JOHN

Sm

LUBBOCK'S

HUNDRED

BOOKS

16

BIOGRAPHICAL

HISTORY

PHILOSOPHY

OF

S/R

JOHN

LUBBOCK*

.ORDER

OF

HERODOTUS.

Babhr,

b}-

BOOKS.

PUBLICATION.

Henry

from

translated

Literally

1.

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A.

M.

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Translated

NATURALIST

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THE

Text

6d.

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the

from

AURELIUS.

Greek

the

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Collier.

Jeremy

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IS.

THE

TEACHING

EPICTETUS.

OF

Translated

4.

from
T.

5.

the
W.

Introduction

and

IS.

With

Introduction

an

LL.D.

Morley,

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is.

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LUBBOCK'S

JOPN

BOOKS

HUNDRED

HISTORY

BIOGRAPHICAL
OF

PHILOSOPHY

BY

G.

"

Man

is not

bom

it, in

attempt
Knowable."

V For

\ And

"

order

to

solve

the
he

that

LEWES

H.

of Existence

mystery

how

learn

may

to

; but

keep

he

nevertheless,

must,

within

the

limits

of

Gothe.

I doubt
ihe

noi through

thoughts

of

the

men

are

ages

one

increasing

widened

by the

purpose

process

runs,

of the

suns."
Tennyson.

LONDON

GEORGE

ROUTLEDGE

Broadway,
GLASGOW,

AND

AND

1892

Limited

Hill

Ludgate

MANCHESTER,

SONS,

NEW

YORK

the

LONDON

PRINTID

BT

J.

S.

AND

VIRTUB

CITY

ROAD.

CO.,

UMITBD,

INTRODUCTION
BY

The

Right

Hon.

Sir

LUBBOCK,

JOHN

F.R.S.,

M.P.,

Bart.,

LL.D.

D.C.L.,

""""

the

In

at

printed

the

I gave
address
an
Men's
College, which

Working
as

of

one

That,

really to
books,

for instance
"

the

of

"

to

enjoyment
books

the

mentioned

directly

or

have

books

of

half

remarkable
all

deny

to
as

300

not

or

that

than

one.

those

be

no

referred

several

deference

the

to

in

no

two

included

suggested

half

of

persons
such

in
are

not

originally appeared, having

284019

books

would
a

entirely

made

inserted

have

to

which

can

changes

Kalidasa's

one

the

among
consider

two

it is

appears
half

concur
no

only good, but

changes

been

addition,

about

only

list,I believe

glad,

many

Moreover,

suggested

and

them,

one.

any

for

proposed

omission.

additional

the

almost

of -the criticisms, and

been

for

suggested
of

to

occur

of

hames

have

have

names

list, many

several

to

I am,
indeed
however,
ready, and
and
willing to make
very
any
be improvements.
I have
indeed
it

in

Principia,"

exclude

appeared, and
it is said
ought to have
omissions
corresponding

list

which

400

one
even

to

the

hand

are

lists, or

would

added
on

I have

dozen

more

books

be

other

while, perhaps,

But
all the
,

the

that

the
in

dozen

well

mentioned

been
On

that, while

find

it would

the

reading

on

criticisms

suggested.

only

that

might

various

'included.
been

"

Newton's

hundred

own.

my

doubt

no

have

iDooks

If

the

others.

which

Indeed,

best

statement

"

suggestions
I

list has

the
hundred

the

judgment
"

I inserted

which

"

and
"

was

year

Life."

living authors, from some

Again, I excluded
stance,
Rusldn
and
and
Tyndall, for inHuxley
Tennyson,
mention
the keftiest
others
I have
no
myself derived
that
I did not
select
especially I expressly stated
; and
those
but
most
own
being
on
as
authority,
frequently
my
writers
who
have
with
referred
approval
by those
the
of
rather
than
to
reading,
indirectly
pleasure
as

of

whom

several

include, and

not

of

correct

in my

are

contain

I did

names,
list of

my

Reading"

following

Pleasures

quite

not

instance

for

Koran,"

judgment

^whtch

"

as

list of what

it would

greatest

since

is

"

hundred

one

to

however,
make

were

in

about

the

in

and

Books

on

in my

chapters

referred

frequently

books."

"

the

it I mentioned

In
been

"

1886

year

**

any
be
in

to

as

would
best.
suggestions,
shown
the

list

Sakoontala,

INTRODUCTION.

VI

Schiller's "William
Tell"; omitting Lucretius,
Ring," and
which
is perhaps rather
Miss
too
difficult,and
Austen, as English
novelists
somewhat
were
over-represented.
The

or

Another
known
words.

every

one,

Every

one,

this.

in his

But

that

Milton.

There

Iddesleigh,
read

books

the

mentioned

; that they
knows
about

by name
said,

been

and

Lord

had

been

rate

any
it has

even

"Life,"

has

at

Shakespeare

Homer,
in

made

objection

to

is, no

Mr.

as

are

are

household

as

and

Herodotus

doubt,

some

has

Lang

Marcus

truth

pointed

and

out

add

Aurelius,
may
for having
warmly
suggested the
"
him.*
Lord
Meditations
to
If,then, even
ably
Iddesleigh, " probwho
the literature
of the last of English
knew
statesmen
one
and
Rome
read
of Greece
Marcus
not
well," had
widely and
well suppose
that others
also may
be in the same
Aurelius, we may
that

he

never

thanked

afterwards

me

"

position. It
an
unusually

and

"

should

one

any

the

very

few

Indeed,
I

chose

Another

choose

for

the

no

"

as

himself.

And

just as

doubt

no

round

so

the

"

But

the

why

best

eleven,

this

remark

duodecimal

up

Greek."

that

thirty,would
given 90, or

even

have

been

made

be
1 10.

instead

number

to

120.

number.

that

he

or

literature,

corrupt

than

well

beautiful

most

other

observed

more

had

have

been

has

books,

notation

the

conjecture."

to

Eleven

doubt

being
objection has
100

hundred,

might

arithmetical

of

one

work

recent

best

point.

no

it is hard

doubt

I should

decimal,

only

in

to

in any
in "crabbed
and

wrote

emperor
writer

Uie

; but
if our

was

indeed

in classical,or

select

entirely misses

called

attention

thirtybooks,

best

what

on

literature
that
Mr.
knowledge
Lang
probably quite correctlyr-Lord Iddesleigh's

popular

commentary
of classical

and

fact that the

the

Again,

of

curious

having had his

improving books

never

or

wide

ascribe

should

to

is also

one

every

must.

No

list

should
can

be

be
more

left to
than

suggestion. But a great literary authority can

hardly perhaps
of selection.
into
An
turned
the difficulty
ordinary person
and
for
has
do so
to
himself,
a
sarcasticallytold to choose
library
book
He
with
almost
at haphazard.
a
an
light
perhaps
upon
may
and
it much
valuable
attractive
after wasting on
time
title,and
find
insteatl
of
either
or
that,
pleasure
profit,he has
patience,
weakened, or perhaps lost^ his love of reading.
the idea of
Messrs.
George
Routledge and Sons have conceived
list in a handy and
contained
in my
cheap
publishing the books
the
editions
which
themselves
form, selecting
they prefer ; and I
who
believe
in doing
that
so
they will confer a benefit on many
funds
have
collect
not
to
or
a large library.
space
a

realize

JOHN
High

LUBBOCK.

Elms,
Kent,

Down,
30
*

Marchy

I have

since

89 1.

had

many

other

letters to the

same

effect

SERIES

ANCIENT

I.

PHILOSOPHY

PREFACE.

write

To

of

expression

There

pardoned,

have
of

some

than

these

of

the

word,

Life

guided

has

and

task,
the

of

attempting

present

unite

to

of

in

schools

"

had

believe,

attempt,

grapher.
bio-

no

which

principles

the

more

development

and

yet,

"

composition

the

is

It

works

in

usual,

instruction,

the

on

reasonable

have
in

stated

are

as

an

is

work

exist,

destined

work

wanted

to

for

excuse

invites

practice

History
for

one's

for

if

and,

express

other

satisfaction
dis-

proper

So

audacity.

own

imitation,

present

work

that

existing

works

of
a

great

abridgment

and

at

even

that
have

should

work,

long

of

it

no

risk

the

the

of

and,

in
Dr.

although

of

which
Enfield
the

may

claim

means

superfluous.

era

when

subject

others,

delight

the

obsolete

Brucker

by

supersede

considering

been

rendered

not

important

an

although

it

Philosophers,'

the

had

is

Philosophy

of

granted

the

though

such

already

them,

public

the

to

presumptuous.

taken

Lives

that

subject

appearing
That

presenting

show

to

at

his

such

of

opinions

critical

others

philosophical

these

little

Introduction.

the

in

schools

being

others

haps
per-

attempt.

philosophical

rise, growth,

Philosophy

of

and

the

But

exhibited

as

and

of

The

may

novel

chronicles

fragments
systems

conception

My

be

of

work.

novel,

characterizes

laborious

and

plans.

Philosophy,

it

numerous

various

of

though

Philosophy,"

graphies
Bio-

the

writing

following

the

of

histories

learned

collection

aim

the

because

been

these

estimates
both

of

Biography

"

be

is

Philosophers

while

Philosophy

of

Biography

the

do

for
think

Stanley's

boyhood,

my

it

was

duced,
pro-

undertook
translation

of

PREFACE.

Kilter's

'

History

Philosophy

of

learned,

of the

shelves

"

its

yet

'

driven

has

and

cost

Enfield

voluminousness

prevented its superseding Enfield with the many.

erudition
Dr. Enfield
a
man
was
equally without
and he simply abridged the ill-digested
work
erudition.

immense

Brucker

from

of the

have

and
of

learned

the

city,
capaof

man

and

patient
industry was
so
indefatigablethat his work
remain
altogether superseded ; \X, must
hardly become
can
one
whence
will
draw.
writer^
source
succeeding
But,
great
title of Father
the
of the
although he deserves
History of
of sagacity, and
of philosophical,no
less
Philosophy, his want
than
his ever
literary attainments, effectually prevent
again
laborious
than as
a
being regarded otherwise
compiler. Dr.
all the
faults
of arrangement
Enfield's Abridgment
possesses
whose

Germans,

of

dulness

and

one

was

work,

Brucker's

which

blundering

and

dulness

to

has

he

of

his

added

consider
in-

no

Moreover,

own.

Yet
his book
has
shamefully inaccurate.
been
it
reprinted in a cheap form, and
extensively bought
extensively read.
certainly has not been
is a work
Ritter's
of reputation.
History of Philosophy
and
This reputation, however, is higher in France
England than

his

references

are

"

'

in

the

; and

Germany

is apparent
have
:
we
that a work
Ritter's
like

reason

the

subject,
Germany
they have
so
acquisition.
in
and
all
styles,that
degrees of excellence
our

upon

own

In

of Ritter

his

"

been

I have

that

of

keenly

are

indebted

much

so

work,

own

becomes

"

his deficiencies

while

of my

erudition

to

ingratitude; but let me hope

appreciation of his merits and demerits
Ritter

quite
and

so

is the

Brucker

learned, and

impartial.
; but

As

where

not

far

quite

so

honest

as

labour

of

ends

the

great

ance,
import-

secondary

Ritter, dvuing the

than

worse

is

little of

of all
works
many
the great advantage

very
felt.

depreciation of

any

so

him

that
will

here
calm

not

nineteenth

dull ; also
labour

his merits

not

goes

end.
his

be

progress
be
would

honest

and

stood.
misunder-

century

quite
there

His

is

so
no

"

not

calm
ciency
defi-

exposition

historical

confused;
ciation,
apprein
from
the
others, superficial
his criticisms
deficient
in speculative
heavy and
extreme;
work
the
whole
ability, and
spirit. He
wanting life and
rises with the greatness of his subject, and
never
perhaps the
to Socrates,
portions of his book are those devoted
very worst
remarkable
because
Plato, and Aristotle ; and this is the more
is

generally purposeless
when

not

and

borrowed

PREFACE.

diligentlystudied

has

he

of materials

for

the
a

; but it is only an
works
Beyond the above

valuable

reader

portions of the
appeared, from
from

systems
which

subject
time

the

Thales

As

last.

two

lection
col-

study of the subject, his book is very

improved supplement to Bnicker.
I know

are

of

Essays
enough ; and

numerous

There

was

in

Plato, given in
in the
'Foreign

to

English

on

distinct
have

there

all of

Reviews,

the

view

of

ar\cient

series

of

articles

connected

the

whence

none

time, articles

to

ability.

less

or

writingsof

gain satisfactoryinformation.

can

more

XI

Quarterly Review,'
the
during 1843
masterly
1844;
which
Essay on
Metaphysical Philosophy,'
appeared in the
Encyclopaedia Metropolitana,* eloquent, ingenious, and
found.
proexcited

attention

and

and

also mention

I must

'

all these

But

always accessible.

something
The

There

materials

because

is

work
for

what

was

been

easier to let my

deemed

in

at

as

has

It is small

sketch.

diffuse

I have

small

list of

by

figure in

the

of miscellaneous

be

is

allowed.

