllers. They are also used as backup power to keep the
time in digital clocks and alarm clocks. Fig 2.21 shows a battery.

Fig 2.21 Battery

Connectors
The connector (snap) consists of two connectors: one smaller circular (male) and one larger,
typically either hexagonal or octagonal (female). The connectors on the battery are the same as on
the connector itself; the smaller one connects to the larger one and vice versa.

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

34

CHAPTER 3
DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF
SEISMIC SENSOR

DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF SEISMIC SENSOR

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

35

In this chapter we will discuss the block diagram, circuit diagram, basic operation and working
of seismic sensor in detail.

3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

The Fig 3.1 shows the block diagram of the proposed circuit for the project.

AMPLIFIER
AMPLIFIER
PIEZO
PIEZO
ELEMEN
ELEMEN
T
T

CIRCUIT/UNIT
CIRCUIT/UNIT
PIEZO
BUZZER/SPEAKER
TIMER
CIRCUIT/UNIT

Fig 3.1 Block diagram of seismic sensor using a piezo element

It consists of a Piezo element used to detect the vibrations produced by an object, an

amplifier circuit which is basically a differential amplifier, a monostable multivibrator as a timer
circuit and a Piezo buzzer used to produce the sound.

3.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

The Fig 3.2 shows the circuitry for the seismic sensor with its description below.

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

36

R5
1k
PIEZO
ELEMENT

100K

R9
470

PIEZO
BUZZER

LED
2
C2
0.1F

7
R1

R7
1M

R6
470k

R2
10K
2
3

R3
100K

R4
330

IC1
TL071 6

T1
BC548

IC2

NE555

R8
1K

6
3

T2
BC548

VR1
1M

9V
BATTERY

C1
10F
25V

C6
10F
25V

LEDI

C3
100F
25V

C4
0.01F

C5
10F
25V

Fig 3.2 Circuit diagram for the seismic sensor

The circuit uses readily available components and the design is straight-forward. A standard
piezo sensor is used to detect vibrations/sounds due to pressure changes. The piezo element acts as a
small capacitor having a capacitance of a few nanofarads. Like a capacitor, it can store charge when
a potential is applied to its terminals. It discharges through VR1, when it is disturbed. In the circuit,
Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

37

IC TLO71 (IC1) is wired as a differential amplifier with both its inverting and non-inverting inputs
tied to the negative rail through a resistive network comprising R1, R2 and R3. Under idle conditions
(as adjusted by VR1), both the inputs receive almost equal voltages, which keeps the output low.

TLO71 is a low-noise JFET input op-amp with low input bias and offset current. The BIFET
technology provides fast slew rates. Capacitor C1 is provided in the circuit to keep the differential
input of IC1 for better performance.

3.3 BASIC OPERATION

When the piezo element is disturbed (by even a slight movement), it discharges the stored
charge. This alters the voltage level at the inputs of IC1 and the output momentarily swings high as
indicated by green LED1. This high output is used to trigger switching transistor T1, which triggers
monostable IC2. The timing period of IC2 is determined by R7 and C5. With the shown values, it
will be around 10 seconds. The high output from IC2 activates T2 and the buzzer starts beeping
along with red light indication from LED2.

3.4 WORKING OF SEISMIC SENSOR

In the circuit, IC TLO71 (IC1) is wired as a differential amplifier with both its inverting and
non-inverting inputs tied to the negative rail through a resistive network comprising R1, R2 and R3.
Under idle conditions (as adjusted by VR1), both the inputs receive almost equal voltages, which
keeps the output low. TLO71 is a low-noise JFET input op-amp with low input bias and offset

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

38

current. The BIFET technology provides fast slew rates. Capacitor C1 is provided in the circuit to
keep the differential input of IC1 for better performance.

When the piezo element is disturbed (by even a slight movement), it discharges the stored
charge. This alters the voltage level at the inputs of IC1 and the output momentarily swings high as
indicated by green LED1. This high output is used to trigger switching transistor T1, which triggers
monostable IC2. The timing period of IC2 is determined by R7 and C5. With the shown values, it
will be around 10 seconds. The high output from IC2 activates T2 and the buzzer starts beeping
along with red light indication from LED2.

Assemble the circuit on a common PCB and enclose in a suitable cabinet. Connect the piezo
element to the PCB using single-core shielded wire. Enclose the piezo element inside a rustproof,
small aluminum box. The piezo element should be firmly glued to the enclosure facing the fine side
towards the case. Fix the sensor assembly on the back side of a ceramic tile or granite tile with good
adhesive. Fix the tile (or bury it in the earth) near the entrance with the sensor assembly facing
downwards. Whenever a pressure change develops near the sensor, the circuit will be activated.

3.5 DESIGN CALCULATIONS

The below calculation is the basic design calculations for the transistors T1 and T2 as well as
the timing period for the circuit to produce its beeping sound along with the red LED.
Biasing Voltage = 1.7v (Theoretical Value)
Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

39

Vcc = VBE + IRRL

T1; IB = 1.7/R4
= 1.7/330
= 0.0052 A
T2; IB = 1.7/R8
= 1.7/1 *103
= 0.0017 A
The timing period of IC2 is determined by R7 and C5.
T = 1.11 *R5 * C7

DISTURBANC
E OF PIEZO
= 1.11 * 1 x 106 * 10ELEMENT
x10-6

= 11 seconds.
IC1
VOLTAGE
LEVEL IS
ALTERED

3.6 FLOWCHART

SWITCHING
TRANSISTOR
T2 IS
TRIGGERED
MONOSTABLE
TO IC2 trigger
HIGH OUTPUT
OF IC2
ACTIVATES T2

The flowchart in Fig 4.6a shows the flow control or processes of operation of the seismic sensor.

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

BUZZER
STARTS
TO
Department
of ECE
BEEP

SEISMIC SENSOR

40

Fig 3.3 Flow chart for seismic sensor using piezo element

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

41

CHAPTER 4
APPLICATIONS OF SEISMIC SENSOR

APPLICATIONS OF SEISMIC SENSOR

1. It can be used at all the places where we require a lot of security e.g. in Bank lockers, in

jeweler showrooms etc.

2. It can also be used at the areas where human or any animal entry is not allowed (e.g. Danger
zones).

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

42

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

43

CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE

1. This is a low budget project so any one can use it easily.
2. It will help in many ways if we use a high efficiency piezo element and piezo buzzer.
3. This project can also be extended into the seismometer or the earthquake detectors.

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

44

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

45

CHAPTER 6
REFERENCES

REFERENCES

1.
2.
3.
4.

http://www.electronicsforu.com.
www.piezoelectricmaterials.com.
En.wikipedia.org/wiki/piezoelectricity,resistor,transistor,capacitor.
www.circuitstoday.com/ 555timer-as-monostablemultivibrator, ICTL071.

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE

SEISMIC SENSOR

46

5. www.scribd.com/ Design and Implementation of Seismic Sensor.

6. Salivahanan, Suresh Kumar, Vallavaraj Electronic Devices and Circuits, Tata McGraw
Hill, 4e.
7. Srinivasan Electronic Circuit Analysis, Anuradha Publications, 2e.

Nalla Malla Reddy Engg. College

Department of ECE