It

of

thinkers

such

Only
phases

have

the

to

erudition

of

character

But

so.

can

add

have, therefore,

standard.

an

erudite

air,that

in

the

The

the

foot-notes

reader

idle

such

to

and
little,
good excuse

different

of

this will appear

It is

erudition

that

names

complete collection

no

tedious

tradition.

been

selected

as

of

execution.

respecting the

two

or

mine

make

progressive development;
such
with
connected
those
opinions as were
phases.
written the Biography, not the Annals, of Philosophy.
word

So
I have

whenever

will not

ostentation

subject; and, if the

be

savant

I make

Its

that
for

little have

only

have

sions
pretena

work

sors.
predeces-

already exist the greatest

as

little of

subsidiaryvalue

wishing

to

avoided

absence

to

be

to

I desired

studiously
their

its

as

may

sent
repre-

and

no

consequently,

insignificantbeside
works

of

space

organic completeness, if the expression

an

the various

have

like
great dis-

to

complete

no

philosophy ; it is
opinions preserved by

annals

completeness

is

only

would

It

the

; not

because

bulky quartos or solid-lookingoctavos

; but
endeavoured
to
"big books," and have
concentration.

for

complete.

into

wander

not

opening

an

selected.

been

materials

works

deficient, but

larger were

essential

be

to

brief and

once

meant

not

voluminous

still seemed

something

new,

present

buried

are

measured

give

by

this work

using references
was

unimportant.
pruned of

thus

se^
my
sorry
which
disfiguresso

pages

History look

superficialin

more

; I

many

works

on

this

conse-

PREFACE.

Xll

it

quence,

is

will

judge

to

Such

which

upon

referred

have

to,

all

discovered

not

of
that

the

in

by

no

me

reference

or

which

of

to,

not

all,

Preface

that

the

and,

List

consequently,

author

derived

by

all

It

of

must

the

abuse

be

not

references

exact

of

my

citation.

but

erudite.
drawn

used

those

by

in

that

in

me

citation

any

from,
is

List,

exactitude

the

responsible.
G.

that

Books

of

for

second-hand,

at

out
with-

the

included

not

self
my-

declare

irksome

duty,

even

comprises

ancient

as

am

for

Series

an

considered

be

to

this

of

historian's

fulfilled

were

availed

whenever

original,

the

by

or

they

second-hand

at

passage

the

rarely

once

this

of

of

part

very

then,

end

writing

the

and

say,

the

at

up

is

it

when

conscientiously

can

verified

This

indispensable,

but

quoted,

liberally

have

accepted

tent
compe-

The

have

verified,

course

others;

previously

possible.

Let

of

which

relied,

Of

are

"second-hand."

not

scrupulously

me.

have

case

having
was

been

industry

is

have

who

all

appearances.*

by

erudition

the

that

know

to

judge

not

is,

it

as

passages

consolation

some

supposed
own

pages

that
will

am

testify

insensible
to

the

to

contrary.

the

rl.

importance
I

speak

L.

of

only

LIST

OF

RiTTER

exfontium

locis

all

of

the

scattered

of

historically.
Unfortunately
first volume.)
my

historian.
of

pletion

is

(There

Z^vort,

the

to

Aristotle

Animd.

De

of

work

been

F.

early philosophers,

highest utility to
it after
possessed

this

of

Ed.

the

Tauchnitz.

Ed.

I have

which

of

notes

the

only

translation

French

good

MetaphysicA.

De

Aristotle:

1838.

fragments

work

arranged
and

Fhilosophice Grceco-Romana

Hamburg,

contexta,

collection

(A

HistoHa

TION
COMPILA-

THE

SERIES.

THIS

Preller

AND

IN

USED

WORKS

OF

the

critic

the

copa-

Leipsic, 1832.
by

Pierron

MM.

sometimes

Trendelenburg.

A.

and

indebted.)

Jena,

1833.
(The

always

not

been

Aristotle:

De

Physicd.

De

Animd.
Ccelo*

De

Generatione

be

is

CorrupHone.

et

Tauchnitz.

Ed.

French

Lipsiae, 1833.

M.

by

translation

Chauffepi"

but

it cannot

trusted.)

Sextus

Folio,

also

I have

Sensu,

Laertius.

(There

; but

\ Paris, 1561.

De

De

Diogenes

useful

is erudite
and
Trendelenburg
able
to verify his references.)

of

commentary

Empiricus

et Adversos

HypotyposeSy

Mathematicos.

Paris, 1621.

(This

is not

first

the

Karsten

Prima.

critical

of the

edition

Gteek

excellent

Plato

(Also
which

tory
which

Xenophon

the

only

one

possess.

It is

Operum

Rdiquice.

Pars

1830.

Brussels,

Berlin^

Bekker.

dialogues

analysed

were
*

it is

work.)

Ed.

four

but

Gracorum

Philosophorum

Xenophanes.

(An

text.)

from

March,
in

occur

my

1828.

Gorgias, Phaedrus,
in the
masterly manner
From
1834 to February. 1835.
have
work
been
taken.)
Protagoras,
in

Memorabilia.

Ed.

Edwards,

and
*"

the

Monthly
these

Oxon,

Apology,
Keposi-

all extracts

1785,

LIST

XIV

Historta

HoRNius:
Brucker

London,

WORKS.

Philosophical Batav., 1756.

History

OF

of Philosophy,

1819.
Critica

Philosophy.

Trans.
Hegel

der

Geschichte

Leipsig, 1767.

Phihsophia,

History of Ancient
Oxford, 1838-9.

RiTTER

Enfield.

by

"

Historta

Brucker:

Abridged

Philosophic,

3 vols.

Ed.

Bande.

English

Michelet.

Berlin, 1833.
the

rather

is

(This

of

Philosophy

found

I have

it

History

than

the

of

History

sophy.
Philo-

suggestive.)

ihrer
:
Philosophic der Gricchen
Charaktcr,
Theil.
und
VorErster
Entwicklung,
Gangy Hauptmomente
sokratischc
Philosophic, Tiibingen, 1844.
Zeller

Die

(Useful.

Rather

Tennemann

Manuel

Cousin.

Victor

(A good

criticism

of

Renouvier

de

than

la

history.)

Philosophic,

Par

Paris, 1830.
able

an

Manuel

historians

VHistoire

dc

vols.

abridgment

other

on

dc

work.)

la

Philosophic Ancienne,

vols.

Paris, 1844.
of

work

(A

learning

Simon
Jules
Paris, 1844.

Cousin

Victor

and

acuteness).
dc

Hisioire

dc

Cours

^Alexandrie,

VEcole

rst

3 vols.

Philosophic,

vol.

Bruxelles,

1840.
Cousin

V.

Bruxelles,

Nouvcaux

Fragmens

Philosophiques,

vol.

1840.

Encyclopccdia Metropoliiana^

"

article,Moral

and

Metaphysical

Philosophy,
Bayle

Dictionnaire

Historique,
*

Wiggers
De

Life of Socrates,

Gerando

Histoire

English Trans., 1840.

Compark

des

Systhncs

dc

Philosophic.

Paris, 1822.
reputation,
enjoys considerable
(This work
discriminating, and well written.)
Van

Heusde

(One
in

Platonicce,

elegant
pleasant Latin,

of the

very

Iniiia

mo^t

and

and

deserves

Trajecti ad

delightful works

on

the

it.

Rhenam,
subject

with
and
abundant
great enthusiasm
valua*ble introduction
to the study of Plato.)

Clear,

1827.
; written

ledge.
know-

INTRODUCTION.

Humanity.
limits

intended

is

work

This

Let
this

of

as

contribution

therefore,

us,

contribution,

at

its

lest

define

once

the

of
and

nature

The

mistaken.

be

object

History

the

to

History

Philosophy

of

speaking,
usually

include

viz.,

use

in

it

compliance

philosophy

in

and
then

all

indeed

ineffectual

"have
not

the

been

within

the
and

so

throughout

of

speak
and

other

shall

by

words,

Philosophy

is

the

by

by

object

what

Methods
"

The

science

of

became
the

of

Human

and

Being.

Positive

shall

we

more

work

ot

restricted
that

Science

Mind

prevent

to

introduction

Inductive,
present

speculations

ontology,

Positive

as

the

ontology^

order

the

earlier

term

known

Philosophy

steps

the

but

metaphysics^

priori

In

and

its

in

sioned
occa-

slight

term

avoid

to

metaphysics

commonly
It

what

as

of

science.

time

same

designate

Speculation

Philosophy.
and

the

at

distasteful

distinguish

to

bounds,

subjects,

term

uncouth,

name

word

the

confusion
The

but

physical

of

use

the

its
lawful

of

this

made.

been

expressive,

scope

as

remedy

forward

brought

confusion,

sense

have

attempts

sometimes

words

To

its

great

no

by

enlarged

sciences
restricted

and

confusion.

great

and

earlier

the

Philosophy

physical

the

is

there

we

earliest

the

all

metaphysics

Greek

when

but

included

As

usage.

one

proving
disap-

philosophy,

word

the

only

to

Though

metaphysical,

designating

Philosophy;

of

general

essentially

was

impropriety
of

with

refer

to

As

sciences.

the

metaphysics.

sense

properly

should,

all

understood

called

restrictive

of

progress

is

science

the

title, and

vague

and

title

the

this

of

rise

the

employed;

science,

is

field

Baconian,

or

to

show

Science
was

how
;

enabled

in

INTRODUCTION.

XVI

for
conquer
present modicum
to

conviction

any

in

believe

the

is

thinkers

ideas

direct

the

greatly err

the

Are

are

write

of

omit

the

of

fount

natural

into

The

to

with

We

Europe.

Philosophy

no

the

Greeks.

only
sophy.
Philo-

historyof

is very
distinct from

whether

Greece

the

Greeks
imbibed

have

of

some

questionable
its Religion ;
was
materially

themselves

the

posed
sup-

wisdom

Oriental

modem

former

the

at

scholars,

on

doctrines

strange

in

inevitable

to

Coincidences

prove
coincidence

deep

to the

and

tendencies
direct

be

to

hereafter.

very
The

coincidences

of

thought.

Something

more

is

filiation.

is the historian's
distant

is attributable

explained
frequent in all speculation,
and
vast
so
a
subject as
vague
but
the
similarityof
nothing
prove

will

prejudice, which

spontaneous
A

modem

therefore,been

in the

thoughts.

that of

It

East.

is,that

acquainted

is attributable

Philosophy.
needed

it

Tme

valid.

and

all

nothing

as

it is, that

teachers

and

has,

Europe

Philosophy

any

line somewhere

the

nation's

Greece

the

blances
recognised in them strong resemsages, have
But
neither of these
of the Greeks.
the doctrines

are

latter

and

Eastern
to

reasons

its

wilderness

vast

feebly imitate

but

True

early

becoming

the

evi

the

countries

confessedly, had

questionable

by it.

their

first

had

East

more

influenced

Eastern

ancient

region of

one

the

out

that

every

to

Romans,

count
; their labours
We
omit
also
the

still

"and

the

of

incontestable, that
in

draw,

must

we

modern

on

in

ourselves

did

; and

own

whether

mark

to

us

historyof

The

influence

indirect

various

it

that

the

Rome.

their

Their

and

our

the

Philosophy

In

numerous

ourselves, therefore,

confine
We

so

on

is obvious

cannot

we

moderns.

signalizingthem.
history of the mind

lose

to

we

It

East?

of

ideas

the

is

requisiteto notice. Are we to follow

include
and
the Antediluvian
to
period? Are we
Egypspeculations of the Scythians, Persians, and tians

Brucker,
?

between

were

in

Having to trace the

activity,it is incumbent
epochs which we deem
trace

admit^that

once

between

parentage

parentage

of this filiation

cannot

we

at

erroneous

belief, that there

epochs ; a direct
dences

ideas, will

filiation of

speculations of the Greeks

science.
It
production of modem

but

and

centuries, its

long struggle of

All
those who
have
certajn knowledge.
of humanity,and
the steady development

direct

to

necessary

the

of
in

curious

the

itself,in

bogs.

He

will-o*-the-wisp,
leading him
the history of
has studied

Xviii
than

INTRODUCTION.

the

over-arch

Science

Positive
it is of

physics ; no bridge can

Philosophy and
separates
This
is a point which
irreconcileable.
are
importance to understand
dearly. Let us

the

which

chasm

the

utmost

brieflyindicate

Newtonian

and

Pythagorean

them.

the characteristics

of each.

Philosophy (metaphysical philosophy,

1) aspires

remember

Science
knowledge
The
one
aspiresonly to the knowledge of Laws.
pretends to
discover
in
their
what
from
themselves, apart
things are
ances
appearand
other
whence
The
to sense,
they came.
only wishes
discover
their modus
to
^s^
apaandi ; observing the constant
existences and
of phenomena
successions
themselves,
amongst
into
Law.*
and
In
other
them
words,
some
one
generalising
the

to

the

of Essences

endeavours

one

knows

limits

the

to

of

Possible.

how

ingenious
many
of Life
^how
many

take

To

All

Causes

that

conditions

is

it manifests

not

futile.

investigation,
examine

it is may

What

The

discovered

be

to

the
ciple!
Prin-

Vital

the

escapes
would
you

it,it

be

safely

and

under

what

discovered

by

proper

ways,

be

itself,may

discover

to

because

are

itself w^ith

popular subject,

respecting

thing which
because
it defies experiment ; when
is gone.
Is Life, then, an
enigma ?
pronounced
an
enigma; but in what
knows

"

Life

that

other

the

contents

made

frivolous

been

knows

been

have

theories

have

science

of

man

such

and

illustration from

an

"

Impossible

faculties

efforts

cause

Positive

Causes.

the

compass

human

the

and

investigations.
origin of things,
whatever
relates to the existence
of things,/dr
ue.^ causes
; and
the proper
sCy /.^., essences^ are
objects of Philosophy, and are
aims and
methods
from the
of
wholly and utterly eliminated
Irreversible

Positive
With

canon

broad

may

by

dear

find radical

prepared
they are guided.
to

Philosophy
The

who

reader
idea
to

and

of

desires

the

make

with.

the

to

nature

himself

and

of

the

of

master

of

John

Deductive.

both

are

conditions

and

who

to

Stuart

than

They

desires,moreover,

Mill's

Inductive,* a work
philosophical students,
intellect

two,

science, is earnestly recommended

and

scientific

the

between

dififerences in tjie Methods

perfect conviction,

System of Logic, Ratiocinative

all occasions, to recommend
education

Science

Positive

the

relates

palpable a distinction

and

be

which

whatever

Science.
so

we

any

work

we
as
we

incomparable
bound, on
for
doing more
feel

are

acquainted

INTRODUCTION.

this in commoD,
conclusions
from

have

that

they

both

are

established

xix

with

occupied

axioms.

here

But

ing
deduc-

the

blance
resem-

ends.
h priori ; that is
Philosophy is deductive
"All
bodies
d priori aixiom, such as
from
some
"

abhors

Nature

or

starting

say,
tend

philosopher

the

vacuum,"

to

rest/'

to

believes

that

deduced
the
from
axioo^ when
logical conclusions
applied to particularfacts,are absolutely true of those facts ;
be indisputable,the
conclusions, if mately
and, if the axiom
legitiall the

Mathematics
is the ideal of a
drawn, will be true.
deductive
science; it is wholly dprioriy and wholly true.
is deductive
Positive Science
d posteriori. It begins by first

ascertaining whether

the

axiom

which

from

it is

deduce

to

experimentalises; it puts nature

much
of "interrogation." After
the test
observation, it
to
the
to
certainty of a Law,
attains,by the inductive
process,
is inversely as the square
"Attraction
of the distance."
such
as
this certain
axiom.
From
deductions
law
A
are
equals an
conclusions

^^

indisputable.

Science

Positive

drawn.

it may
science

carried

be

on

commences

it has

perfect when

pronounced

It

further

and

reached

the

deduction

by

science

that

point

which

at

alone.

is

Such

is'Astronomy.

This

is the

then

the laborious
the

from

axioms

but

proceeds

one

taken

up

without
of

indispensableprocess

axioms
proceeds from
The
proceeds from
one

from

sophy
Philo-

priori
gone
having undercation;
previous verifi-

which
an

of

have

been

Assumption,

the

Fact.

mind

human

of the

law

the

Methods

the

other

rigidly verified.
It is

Science

fe,from

that

"

other

between

Positive

and
axioms

difference

speculationson

that

all ralities
genetruth
is to

to
the only road
begin deductively : and
is to
be
origin*of Positive Science
begin inductively. The
sought in Philosophy. The boldest and the grandest speculations
came

than

reward
of

sions
of the
him

first.

Man
of

that

could

stimulus

the

merely tracing the

Nothing

phenomena.

universe

needed

content

sustained

but

him

of

co-existences

solution

nothing

of

less

some

and

the
could

higher
succes"

mystery
tempt

had
nomy
Astrospeculation. Thus
its first impulse given to it by astrologers. Nightly did
in the hope of wresting
the stars
Chaldeans
the old
watch
the
their secret
influence
them
from
over
destiny of man.
from
Chemistry .came
Alchemy ; Physiology from Auguries
to

the

labour

of

INTRODUCTION.

XX

struggles,were
Many long and weary
years, of long and weary
their efiforts.
of
the
learned
to suspect
vanity
passed before men
First came
knowledge
altogether. Next
scepticism of human
came

arose.

Methods

the

scepticism of

followed.

had

men

Induction

laboriously,but as surely as slowly, did fhis

obtained
Axioms
into the rightpath.
lead men
method
were
:
of proof, that were
the
stood
test
had
axioms
adequate
^hat
expressions of general facts, not simply dogmatical expressions
Slowly and

Deduction

opinions.

of

again

its office ; this time

resumed

to

longer guess-work.
position occupied by Philosophy in the History of
Humanity, is that of the great Initiative to Positive Science.
the
forlorn
It was
perished in its
hope of humanity which
to
did
not
having led the way
perish without
efforts, but
victory. The present work is an attempt to trace the steps by
consists
its
in this attempt
which
this was
accomplished;
and
its unity.
ori'ginality
who
There
altogether deny the fact of progression;
are
many
who
regard Philosophy as something higher and greater than
good

purpose

it

no

was

The

Positive

Science

And

yet finished.

not

reign of Philosophy is
firmation.
point to Germany for conthey would
vidual
of Germans,
to
nothing of indisay
now
Englishmen, are
strugglingwith

believe

; who

Thousands
and

Frenchmen

the

doubts

same

It is very

those

adversaries.

our

belief

our

will

which

in

We

the

finallysweep

cannot
usurping. We
History. If Germany

"

and

great

retrograding :
race
to surprise,though much
even

led
at

Long

the

into

the

present

after

no

obscure

old.

space,

to combat

with

Progression

into the

mistake
is

behihd,

certain

the

minds

of

Greeks

of

claiming
pro-

Science,
of

corners

vidual
indi-

speculations which

of

to

the

ourselves

content

constant

away

all the

crotchets

a-head,

perplexed

have
pity 'tis 'tis true.*' We
occasion, to develop our
views, nor

true

of

which

those

the

and

"

is this the

nor

as

that

is

swamps

Philosophy boasts
of
the legible characters
humanity is marching far

conquests.

Individuals
There

steadilyadvancing.
to deplore, in the number
and

infinite

mists

of

may

is

be

nothing

of eminent

metaphysics,

day.

Astronomy

had

been

science, accepted

by

all

still its individual

investigators, Astrology had
a science,Alchemy
Long after Chemistry had become
after Physiology had
still tempted
become
Long
a
many.
still
and are
arduous
seekers after the Vital
science, there were
competent
votaries.

Xxi

INTRODUCTION.

But

Principle.

these

as

individual

do

errors

affect

not

the

and
general proposition respecting the wondrous
progressive
march
of Science, so also the individual
ever
metaphysicians, howform
proposi-1
real
the
eminent,
exception to
no
general
been
that
has
tion,
Philosophy
gradually
displaced by Positive \
Science, and will finallydisappear.
^
I
Metaphysics has been defined Fart de s'igareravec mtthode:

definition

no

The

of it

of

nature

for

to wander

in the
will

space

many
predecessors. In

Positive

Science

in
the

coincidences

words
each

is further

into

other

track

their

of

doctrine

of

at

inevitable.

are

Philosophy by !

distinguishedfrom

progress it everywhere

makes.

Its methods

daily extending
they are
certainty,because
immense
the
experience of
knowledge ; oecause
out
and of myriads of intelligences
their truth, withconfirms
Science
them.
of suspicion on
then
casting a shadow

years

and
continue
must
to
progresses,
progress.
in the same
circle.
Its first
endless
moves
much

made

with

and

same

moment

hopes of

as

them

of

vital

discussed

being
of

means

The

success.

of

united

be

in

solving them,
force

importance, and
of solution, without
the

in

ago.

Germany

ancient
with

have

Greece;
better

no

of

"

intellects,

made

the

past

problems, supposed
perfectly susceptible

on

believed
least

years

as

movement.

of thousands
that

the

greatest
among
concentrated
has
been
illustrious,
steadily
some

principlesare

thousand

as

were

better

no

Philosophy only

two
they were
although in constant
progress,
questions are being agitated

no

Precisely the
this

dispute

of

matter

has

It

to

scribed
circum-

certain

our

at

this

with

stamped

are

necessarilyfall

from

its followers

condemns

labyrinth,and

same

other

distant

incontestable

the

truer.

or

Philosophy, therefore,

ever

epochs widely

wittier

be

can

be

to

All

result.

this meditation
.

principles.
Centuries
of labour have not produced any perceptibleprogress.
is the history of
The
history of science on the other hand
in the
the same
So far from
questionsbeing discussed
progress.
discussion

and

'same
the

way
same

has

they

as

for

two

not

were

established

even

in ancient

generations.

Greece,
In

few

they

first

do

sciences

some

not
"

remain

Chemistry

behind
^ten
so
a book
example
years suffice to render
almost
useless.
of knowledge
state
to be
Everywhere
as
less
see
more
or
rapid,according to the greater
progress,

for

"

less
In

of
facility

the
we

or

investigation.

this constant

circular

movement

of

Philosophy

and

con*

INTRODUCTION.

Xxn

linear

stant

tion

of

the

has

made

Philosophy

is much

greater time
is

is in

It

yet been

progress
will be
none

is

of Positive

progress
former.

Science, we
vain

made,

we

not

that

limitations

the

and

no

conclude

difhculty of

fore
science,and thereperfection. The
difficulty

because
of

more

successions, is

human

of

to

the

argue
that of any

is made,
Impossibility. No
progress
possible. To aspire to the knowledge
their resemblances

condemna*
because

argue
therefore

to

for its

is needed

that

to

are

; it is in vain
greater than

the

see

faculties.

^'

to

To

certainty
than
mena,
phenocend
aspire to transno

know

more

we

he more."

must

is

This

conviction.

our

majority of thinking

is also

It

conviction

the

Consciously

of

the

unconsciously,they
They discredit,or disregard it. The
proof of this is in the general neglect into which
Philosophy
has
the
Positive
on
fallen,and
greater assiduity bestowed
this
Loud
of
Science.
Great
complaints
neglect are heard.
is
the
rail
Philosophers. They may
expressed by
contempt
will go its way.
and they may
The
empire
sneer, but the world
men.

or

Philosophy.

condemn

of Positive
We

Science
that

trust

is established.*

no

will

one

Philosophy.

think

we

suppose
do not,

of
slightingly

else why
this work?
or
Assuredly we
of our
nights and days, has
Philosophy has usurped too many
the
of
solace
been
the
too
object and
great a portion of our
with
from
Bat we
disrespect
us.
bygone lives,to meet
respect
that has
and
it as a great power
is.
It
the
no
been^
longer
was
the parent of Positive
impulse to all early speculation ; it was
Science.
It nourished
the
infant mind
of humanity
it
; gave
the nobler
aliment, and directed its faculties;rescued
part of
from
the dominion
of brutish
man
ignorance, stirred him with
insatiable

thirst for

knowledge,
toil.

undergo amazing
is no
longer necessary
The
only interest it can
to

leading feature

The

it from

all others

/ History

is

of

de

Let

can

those

master

the

subject

-who

have
doubt

Positive.'

this

All

any.
this
Let

(7^2^ ma^tfm

seek

is
:

it

other

satisfaction

every
of our

fulfilled;it
be

one

age.

who

set

aside.

interest.

which

firmly believes

that

content

was

distinguishes,
peculiarityof being a

one

the

who

one

impossible attempt,

an

Philosophie

Sophy

this work

he
been

should

historical

an

of

Philosophy, by

never

on

is

have

has

and

humanity,

to

which

slake

to

its office

Bat

never

has

historians

that

had
have

sophy
Philo-

any

titude,
cer-

believed

*
in Aug.uste Comte's
Couis
interest
takes an
in,ph^o"

Xxiil

INTRODUCTION.

in

of any
they have

trammels
so

;) but

Hitherto

no

be

suspected the possible truth

defined
merely been free, from
any

sophy
Philo-

system.

interest enough
metaphysician has seen
History of Philosophy ; besides, it c^ld not

the

without

written

the
were

of

not

but

one

in it to write

from

Ritter

and

"

they have

free

sometimes
been
They have
particularsystem
(Brucker

Philosophy.

long acquaintance with

subject, and

the

no

of the science
could well have
formed
sceptic of the possibility
that acquaintance, unless, like the present
writer, he was
a
sceptic after having been many
a believer.
years
We
write therefore
in the interest of Philosophy, but as
not
historians
to the History of Humanity.
Other
a contribution

divided

be

may

The

into

classes

two

opinions

collectingthe

one

erudite

the

the

and

speculative.
; the

philosophers

of

explaining those opinions. O.ur great aim is to trace the

development of philosophy ; and we seek therefore to explain
opinion^, though the latter are
methodsy rather than individual
of course
to our
plan.
necessary
Our
Our
scepticism will secure
plan is purely historical
other

impartiality
: since, believing no
another, though it
appreciate the value
it is

but

the

not

err, and
of
Most

doubtless
errors.

of

plausible,

more

every

be

we

can

Impartialityis

one.

than

truer

calmly
requisite,

Impartiality implies unbiassed

not
We
shall
imply correct judgment.
thankfully accept any indication of our

only

it does

; but

judgment

be

may

to

system

one

shall

one.

the ancient

writers

have

down

come

to

us

in

which
from
the skeleton
to judge
fragments. We have not even
of the livingfigure. Nothing but a thigh-bone here, a jaw-bone
But
the
elsewhere.
as
comparative anatomist
there, an arm
the nature
animal
and
often decide
habits of an
can
only
upon
from
an
inspection of its jaw-bone, being enabled, by his
the
of
the
knowledge
general animal
structure, to fill up
outline

nature

and

only

should

so

of the ancient
have

they
they
or

having

decided

of the
also

former

have
have

believed

believed

have

able

decide

to

philosophicaltheory

who

thinkers

either

be

from

upon
a

the

study of

twa

or

all historians

Now

We

of any

scope

fragment

historian

the

the

that

that

of the

explainthe opinions

to

in this condition

somewhat
to

all animals

of

nature

to

been

all animals

; Ritter

shall have

attempted

of

be

of

were

type.

one
one

specifictype ;
type,without

Hegel is

an

tion
illustra-

latter class.

conjecture what

was

the nature

of

the

Xxiv

INTRODUCTION.

from

system,
the

bias

of

founded

so

How

founded

on

is

much

we

skeleton.

his

the

of

will

much
it

is

the

for

readers

we

anatomist's

animal

be

of

the

decisions
Where

structure.

necessarily
to

will
and

mind,

human

decide.

from

free

are

decisions

Our

comparative

knowledge

erred,

the

of

as

But

theory.

knowledge

conjectural,
have

its

of

metaphysical

speculation

of

far

any

fragment

our

on

history
are

be

erroneous.

26

PHYSIOLOGISTS.

THE

country;

part which

his fellow-citizens.

him

for

the

inconsistent

writers, as

highest

of

esteem

activityin politicshas

immense

His

later

denied, by

earned

with

been

tradition,

the
life of

solitude
by Plato, of his having spent a
his
tude
affection for solithe other hand,
and meditation
; while, on
has been
questioned on the ground of his politicalactivity.
that the two
It seems
to us
things are perfectly compatible.
countenanced

Meditation

does

active

an

necessarilyunfit a man
all his time, leaving

not

life absorb

for action

him

does

; nor

tion.
for medita-

none

by meditation
before he acts ; and he will act, to test the truth of his opinions.
cient
of the Seven
Thales
Sages. This reputation is suffione
was
that
he
could
have
settle the dispute. It shows
not
to
for
the
Greek
been
Speculative Thinker;
a
mere
Sages
rather
than
It
dso
shows
all moralists
metaphysicians.
were
wise

The

that

he

could

will

man

been

have

not

aphorism

strengthen himself

"Know

mere

of action.

man

thyself,"reveals

His

nificent
mag-

tative
solitarymedi-

the

thinker.
Miletus
at
or

was

period we
Lydian yoke

the
a

was

fine

both

constitution

are

crushed

by

the

afforded

energies of

the

development
land

and

sea

flourishingGreek

speaking of, before

now

had
for

scene

commerce

of the most

one

finest

the

of mental

was

colonies
either
its

and,

Persian

population, it
energies. Its

immense.

political

Its

opportunities for individual

Thales
education
would
by birth and
development.
naturally have been fixed there ; and would
not, as it has often
into
have
travelled
been
said,
Egypt and Crete for the prosecution
studies.
of his'
These
assertions, though frequently
no
on
repeated, are based
only ground
trusty authority. The
is
the
fact of Thales
for the conjecture
being a proficientin
mathematical
knowledge ; and from very early times, as we see
both

in Herodotus,

it

was

the

fashion

to

derive

the

originof

almost

So little consistency
knowledge from Egypt,
narrative
his
is there,however,, in this
he is
that
of
voyages,
said to have astonished the Egyptians, by showing them
how
to
their
A
the height of
pyramids by their shadows.
measure
of
the simplest of mathematical
nation
by one
easily astonished
so
little
had
to teach.
problems could have
Perhaps the
travelled
into Egypt
or
that, if
strongest proof that he never
into communication
he travelled
came
there, that he never
of all trace, however
with the priests is the absence
slight,of
every

branch

of

"

"

any

Egyptian

doctrine

in

the

philosophy

of Thales

which

he

THALES,

might
address

found

home.

at

that

To

philosophy

now

we

ourselves.

The
first

have

not

27

characteristic

distinctive

period,
of

that

was

the

of

Ionian

the

physiologicalinquiry into

of

universe.

Thales

this

opened

its

School, in

tution
consti-

the

inquiry.

is

It

said, "Thales

taught that the principleof all things

water."
On
a first glance, this will perhaps appear
a
was
mere
A smile of pity will greet it,accompanied by a
extravagance.
reflection on
of his having
the smiler's part, of the unlikelihood
commonly

in

believed

ever

such

will be

slow

to

and

such

is worth

absurdity.

an

But

serious

the

student

his

The
predecessors of extravagance.
it is not
history of Philosophy may be the history of errors
;
that of follies.
that have
All the systems
appeared have had a
meaning. Only for this could they have been accepted.
pregnant
The
proportionate to the opinions of the epoch,
meaning was
as

accuse

penetrating.

that

extraordinarymen
revolution.

lived, and

ever

Such

Thales

man

was

of the

one

was

produced a
not
likely to

most

most

ordinary
extra-

have

ciated
enun-

child might have

philosophical thought which
any
There
deep meaning in the thought ; to him at
was
Above
all there was
to
deep meaning in the attempt

refuted.
least.
discover

this first of

abortive.

thought
and

Let
; let

growth

endeavour

us

us

problems
if

see

in hid

'

to

cannot

we

although
penetrate
in

some

the

attempt

itself

was

meaning of his
its rise
shape trace
the

mind.

It is characteristic
all

of

most

imaginable diversities

to,

philosophical minds, to
shall
one
principle. We

reduce
see

stances
in-

of our
narrative,to absolve
enough of this in the course
We
from
the
here.
us
necessity of any demonstration
may,
brief example.
it was
As
illustrate it by one
the
however,
inevitable
tendency of religious speculation to reduce
theism
polyto generalize all the supernatural powers
to monotheism
it the
also was
into one
so
expression
tendency of early
all possible modes
of
philosophical speculation to reduce
"

"

existence
Thales
not
"

but
the

generalizationof existence itself.

speculatingon the constitution of the universe could
the one
strive to discover
principle the primary Fact
into

one

"

substance,

modes.

Seeing

of which

around

all

him

special existences
constant

were

transformations

but
"

the

birth

of existence,
change of shape, of size,and of mode
of these variable states
tence
of exishe could
not
regard any one
therefore
Is
asked
existence itself. He
himself, What
as

and

death

"

THE

48

existence of which

that invariable
In

ask

To

world

with

Thales

had

men

contented

what

the

was

of

beginning

the

familiar
There

'"

the

about

With

the

mighty

waters

its

spent
to

wave,

rest

he

of

abroad

saw

him.

around

Ionian

answered

of his meditation

was

Could

mind

anything
the

than

upwards

boyhood

from

not

wandered

science,

nourishmg

and

the

upon

in peace,

the

long

blue

rolling evermore,"
sink
fiery energy,
there

be

Beginning.
an

ing
accept-

they

sea

beach

fairytales

gazing

When

the

to

he

to

looked

He

the

was

Had

water?

with

question

; the result

naturally present

more

universalityof
been

with

themselves

things.

he

be

vital

saw, he meditated
conviction
that Moisture

On

philosophical

of

as

felt that there

to

states t

variable

they found it ; with believing what

adoring what they could not see.

the

relative

the

are

is the

Hitherto

inquiry.
and

these

beginning of things ? *
this question was
the era
to
open

word, what

PHYSIOLOGISTS.

and
into

how

often

youth

result

hearing **the

expanse,

seeing
the

the

cool

he

must

sublime

of time."

red

bosom
have

ing
hav-

sun,

of the
been

led

the
contemplate
all-embracing all-engulphing sea, upon
breast
whose
This
earth
the very
itself reposed.
throbbing
finite ; and
that welling sea
earth how
how
infinite !
Once
the constitution
impressed with this idea, he examined
of the earth.
All
There
also he found
moisture
everywhere.
nourished
clared
itself he dethings he found
by moisture ; warmth
to
proceed from moisture ; the seeds of all things are
to

moist.

Water

Thus

declared

when

condensed

convinced
it

be

universal

the

of

becomes

earth.

presence

the

he
water,
moisture
what

of

beginning of things. Just

is to the ground, it has well been said,necessary
to its being what
it is,yet not
being the ground itself,
just such a thing did
Thales
find in himself, something
which
his body, but
not
was
without
which
which
his body would
it is ; without
be what
not
it would
be a dry husk
fallingto pieces.!
Thales
all the more
would
readilyadopt this notion from
its
*

harmonising
Had
of

"

historians
**

is the

one
'

with
said

things, they would

principle
t

to

has

Used

ancient
that

opinions;

instance

as

the beginning
was
taught that moisture
greatlysimplified the question ; our word

meaning.
by Aristotle, S^wp
art. Moral

for

Thales

have

another

Ency. Metrop.'

such

is the
word
correct
Beginning
'^"^*
i"
r^v dpxvv3*
Metaph, Philos.

ilvai

and

"

; and

'

THALBS.

Hesiod's
as
"

wherein

Theogony,

science

modern

explainingwhat
This

has

before

remark

leads

had

as

for

the

nature.

of Genesis

book

"

rectification

the

to

popular religionthat

the

performed
enigmatical."

to

regarded

were

relation

any

for

was
us

Thetis

and

Oceanus

the parents of all such

deities
He
thus
have
would
performed

which

19

of

serious

error,

which

is very generally entertained.

allude
We
to the supposed
Atheism
of Thales.
It is sufficient to name
the learned
Ritter,

and

the

brilliant,
ingenious Victor

Cousin, as upholders of this

Thales
opinion,to show that its refutation is requisite. Because
held
that water
the beginning of things, it is concluded
that
was
God
the
The
not
or
Gods, were
recognised by him.
only
in support
is the negative
of this conclusion
authorityadduced
it seems
But
that Aristotle's
to us
authority of Aristotle's silence.
silence is directlyagainst such a conclusion.
Would
he
have

silent

been

on

remarkable

so

of water
?
We
only in the existence
Cicero, when
speaking of Thales, expressly
water

which

the

be

to

created

beginning
from

them

things,but

of

think

cannot

that

says

God

lieved
be-

he
the

was

so.

held
mind

certainly object, with

We

water.

that Thales

point as

the conception of God

Hegel, to Cicero's attributing to Thales
vanced
adas
intelligence(vov"); that being the expression of more
Thales
did not
conceive
formative
philosophy.
any
Power
either
which
the primeval
principle,
as
or
Intelligence,by
moisture
fashioned.
had
of
He
was
conception
no
a Creative
in the ancient
believed
in the Gods
Power.
He
logy,
mytho; but,
the gimration of the Gods
fundamental
tenet
was
a
; he
believed,therefore,that the Gods, as all things,were
generated
from
Aristotle's account
bears only this interpretation.
water.
"

i. 3.

Met,

early

date.

period
history of

of the

In

this

is

Indeed,

to

But

the

in

twofold

human

the

of

elements

in

Atheism

any

radically

to

not

at

misconceive

of

so

such

the

race.

may

say

its influence

materia

prima

history,is

world's

conclusion, we

believe

is

Atheism

Atheism.

not

"

all

that

ist,

to

the

step taken

discover

things (17dp^^)

that

which

by Thales was
beginning, the

the

2dly,

select

to

from

omnipotent,
To
the
those
omnipresent.
acquainted with
hisiory of the
human
mind, both these notions will be significantof an entirely
In our
era.
Introduction, we stated the law of the progress
new

among

^nj. Con8ta^t,

Du

element

was

Polyth^isme Romaine,*

most

p.

167.

PHYSIOLOGISTS.

THE

50

of science to be this :

exhausted

mind

human

with a pure deductive method^the

Starting
all possible
its ingenuity,
in developing

satisfied with the vanityof its

theories,and, when
another method, the inductive ; till by means

it
efiforts^
of the

followed

accumulated

again enabled to.

position
occupied by Thales is that

deductively.The
of Philosophy;

reason

since he

of the Father

to furnish a formula

it was

of this method

treasures

which

from

to

CHAPTER

first in Greece

the

was

deductively.

reason

II.

ANAXIMENES.

is

Anaximander
agree

with

reasons

doing we

on

which

follow

of Anaximenes
Anaximander

by

most

Ritter in

our

historians

placed after Thales.

giving that place to

We

Anaximenes.

The
we
ground this arrangement are, ist, in so
safest guide,Aristotle.
2dly,the doctrines

development of those of Thales; whereas

a
totallydifferent line of speculation.
Indeed, the whole ordinaryarrangement of the Ionian School
to have
seems
proceeded on the conviction that each disciple
not
only contradicted his master, but also returned to the
are

the

follows

is made
Thus, Anaximander
Thales, though quite opposed to him ; whereas
of Thales,
Anaximenes, who
only carries out the principles
doctrines ^of his master's teacher.

to

succeed

is made

the

discipleof Anaximander.

When

state

we

that

21a

taken up by the lives of

are
generations,
years, i"e. six or seven
the four individuals said to stand in the successive relations of

teacher

r\

and
pupil,Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, and
Anaxagoras, the reader will be able to estimate the value of
the traditional relationship.
truth is,only the names
The
of the great leaders in philosophy
were
thought worth preserving; all those who merely
the doctrine were
appliedor extended
very properlyconsigned
to

oblivion.

This

is also the

historyis composed.
placing Anaximenes

No
second

principle
upon

which

will therefore

one

Thales

the present

demur

his

to

our

disciple,
the
but as his historical successor
as
man
who,
taking
;
up the
where
Thales
and his disciples
left it,transmitted
speculation
in a more
il to his successors
developed form.
to

; not

as

DIOGENES

born

was

than

that

Miletus, probably in the

at

di^overed

31

nothingfurthei is known

Of the life of Anaximenes

he

APOLLONli.

OF

the

obliquityof

the

63rd Olympiad ;
of
ecliptic by means

and

the

gnomon.
the

the

truth

moved

him

His

his soul.

also without

not

he

less than

do

ever-present, invisible air?

and

which

was

withoQt

of

he

called

him

it

Soul, was
And, if so,

air
not

him,
a

thing
; some-

This

Was

he

there

ever-moving,

an

within

was

part of

the

this air t'he

not

was

why

air.

which

him

to

something

not

be

to

within

The

him

present.

ever

believed

not

was

knew

he

how,

himself
satisfy

not

Water

but
invisible,

soul

him,

could

felt within

He
not

himself

he

doctrine.

he knew

higher than
called

Thales,

of Thales'

significantelement

most

which

of

the method

Pursuing
with

him,

air which

Beginning

Things?
boked

He

aronnd

resolved

things are
of the

univeraal

nourished

was

This

life.

explanation of

the

reader
not

smile ;
a

All

earth

was

of

his system.

phenomena in a
many
but, as this history is

in
of

it:
in

all

part

that would

record
wilt

the
the

be

may

absurd

as

of

not

water; but

as

it to

applied

He

way
a

record of absurdities,we

mere

air
|"iaciple,
seen

firmed.
con-

broad

by air,as he

nourished

were

Compared with the doctrine

space by ftirthcr detail
this of Anaximeaes
As
presents a decided
progress.
is

from

produced

are

as

he breathed, he drew

things

idea

central

the

and

things

All

into it. When

The

by it.
the

was

thought his conjecture was

and

universal.*

it.

resting upon

leaf

him,

air seemed

The

conception of a principlefounded
stmt,rather than, as with Thales, on

make

Methods,

our
occupy
of Thales
a.

the
on

the

gical
physioloprogress
the analogies

analogies

of the seed.

CHAPTER
DIOGENES

of

Diogenes

although, from
is made
"

we

to

When
must

enei^y

and

undemUnd
form

or

is the

the uncritical

represent

Anaiimenes
Dot

delerminate

Apollonia

III.

on

capableof

no

APOLLONIA.

real

arrangement

epoch

earth, bat
infimie

when

as

elements
as

usually adopted,

whatever.

speaks of Air,
these

of Anaximenes,

successor

as

Water

transmntations,

Thus,
Thales

they appear
and

Air

he

Tennemaon

sjieaksof Waler,
in

thij

pregnant

or

with

that
vital

PHYSIOLOGISTS.

THE

33

places
says

that

know

we

Diogenes
been

to

of

Anaxagoras,

time

the

of the
to

may

the

to

conclusion

gave

the force

to

wider

and
more

of this

its ultimate

him

work

Nature

on

century

he

analogy,

limits.

constitutes

himself, that

asked

have

with

Struck

push the

he

assume

to

of

our

respectingAir as
deeper significathe analogy
to

of Anaximenes

tenet

^is
have

to

it.

from

by attaching himself

tenet,

Soul.

may

His

passages

is said

he

Olympiad.
Simplicius(the 6th

of

era),who extracted some

Diogenes adopted the
the originof things; but
cation

we

8oth

the

about

in

extant

was

state

than

More

at

contemporary

flourished

have

ApoUonia, in Crete.
with certainty
; but, as

bom

was

unable

are

we

Pythagoras.
Hegel, by a strange oversight,
of
nothing
Diogenes but the name.

after

him

What

Air

was

led

is

it,he

origin of

the

Air is a Soul : therefore

The
things ? Clearly its vital force.
it is living and
or
Intelligenceis a
intelligent.But this Force
itself;it
higher thing than the Air, through which it manifests
be the
must,
consequently be prior in point of time ; it must
The
Universe
is a living
philosophers have sought.
ap\ri
deriving its transformation
being, spontaneously evolving itself,
its own
from
vitality.
remarkable
There
two
are
points in this conception, both
first is
indicative of very great progress
in speculation. The
the attribute of Intelligence,with which
the apx^ ^^ endowed.
mated
anibe
the
Anaximenes
to
considered
an
primary substance
; Air

substance
not

the

in his system ; but

Intelligence. He conceived
was

necessarilyimply
vital principle. Diogenes

Force,

Intelligence; the

but

that

saw

Air

which

the

Soul

did

the Soul

Soul

the Soul
not

was

stirred within

him,

as

only
not

analogy oifhis
only prompted
The
soul on
the operations of the world.
to
Air, as the
stance
origin of all things,is necessarily an eternal, imperishable subwith consciousness
soul, it is also necessarily endowed
; but, as
is
another
this
and
it
knows
knowledge
much,"
:
of
for without
its
substance
the
Reason,"
proof
being
primary
;
he says,
all
be
it would
be
for
impossible
to
arranged duly
will be
and
consider
and
whatever
object we
proportionately;
tiful
beaufound
in the best and
ordered
most
to be arranged and
manner."
result
Order
can
only from
Intelligence; the
is therefore
First (apxq). This
Soul
the
doubtedly
unconception was
but

instructed.

carried

He

this

'*

"

"

its

great

importance,

nor

one

; but

suppose

that

the

that

the

reader
rest

of

may

not

exaggerate

Diogenes*

doctiiues

II.

BOOK

MATHEMATICIANS.

THE

I.

CHAPTER

wie

"As

for

now,

with

meet

will

unworthy
is

of

out

the

other

since

tenable,

source

find

between
In
at

the

their
a

elements

time,
The

were

On

it

began

becomes

to

independently
of

the

show

earlier

time

long

times

probable

once

"

in

without
we

"

Ritter,'

any
are

Ionia
external
about

now

p.

265.

and

the

the

that

nearly

within

only

that
of

result

the
at

semination
disthat

probable

however,
the

was

active

an

for

known

supposition,

the

shall

inadequate

philosophers

for

of

the

extremely

themselves

school

mind

to

indeed
we

nature

it appears

at

and

pursued,

or
mon
com-

one

Wheji

of

an

extensive

evidence

views

carried
from

from

largely

call

these

of

drew

very

prove

drawn

being

from

sufflcient

the

opinions,

systems

to

thought.

more

we

of

impulse

want,

chief

when

circle.

narrow

philosophical
national

their

of

opposite

very

command

respective

very

been

notices

truth,

of

habit

had

these

is far

rocal
recip-

evidence

and

argument

any

the

are

or

revolved

philosophers

national

fail

impossible

ideas

the

therewith,

controversial

universe.
means

one

olden

the

the

"

the

conflict

all

of

in

the

internal

the

is

tion
observa-

that
of

entirely

hand,
it

nevertheless,

directions

two

in

in

other

because

value,

acquaintance

apparent

these

on

ignorance

complete

the

the

evidences

either

sophy,
Philo-

Greek

superfluous,

historical
lines

two

limited

very

in

the

credit

of

deemed

be

of

developments,

philosophy,
of

history

the

contemporaneous

of

influence

in

time

first

perhaps,

not,

times

earliest

the

MILETUS.

OF

AMAXIMANDSR

the
real

various
the

same

connection."*
to

consider

was

Al^AXlMAMDEk

disciple,of Thales.

the
the

is

latter

at

the

sketch

of

and

distance

in

small

him

to

which

work

framed

calculations

were

committed

is said

He

passionately addicted

was

series

to

scientific
.

of the

all

and
size

writing

to

earliest of

the

be

to

inventions

sun-dial

His

heavenly bodies

of the

of the

that

times
some-

historycan

important

many

others

amongst

this

in

relation

politicaland

for

geographicalmap.

phical writings.
and

and

great;

former

in which

one

reputation,both
very

was

ascribed

are

any

the

friend, and

prefer the

We

not

rate

His

regard him.
knowledge,

called the

is sometimes

He

43rd Olympiad.

35

generallydated

is

birth

Miletus, whose

of

Anaximander,

MtLBTVS.

OP

philoso"

mathematics,

He
the
geometrical problems.
was
he
is also reported to
of a colony to ApoUonia
leader
; and
of the T3rrant Polycrates, in Samos,
resided
have
court
at the
also lived Pythagoras and
where
Anacreon.
No

historians

two

of

in their

agreed

are

of
interpretation

Anaxi-

doctrines; few,-indeed, are agreed in the historical

In
view
of the
oflferinga new
position he is to occupy.
call the reader's attention
of his philosophy, we
character
to
mander's

this

point,as

warrant

failure,if we

the

for

and

attempt,

as

an

excuse

for

fail.
is stated

Anaximander

the first

been

have

to

to

use

the

term

things.
term
beginning
by
ancient
the
writers
variously interpreted by
principle
; for,
in
that
unanimous
he
called
it
the
agreeing
although they are
he understood
what
by the infinite is yet
infinite(ro avcipov),

dpX^

What

of

^^^ ^^

he

this

meant

is

undecided.*
On

first view

nothing

Infinite

t^et:

*'The

looks

like the

is the

monotheism

less

well be

can

origin

of

far

of

than
intelligible

this

all

things." It either
later date,f or like the word-

minds
it is- neither
more
nor
jugglery of mysticism. To our
of Thales, that'
the tenet
less difficult of comprehension than
"
is the originof all things." Let us cast ourselves
Water
back
in imagination into those
cannot
see
^ifwe
early days, and
for the

account

rise of such

viewing Anaximander,

On
"

Which

267.
certainlycould not
kind, we may
merely

the

not

even

the

modern

rb

awiiftov

quoted

it

the

in

have
observe

been.
that

Limitless

less the
Power, much
conception. In Anaxagoras, who
to

opinion.
by side

side

with

his

great pre-

prevent any

tion
misconcep-

i.

Ritter/

of

an

be

Ritter.*

no

more

than

vastness."

To
the

Infinite

here

meant,

was

Limitless

Mind, implied in
lived a century later,we
find:
See
Simplicius^ Phys, 33, h.
.

t^

MATHEMATICIANS.

THE

friend

and

dccessor

Thales,

meditative

Thales,
concrete,

effort of
us

maxim,

famous

abstraction.
in him

see

physiologist;

let

presented themselves
mathematics
able

the

was

science

to

him

this

than

the

sciences, and

ultimate

tendency
moralist

how

in the abstract

of

the

things

all

how

form, and

we

shall

or

then

be

his tenets.

understand

to

his mind

to

things,"is

all

understand

to

of

Geometrician.

essentially
whose
Anaximander,

rather

geometrician
endeavour

us

the

was
thyself,"

to

concede

us

with

Instead

struck

the

see

we

Know

originof

Let

the

"

contrast

serve
as
a
may
The
Infinite is the

"

axiom,
let

Metaphysician,

whose

be

tendency of his speculations.

exclusively abstract
the

but

cannot

we

led, as we
Thales, in searching for the origin of things,was
mander,
AnaxiBut
Water
be that origin.
to
seen, to maintain
accustomed
to view
things in the abstract, could not
ultimate
a
thing as Water
accept so concrete
; something more
in the analysis was
which, in common
itself,
required. Water
it
with Thales, he held to be the material
of the universe, was
This
?
conditions
those
not
subject to conditions ? what were
to be
Moisture, of which all things are made, does it not cease

have

moisture

in many

of all,ever
Water

change,

itself is

reject,or

and

Vague

The

appear.

in words.

**

in Greek
in words

things.

cannot

of it

as

will

if it alone

to

said,

All, to atreipov.
theory will doubtless
a

distinction

mere

repeatedly
tinctions
generally equivalentto dis-

were

to

him

dpxrj,he

The

seem

Philosophy,

of

is the

caused

Thales

this

And, if the reader

matician, by the very nature

abstractions
entities,and
as
treat

"

AH

origin
individual
things?
be All Things.

with

Unlimited

profitless enough

But,
in

to

Thing

the

be

abstraction

notice, distinctions

tliat which

can

confounded

; but

; it must

Water

not

Thing

be

ever

And

of
objections to the doctrine
doctrine.
rather
to modify, that

These

was

instances

his

as

we

shall

the Mathe-

reflects how

science, is led

separate

constituted

for

iustBuce

regard
form, and
to

dody, there will

be

no

all
conceiving Anaximander*s
Finite Things and
the Infinite All.
It is thus only we
can
explain his tenet ; and it thus seems
borne
out
by the testimony of Aristotle and Theophrastus, who

in
difficulty

distinction

between

the
multitude
of
that, by the Infinite he understood
individual
which
of
by
things issued
elementary parts out
separation. "By separation^* the phrase is significant. It
agree,

"

means

the

passage

from

the

abstract

to

the

concrete

"

^the AU

realizingitself

Individual

in the

MILETUS.

OF

ANAXIMANDER

37

Call

Thing.

Infinite

the

is Existence

by
and

Existence, and say, "There

/^r se
the
aliud
former
Existence
the
Existence
is,
ever-livii\g
per
flow the various existingThings.** In this way
fountain
whence
Anaximander*s
meaning intelligible.
perhaps, make
you may,
Anaximander
is "represented as
Ritter.
Let
hear
now
us
the

of

name

"

arguing, that

primary

the

limitless

all-sufficient for the

be

substance

have

must

infinite

been

to

thingswith

varietyof produced

N^w, though Aristotle expressly

think
of it
characterizes
not
mixture, we must
a
as
a
multiplicityof primary material elements
mere
as
; for to the
of Anaximander
and
it was
mind
able
imperisha
Unity immortal
This production of individual
ever-producing energy.
an
things he derived from an eternal motion of the Infinite.'*
The
primary Being, according to Anaximander, is unquestionably

which

are

we

encompassed.

this infinite

"

an

itself the

Unity. It is One yet

multiplicityof elements

comprises

All.

It

from

which

within

all mundane

be
to
only need
of nature.
separated fropi it to appear as separate phenomena
this
Creation
is the decomposition of the Infinite. How
does
which
is the
decomposition originate? By the eternal motion
He
of the Infinite.
condition
the
regarded," says Ritter,
of incipiency, which, howInfinite as being in a constant
state
ever,
and
secretion
is nothing but a constant
concretion
of

things

composed

are

and

elements

these

"

immutable

certain

parts

of the

that

might
constantly changing, while

elements

whole

"

are

; so

we

well

the

say,

whole

the

is

unchangeable.*'
reader

The
do
"

True,

so.

the

origin of
to

say,
also
is

were

there

numbers

are

would

there
:

may
the

yet

so

all

"There

smile
idea

but

be

no

of

things
"

are

Number

is baseless

numbers

in the

the

this

logic; we would
elevatingan abstraction

at

into

j it

is

80,
2, 3, ^,
which
of
these
abstract,

concrete

numbers."

enough

i,

realisation
This

difficult is it for the human

is

a
as

100

without

to

Being
if
;

we

but

individual

preciselysimilar
mind

him

have

not

divest

Number
ing
reason-

itself of

than as
abstractions,and to consider them as no more
own
lies at the root
of the majority of
abstractions, that this error
It may
to some
ance
tolerhelp the reader
philosophicalsystems.
Anaximander's
if
inform
of
error
him, that two of the
we
celebrated
of
modern
philosophers
times, Hegel and
most
have
maintained
the
Cousin,
Victor
same
precisely
tenet, though
that
worded
Creation
is God
: they say
j5omewbat differently
its

38

THE

'

MATHEMATICIANS.

but
passing into activity,

by the act ; in other

finite Things
existence of God;
words, Creation is the mundane
but the eternal motion, the manifestation of the All.
are
Anaximander
separated himself from Thales by regarding the
of higher significance than
abstract
the
in
concrete
as
; and
this tendency we
the origin of the Pythagorean school, so
see
Thales

induction

As

his

founded,

and,

of this mathematical

the

earth

in the ratio

base

the limits of the

its

3 to

tendency

The

upon

we

may

point in

central

for, being of

by the aid and

centre

degree,

some

of
an

deduction.

physiologicalspeculations.
was

in

constitution

tion
facts,however
imperfect that inducspeculations of Anaximander
were
wholly
towards
mathematics, the
such, tended

as

example

mopceia

speculationsof

The
material

discoveringthe

were

The

of pure
an

school.

observed

be.

deductive;
science

they

from

might

mathematical

towards

tended

universe

the

the

called

often

exhausted

not

notice
his

cos-'

cylindricalform, with

altitude, it

retained

was

in its

by the equalityof its distances from

all

world.
,

From

foregoing exposition, the reader may

that ordinary historical arrangement

the

judge of the
which
places
the
of Thales.
It is clear, that
he
as
successor
of the great lines of speculative inquiry, and that

proprietyof
Anaximander

originatedone
perhaps, the
one,
one

jyas

remark.

more

held

most

to

be

real

his successors,
; and

was

antiquity. We will make

By Thales, Water, the origin of things,
of
physical element, which, in the hands

became

representativeemblem

Mind)

curious

the

looked

of

upon

into a merely
gradually transformed
something wholly diflferent (Life or
which

element
as

in all

lent its

secondary

name

as

the

tive
representa-

phenomenon,

derived

the emblem.
Water
primary force of which it was
with
the
with
real primary element
Thales
was
Diogenes,
\
but
Water
the
(having previouslybeen displaced for Air) was
from

that

of Mind.

emblem

similar

is observable

course

in the Italian

Anaximander's

conception of the All, though abstract^

is,nevertheless, to a great degree, physical: it is All Thiftgs.
it had not passed
His conception of the Infinite was
ideal
not
into the state of a symbol
^itwas
the mere
descriptionof the
Above
all,it involved no conception
primary fact of existence.
finite thing. His to Siwcipop
of intelligenceexcept as a mundane
Mind;
the
Infinite
This
the Infinite Existence, but not
was
school.

"

"

later

development

we

shall meet

ynth

hereafter

in the

Eleatics.

PYTHAGORAS.

$9

CHAPTER

II.

PYTHAGORAS.

It

will create

surprise^in

some

those

already familiar with

not

connexion
Pythagoras treated of in immediate
with. Anaximander
\ but, although for the strongest evidence
refi^ to the next
the Pythagorean
must
we
chapter, in which
doctrines
will be considered, yet we
adduce
at once
some
may
resided
the
of
at
court
slight collateral proof. Anaximander
So
Polycrates, at Samos, where
runs
Pythagoras also lived.
tradition.
this
tradition
be
Now, although
groundless, as
may
it
indicates
between
thinkers
connexion
the two
a
a
factyyet
firmly credited by ancient writers,and fullyconfirmed
by the

plan, to

our

spiritof

two

life of

The

of

the

see

systems.

Pythagoras

legends, from

which

is enshrouded

the

attempt

examined

in the dim
to

extricate

magnificence
hopeless.

it is

subject in its minutest

almost
details,and
everything that had been written
it.
Guided
on
by no sound principlesof historical scepticism,
with
the force of contradictory
were
we
perfectly bewildered
inclined
We
evidence.
to think that these
are
now
opposing
of
value
value
of
whatever.
testimonies
are
no
: that is,
equal
indications
trusted
Certain
doubtless
to be
are
general
; but
will endeavour
sketch
few
and
We
to
a
they are
vague.
Many

years

memoir

from

we
ago
consulted

this

them.

specimen of the trouble necessary

point in this biography, we will here cite the
As

settle any
various dates
to

inquiries into

one

given

his

birth,
Scholars, as
Bentley says 43rd Olympiad; Stanley, S3rd Oly. ; Gale, 6oth
Siculus,6ist Oly. ; Lloyd,
Oly. ; Dacier, 47 th Oly. ; Diodorus
Alex., 62nd
Oly. "
43rd Oly. ; Dodweli, 52nd Oly. ; Clemens
Eusebius, 63rd or 64th Oly. ; Thirwall, 51st Oly. ; Ritter,49th
within the limits of eighty-four
Oly. ; so that the accounts
vary
If we
with
should
decide
make
must
choice, we
a
years.
the

by

results

of

only from respect

; not
it agree^ with the
because

Bentley
but

their

for

; and

this receives

of the general scope

of hi"

magnificent scholar,
date

probable

and contemporary,
Pythagoras' friei\d
Pythagoras is usuallyclassed among
Mathematics

that

of

the

birth

of

Anaximander.
the

confirmation

founders
of
great
know
from what we

labours, and from the

statement

that

MATHEMATICIANS.

THE

40

chiefly
occupiedwith the determination of extension and
and
gravity, measuring the ratios of musical tones. His science
and skill are of course
absurdly exaggerated; as, indeed, is
his
life.
Fable assignshim the placeof a saint ;
of
every portion
he

was

miracles, and

of

worker

His

wisdom.

very
the son

birth

the
was

teacher

of

marvellous

than

more

human

accounts

some

of Hermes, others of Apollo : in proof

making
he is said to have exhibited a golden thigh.
of the latter,
the Daunian
With a word he tamed
bear, which was
laying
from
the country ; with a whisper he restrained an
waste
ox
him

He
heard to lecture at different places,
was
devouring beans.
such as Metapontum and Tauromenium, on the same
day and
he crossed the river,the river-god
As
hour.
at the same
saluted him with *' Hail, Pythagoras! " and to him the harmony
audible music.
of the Spheres was
these
Fable ens^irines
wonders.
But that they could exist,
is
of the greatness of Pythalore,
significant
as
even
legendary
goras.
It is well said by Sir Lytton Bulwer, in his brilliant
and thoughtful
work on Athens, that not only all the traditions
respectingPythagoras,but the certain fact of the mighty effect
that, in his single person, he afterwards wrought in Italy,
art of making
prove him also to have possessedthat nameless
and
mankind,
creatingindividual
a personalimpressionupon
is
who
which
obtain a moral
those
to
enthusiasm,
necessary

the founders of sects and institutions. It

of the time and the
conformitywith the manners
so
objectsof Pythagoras,tp believe that he diligently
explored
and political
the ancient religious
systems of Greece, from which

command,
is

and

much

he had

are

in

been

tions
long a stranger, that'we cannot
rejectthe tradiwith fable)
that he visited Delos, and
(howeverdisfigured
affected to receive instructions from the pious ministrants of
that Fable exalts into its
Delphi.* It is no ordinaryman
Whenever
find rotnanlic or miraculous
poeticalregion.
you
attributed to any man,
be certain
that that man
was
sustain
the weightof this crown
of fabulous
great enough to
glory. So with Pythagoras,we accept the evidence of Fable.
deeds

the fact thus indicated is to us

ordinarytradition of his havingborrowed
philosophyfrom the East. Could not
But

foreignteachers?

with
"

"

Athens

it Rise

and

refutation

all his
so

of

the

learningand

great

Assuredly he could

man

and

pense
disdid.

Fall,*vol. ii. p. 412,

"J

MATHEMATICIANS.

THE

42

king's authority

The

Priests

admit

to

Pythagoras therefore
Priests

Theban

to admit

loath

resolved
twenty

to

in

years

But

were

be

discouraged. He
patience, that they

not

such

returned

but

ceremonies, among

severe

could

with

Egypt, and

the

disgustthe novice,

To

into their confidence.

him

take

royal mandate,

several

injunctions

all their

as

he

prevail on

mysteries. They referred

antiq^ty. The

their rites.

undergo

to

to

of greater

the

by
to

circumcision.

was

obeyed

awed

stranger

him

they forced
which

Thebes,

to

were

their

to

stranger

"

sufficient

not

was

He

two-and-

spent

perfect

of

master

all

science.
is not

This
is not

bad

substantiated.

philosopher is
asked

am

beard

To

ascribed.

the

When

by Leontius,
philosopher,'' was

was

it has, however, one

Pythagoras the invention

story

what

he
his

was

the

This

"

gravely-answered
for, as
games;

art

be

"I

have

compared

to

he
I

art^.

no

having

never

it meant.

what

life may

it

of the woixi

Peloponnesus,

Leontius

reply.

before, asked

name

in

was

objection;

Pythagoras
the Olympic

this

seek
assembly some
glory and the
crowns
by the purchase or by the sale of merchandise
; some
seek gain ; and others, more
noble than either,go there neither
for gain nor
for applause, but solely to enjoy this wonderful
spectacle, and to see and know all that passes ; we, in the same
into the
quit our country, which is heaven, and come
manner,
for profit,many
work
world, which is an assembly where many
few
lor gain, and where
but
there
are
who, despising avarice
last
and
whom
It is these
I call
vanity, study nature.
noble
than to be a
philosophers; for,as there is nothing more
personal interest, so in this life the
spectator without
any
contemplation and knowledge of nature, are
infinitelymore
honourable

observe,

than
that

Pythagoras
the

where

Wisdom

the

meant

be

philosopher, and
mistress,to whom
The
Pythagoras.
man,

the

was

it,a

by system.
we

**

lover

extension
the
not

wisdom," is only
is given to
the word

"be-all

of

and

the

simply a taste,

or

his life is devoted.

which

word

vf/i)6%. But

sophoif or
what

application.''It is necessary
ordinary interpretatipnof Philosopher,

utmost

must

other

any

he

wished

pursuit.

This

had
to

before

by

wise

man,

"

lover."
of

It must

be his

the

distinguish himself

as

the

meaning of
designated a wise

was

philosophers of his day, by name,

What
the meaning of Spphos
was
mean

as

accurate

here"

end-all

to.

distinct

as

he

had

from
done

Unquestionably
from
philor
a

PYTHAGORAS.

sopher

wisdom

whose

one

who

loves

impractical,and
wisdom

; one
purposes
for the sake
as

of its

its

Contemplation

of
of

sake.

own

43

for its

not

him

to

was

who

those

Wisdom

Lover

of

sought

Wisdom

"

sake,

own

only

as

exercise

from

himself
be

for

purposes
sopher
Philoa

therefore

to

power

wisdom

base

demarcate

to

"

the

much

so

highest

the

down
To
to
bring wisdom
humanity.
He
desecration.
called himself
life,was

practical

to

Pythagoras loved

Now

uses.

turned

for

used

rior
ulte-

ends.
this

Does
of his

interpretationof

opinions
of

except

after

condemned

believe

We

his Secret
a

to

the word
so"

silence.

Many

all it

Above

Society,into
initiation.

severe

Philosopher explain any

which

For

five

no

explains the
one

years
relinquishedthe

admitted,

was
was

task

stitution
con-

the
in

novice

despair;

of the contemplation of pure

wisdom.
unworthy
they were
the tendency to loquacity was
observed
to be
Others, in whom

less, had

the

period
Various

commuted.

Various

humiliations

had

to

of their powers
made
experiments were
of self-denial.
By these Pythagoras judged whether
they were
into
fit to be admitted
worldly-minded, or whether
they were
the
of science.
Having purged their souls of the
sanctuary
and
baser particlesby purifications,
sacrifices,
initiations,
thejr
admitted
the higher part -of the
to the
were
sanctuary, where
the
soul
consists in
purged by
was
knowledge of truth, which
of
immaterial
eternal
For
this purand
the knowledge
things.
pose
he commenced
with Mathematics,
because, as they just
medium
and
the
between
incorporeal things,
corporeal
preserve
off
the
Sensible
mind
from
alone
draw
things and
they can
them
conduct
to
Intelligibles.
Shall we
venerated
He
wonder, then, that he was
a God.
as
all
who
could
transcend
so
earthly struggles,and the great
ambitions
of the greatest men,
to live only for the sake
of
as
he
than
of a higher stamp
not
wisdom, was
ordinary mortals ?
Well
historians
him
later
clothed
in robes of
might
as
picture
with gold,his aspect grave, majesticai,
white, his head crowned
calm
the manifestation
and
of any
human
joy, of any
; above
human
in
of
the deeper myssorrow
contemplation
; enwrapt
teries
of existence; listening to
the
of
music, and
hymns
and
Thales
Hesiod,
Homer,
listeningto the harmony of
; or
the spheres.
He
the first of Mystics.
was
And, to a lively,talkative,
quibbling,active,versatile people like the Greeks, what a grand
be

endured,

MATHEMATICIANS.

THE

"4

this solemn, earnest, silent,meditative

must
man
phenomenon
have
appeared.
borrow
the following
From
Sir Lytton Bulwcr's
Athens
we
of the political career
of Pythagoras :
account
Pythagoras
arrived
in Italy during the reign of Tarquinius Superbus, according
and
the
Aulus
to
Gellius, and
testimony of Cicero
his
residence
in
in
fixed
the Bay of Tarentum,
Croton, a city
'

'

**

"

colonized

by Greeks

partial credit
deavouring to

the

to

times,

Dissensions

from

soon

rose

the

body

arrival and

influence

himself

lent

the

native
of

power

organised

and

as

was

not

eloquent

office,and

sisting
(conrace

posterity of the
itself of the

philosopher.

aristocracies,and
his

But

tyranny.

least

at

contented

was

in

legislator.

different

availed

he refused,

unusual

senate

renowned

of

and

The

first the

and

the

to

of

population)

equally inimical to democracy

that of no
was
vulgar ambition
ostensible

appeared

objects.

; the

consolidation

the

to

an

first

doubtless

people

lend

may

he

preceptor

his

members,

the

that

youth, and,

from

of the

last

of

we

later

disciples,en*
superaddition some
original

seem,

city favoured

thousand

settlers,the
He

teacher

If

of

fables

florid

truth, it would

in the

of

from

tribe.

Achaean

extravagant

extract

of simple
germ
the character
of

in those

of the

for

with

was

policya

time,

instituting

formidable

and

society,not wholly dissimilar to

that
mighty order founded
by Loyola in times comparatively
The
into this society underwent
recent.
disciples admitted
and
examination
probation ; it was
through degrees that they
admitted
into its
passed into its higher honours, and were
the basis of the fraternity,
but
Religion made
deeper secrets.
with
of
ends
human
advancement
and
religion connected
He
selected the three hundred,' who, at Croton, formed
power.
his order, from
the noblest
families,and they were
professedly
know
reared
to
themselves, that so they might be fitted to
world.
the
command
It was
not
long before this society,of
which
the
to have
Pythagoras was
head, appears
supplanted
an

the

ancient
In

founder

he

also

senate,

the

ornaments

the

this
of

institution,
Pythagoras
Greek
philosophy resembles

differed

from

importance
and
taught them.
fifteen disciples of
of

obtained

and

the

of

other

He

women.

His
the

of his school.

sages

wife
softer

An

was
sex

administration.
legislative

stands

ot

alone

no

other

him.

By all accounts,
his time, in his estimate

is said to

have

herseif

philosopher, and

rank

among

order based

upon

lectured

the
so

to,

prominent

profound

PYTHAGORAS.

knowledge of
fail

to

all that

in

fascinate

can

Croton

"

mankind, could

cheat

or

His

temporary

secure

45

power.
^it extended

influence
Italian

other

to

not

was

bounded
un-

cities-=-it

overturned
or
political constitutions
amended,
and, had
;
and personal ambition, he
coarse
Pythagoras possessed a more
might, perhaps, have founded
a
mighty dynasty, and enriched
social annals
with the result of a new
his
But
our
experiment.
wished
He
the ambition, not
of a
was
hero, but a sage.
rather
than to exalt himself; his immediate
to establish
a system
followers
all the consequences
that
not
saw
might be derived
from
the fraternityhe founded
the political
designs of his
: and
and
philosophy, only for a while successful,
august
gorgeous
left behind
but
the mummeries
of
them
masonry,
an
impotent free-

"

had,

It

the

by

this

when

was

enthusiastic

the

and

mystic

so

power,

half-witted

of

and

cetics,
as-

revolutionary,

so

societies, established

branch

of

means

ceremonies

itself

throughout a considerable
portion of Italy, that a general
feeling of alarm and suspicion broke out against the sage and
his sectarians.
ti-Pythagorean
The
an
risings,according to
and active to be rememPorphyry, were
sufficiently
numerous
bered
of
generations afterwards.
Many
said to have
it is doubtful
perished, and

for

friends

long

are

himself

victim

the

sage's

whether

fell a
of his enemies, or
to
Pythagoras
rage
his
Nor
disciplesat Metapontum.
died, a fugitive,amongst
until
it
the
whole
of
Lower
torn
Italy was
was
nearly
by
into
herself
drawn
the contest, as
Greece
convulsions, and
that
the
ferment
arbiter,
pacificator and
was
allayed: the
institutions
abolished, and the timocratic
were
Pythagorean
the

"

democracies

the

of

intellectual

but

Achseans

rose

the

upon

ruins

of

those

ungenial oligarchies.

fatal error
when, in his attempt to
a
Pythagoras committed
revolutionise
aristocracies
for his
to
society,he had recourse
influenced
Revolutions, especially those
by religion,
agents.
"

can

from

be

never

this

worked
of

by popular

but

out

that

judgment

he

emotions.

enlisted

It

was

the

people against
account
Neanthes, related by Porphyry,
; for, by
from
all other testimony,it is clearlyevident
and indeed
that to
his
fall
be
ascribed.
must
It is
popular, not party, commotion,
error

him

no

the

less

clear

remained,
"own

by

his

of

that, after his death, while

politicalcode

philosophers, which

crumbled

spring

his

philosophical sect

away.

up

into

The

Great

only seeds

States,are

THE

46
those
of the

We

for

that,whether
Many,"
cannot

respecting
day, in the

MATHEMATICIANS.

good

planted in the hearts

evil,are

or

omit

the story which

so
long amused
his discovery of the musical chords.
of

shop

the world

Hearing one
men
striking

blacksmith, a
that all the
iron, he remarked
successively
hammers
chords, viz.,the
produced harmonious
except one
and the third; but the sound between
the fifth
octave, the fifth,
discordant.
On
and third was
entering the workshop, he found
the diversity
of sounds
was
owing to the difference in the weight
of

number

piece of heated

of the hammers.

He

took

the

weights,and

reaching
suspended
equal dimensions, and, hanging
of
the strings,
the
end
each
of
a weight at
equal to the weight
and found
of each hammer,
he struck the strings,
the sounds
He
then
proceeded
correspond with those of the hammers.
home

to

the

four

formation

of

musical
in

this. Dr. Bumey,

Though both hammers
On

**

ftncients and

on

scale.
his

History of Music,

anvil have

and
with

moderns

examination

exact

stringsof

been

ostrich-like

most

remarks

swallowed

"

by

digestion; yet,

of
experiment,it appears that hammers
will
no
more
weight
produce different tones
the
than
bows
same
anvil,
or
clappers of different size
upon
will from the same
stringor bell."
of the life of Pythagoras with
We
close here our
account
for the fabulous and
reminding the reader that one great reason
upon

and

different size and

contradictory assertions
biographies, arises from
authorities

"

been

collected

together in histories

uncritical

the
used.

in

manner

which

and
the
"

"

authority
only one
his life of Pythagoras, with a
example
wrote
: lamblicus
as
an
of Christianity,
view
of combating the risingdoctrine
and of
Christ.
opposing, by implication,a Pagan philosopher to
**

If

miracles

the

Hence
our

have

account

certain materials

that

for

better

"ri-

take

attributed

were

is 'somewhat

lWiii*i"rn

iMj^'^H

To

him.

to

slender, it is
one

"

are

"^^MiM".MM""

extant.

"

so

because

no

OF

PHILOSOPHIC

PYTHAGORAS.

III.

CHAPTER

PHILOSOPHY

There

is

no

difficult

to

seize and

known
the

the

as

world

It has

air

An

class, surrounds

it.

be

to

as

so

of

often

historymore

our

than

that

commonly

prodigious

made

mystery,

confounded

with

always imdting

to

marvellous

The

of

course

accurately

represent

much

Echoes.

founder;

whole

Pythagorean.

so

PYTHAGORAS.

OF

in the

system

47

relations

of

noise

in

its distant

large

its illustrious

the

of
assimilation
it contains
various
supposed
of Eastern
elements
speculation ; and the supposed symbolical
of its doctrines, have
all equally combined
it
nature
to render
attractive
in it has
and
been
contradictory. Every dogma

traced

to

the property

called

be

priorphilosophy.

some

of the

Not

teacher

vestigewill
himself,if we
a

remain
restore

to
to

Jews, Indians, Egyptians,Chaldeans, Phoenicians, nay even

Thracians, those various portions which he is declared to have
the

borrowed
this

All

and,

show

to

were

"

this

what

on

false

here, however,

can

incline

plagiarism we

pretended

improbable
We

them.

from

think

to

extremely

critical

history,we should
assumptions it is grounded.
record

merely

deavour
en-

conviction

our

that

of Anaximander
that his
a
Pythagoras was
; and
consequence
doctrines,in a:s far as we can gather from their leading tendency,

but

were

At

continuation

of

which

the

outset

be -in

that

of

Anaximander

was

premise,

must

we

abstract

deductive

and

sophy
philo-

the chief.

interest there

that whatever

as
particular opinions recorded
is
such
a process
quite incompatible
belonging to Pythagoras,
still
with our
The
exists,and must
plan.
greatest uncertainty
for ever
scholars, respecting the genuineness of
exist,amongst
such as are recorded
those opinions. Even
by trusty authorities,
attributed
the Pythagoreans,*'
them
to
by
are
always vaguely
criticism
that
Modern
has
to Pythagoras.
not
clearly shown

may

following

the

out

"

that
The

the

supposed

All

Plato

and

cannot

to Timseus

treatise of
even

have

Aristotle, the

in this matter,
Pythagoras. The

trusted
to

attributed

works

the

do
reason

and

Ocellus
been

only
not

Archytas
Lucanus

written

ancient

spurious;

are
on

by

writers

tlie

nature

and

of

Pythagorean.

who

are

to

"be

peculiar doctrines
is simple. Pythagoras taught only
attribute

any

MATHEMATICIANS.

THE

48
in secret

; and

impossible accurately
His

taught.
school

influence
this

; and

immense

distinctive

from

learn

to

those

what

their minds

over

influence

not

to

his

doctrine

accordant

one

is

selves
disciplesthemwas
ably
unquestion-

communicate

would

but

tendency

taught his disciplesit

he

What

wrote.

never

tendency in the direction

carry
best suited his taste and
which
powers.*
of ascertainingaccurately what
The
extreme
difficulty
goras
Pythahis disciples thought, will not
what
thought, or even
but ascertain
the general tendency of
embarrass
can
us, if we

renders

tendency
it does

compel

not

our

country

this

to

we

were

school

The

materials

of

that

to

method

school

"

of

Simon.
of

Like

his

system.

over

their

took

deep

Leroux,

was

be

the

case,

communicated
almost

Pytliagoras,makes
the

yet

with
reader

"

Le

it to

P^re

very
will

his Titan

highest of the sciences

aifvoXC' Prom,, 451.

in

names

but

; for

country

the

Pythagorean
tendency wholly

we

do

it groundlessly.
assume
Saint
by the cdebraled
account
published no complete
not

his

disciples, and,

tendency

in

M.

his

philosophy

different

minds.

appreciate this

Thierry, Auguste
results

his influence

as

of

Bazard,

when

Pierre
Comte,
"c., all disciples

disciple of
for men.
having
Number,
t^Qxov "ro^i"rfidinav,
^i)v djoi0/i6v,
c^cvpoy
remember

boast

; Kai

and

afforded

Enfantin,

different

mathematics

subsequently Hippar-

fruits
different
very
French
writers will

Augustin

Chevalier,

classical

of

; the

unparalleled, the

MM.

enumerate

Simon,

The

Deductive

Philolaus,and

root,

Michel

Saint

He

of that

geologists.

tendency

by the striking analogy

Pythagoras, the Frenchman

minds

simply

of

to

also

greatest

though producing
moderately acquainted with

Those
we

this

assume

guided

are

to

of

and

and
We

We

the

Archytas
Ptolemy, t

astronomy

of

abstractions, as the only true

Hence
the name
not
unfrequently given
Mathematical."
The
the
list of Pythagoreans

science.

embraces

chus

purely

consideration

the

towards

and

sake

the great outlines

of
do without
absolutely

varieties

be

to

method

the

map

enabled

internal

the

; but

encounter
we
may
of the philosophical

ascertain

to

and

opinion

the

out

be

may

being acquainted with the

geographers are not bound
What

of

fortress

careful

be

must

method

for

march

our

torian
his-

indirectly; it

us

liable to contradiction

more

trace

critical

the

characteristic

the

interrupt

to

us

have

We

we

and

individual

every

way.

world

to

hazardous

more

storming

each

endeavour

our

seize

tiieir

peculiarityof

the

all,

difficulty,which, for
insuperable, only affects

believe

we

above

this

Because

method.

that

out

speculations, and,

their

on

would

scholar

for each

of

that

^schylus,

discovered

THB

50

Infinite ;
In
One.

MATHEMATICIANS.

all numbers

so

original One,

the

relations

numerical

but

are

all numbers

of

the

containedi and

are

of the whole
world.
consequently the elements
the
is necessarily the apx^
that One
Observe, moreover,
beginning of things,so eagerly sought by philosophers,since,
wherever
Suppose the
begin ivith One.
begin, you must
you
to make
number
be three, and
you strike off the initial number
"

the

two,

Beginning
The

quibble

verbal

need

mistook
has
to

distinctions
said

well

been

of

abstract

unmeaning.
that

and

Greeks

this,

One

as

indeed

the

were

and,

as

natural

"

that

all the

the

those

there

But

be

to

but

clear

more

able

the

tion
introduc-

not

therefore

fixed,so
securely
this

making

of

ways

and
them

employ

to

two

were

first attempts

philosophising,necessarily,

abstractions

vague

coherently.

indeed,

vague

step in

next

led

the

consequence,
in things. It

distinctions

for

Whewell,

conceptions,

whole

sincerity
unfortunately acquainted

suspicion of

any

their own;
in language

logicalfaculty should

the

is the

word

operations of Nature,

And

make

to

excite

by Mr.

the

comprehend

was

but

language

no

In

One,

which

on

not

The

Pythagoras.

with

be

things.

of all

system, reposes,
of

will

then

second

the
by examining the words
only, and
the
other
thoughts which
they call up;
by attending to the
fact" and things which
into use.
The
bring these abstract terms
the

attempt;

followed

Greeks
It is
any
of

one

the

only by

of

means

or

the

Pythagoras ; it is only thus

that
could
have
held
Numbers
this

philosophy

which

course,

that

existence

sensible

half

the

only

reason

explanation ?
entirelywith

of

The

so

we

the

things

that

but

mathematicians

those

how

Aristotle

he

butes
attri-

for mathematics,

Pythagoras
abstract

"

can

we
as

understand

Beings.
of

failed.'* *

wire-drawn

can

were

itself with

concerns

and

explanation

above

the fondness

to

material

to

notional

the belief in distinctions

credit

way

verbal

with

not

the

surely this is only

in our
day not

the
stand
as
symbols, which
sentative
repreof things, without
having the least affinityor resemblance
the things (being wholly arbitrary marks)
but very
,

many

of

inspecting
symbols.
those

who

these

never

things about

the
Much

of

never

"

men

the

use

History

trouble

themselves

at

which

all

with

of
they reason
by means
is carried on
science
of Astronomy
by
is
it
carried
on
telescope ;
by figures

of the

Inductive

Sciences/

i. p. 34.

PHILOSOPHY

upon

they
numbers

distinction.

he

and

in

to

with

variance'

all

we

When

*'

of

were

Ritter

be

great

centuries

numbers
therefore

only

can

commit

to

know

that

symbol.

formula

us
appears
several
antedate
by

to

believed

He

merely
Pythagorean

the

S"

those

of

not
reality,

that

PYTHAGORAS.

ever,
figures. Because, howas
symbols, they do not suJ)posethat
able
not
symbols. But Pythagoras was

than

more

this

things in
says

calculations

numbers

use

are

make

to

and

paper,

OF

mode

bolically,"
sym-

anachronism,
thought at

of

Philosophy

Greek

taken

variance

; at

The
Aristotle,who
says :
from
Pythagoreans did not separate Numbers
Things.
They
Number
be the Principle and
held
to
Material
of things, no
their
and
i.
than
less
notion
Met^
essence
5.* The
power."
in
of
the
because
that
state
philosophy, cannot
present
we,
otherwise
coriceive
Numbers
than
as
symbols, that therefore
in the same
have conceived
them
is one
Pythagoras must
way,
which
has been
hold
to be
widely spread, but which
we
very
Shakspeare*s making Hector
as
as
great an anachronism
quote
with

also

the

of

testimony

express

''

"

Aristode,
the

Racine's

or

Aulis.

at

camp

considerable

with

admits

the

that

world

all in the

All

from

or

Ritter

And

essential

points in

doctrine

of

rests

proceeds

the
or

on

''

this
the

philosophy,

derivation

relations,and
time

and

space

from

pluralityof units

the

himself, after having stated

mathematical

from

etiquetteof Versailles,in

various

detail the

relations

of the
numbers.

exhibiting the

into

originalone,

on

of

lution
reso-

of units

those

or

primary number,

or

into

numbers

the

which

the

in

one

that this
life-developmentdivides itself." Now, to suppose
doctrine was
simply mathematical, and not mathematico-cosmological is to violate all principlesof historical philosophy ; for it
the opinions of our
is to throw
day into the period of Pythagoras.
its

For

proof, consider

dpiOfiMv. "Things

Toiv

oma

final

formula, which

will

combating,
meaning of Pythagoras
are

we

on

the

to be

defined

xad)/
("i"C
The

re

fiXjyas
cut

whole

symbolical

copies of Numbers."
favourable

the

to

directlythe

of

reverse

say, ''Numbers
existence
(OXi^v

materialise cap.

3),

and

of

notion

the

real

symbolical.
the

are

rdiq

their

ra

This

inspection exhibit

to

"tvai

fufirf"rw

ovai

ning
beginhe

has

modifications

!f^"tc).**

chapter
use

causa

formula,

most

close

be more
accurate
Perhaps it would
their
of things, the cause
material
of

before

.^See

are

is the

of all others

the

of

'Appendix

should

be

consulted

by

had
belief Aristotle
numbers,
a
translation of the
A."' where
a

those

who

believe

in

the

certainlyno suspicion of.

chapter is given.

MATHEMATICIANS.

THE

52

feymbolsare

arbitrarymarks, bearing
fl, ^, r,
makes
them

things they represent;

mathematician

the

; but

things

This

is

call

would

one

no

far clear.

so

is

it

is

One

realization
be

stone

stone

another
This

One

dust,

to

copy

o^the

may

appear

of

a* concrete

One
stone.

particleof dust

it is the
;
Let
the

is stilla copy,'

One.

metaphysical

somewhat

it is thus

sophistical
;

but

doctrine

Pythagoras.

of

the

original
Thus

Numbers.*
copy

abstract

frincipia

iht

be

to

shall

We

the
tilings,

are

it is
into

and

said

are

Things

essence

of

existences

material

of

in

explanations.

concrete

Of

tity.
quan-

of

meaning

Numbers

are

in anterior
the

unknown

an

is the

what

such

of the abstract

ground

copy of

the

invariable,
as

or
symbols of quantities,

ihey

forms

remain

which

essences,
stone

the

that

meant

the

Numbers

when

that

and

alphabet

but

if

of the

letters

the

to

are

But

being copies of Numbers,

seek
The
meaning we must
find
that
there
Things are
Existence;

resemblance

no

that

to

represent

we

will

reader

The

and

bear

not

little

ourselves

mind

in

the

the

only a few mystical expressions,

is the
Number
such
that
principle of Things," handed
as
of a Thinker, who
the doctrines
created
down
to us
as
a conniably
undesiderable
influence
on
philosophy was
school, and whose
these
We
immense.
have
to intierpret
as
we
expressions
of

fiaiure

have

We

task.

our

"

best

Above

can.

all, we

plausibility;and

of

have

to

not

so

this

give

them

much

some

appearance

an

appearance
have
would

of

modern
what
been
thinkers
as
plausibility to
have familiarized
Now, as far as we
plausible to the ancients.
with the antique mode
ourselves
of thought, our
interpretation
of Pythagoras is one
which, if not the true, is at any rate very
he
analogous to it ; by such a logical process
might have

arrived
the

his

at
as

same

The
Numbers

could
The
effect

"

Numbers

tion.

arrived

at

for

our

them

purpose

this is almost

by it.'

questions are these two : Did Pythagoras regard

as
symbols, or as Entities?
and, if as Entities,how
such an
opinion have originated?
first question is decisively answered
by Aristotle,to the
that Numbers
the real Beings, and
were
Essences, were

Hence

the

had

and

great

had
are

essences

See

must

we

Pythagoras
but

conclusions,

if he

our

at

not

the
which

caution

against supposing, as is not unfrcquent, that

definite proportions."
anticipated the theory of
laws
of combination, nor
the expression of those laws,

aU

*'

remain

Introduction.

invariable

under

every

vaiietyof
"

combina**

PHILOSOPHY

OF

PYTHAGORAS,

5j

thrown
have
shown.
Doubts
merely Symbols, as we
are
Aristotle's authority ; he is said to have
misunderstood
and
on
be
It may
have
misrepresented Pythagoras.
so
no
; but we
either accept or
must
authority at all equal to him, and
we
the
be silent on
reject him entirely : and, if the latter,we must
whole
subject. Now, we not only accept his testimony as the
but
find
it quite consonant
with
the
we
Only valuable
one,
to
opihions antecedent
Pythagoras ; those namely of his friend
Anaximander.
We
such
should
opinions
say d priori that some
mander.
of Pythagoras
those
have
followed
those of Anaximust
as
not

The

first

remained
to

do

question

for

us

to

of

this

then

being
the

answer

answered

second

by
have

we

Aristotle, it
endeavoured

so.

The

nature

various

opinions

attributed

we

instance

his

may

forbids

work

to

him

celebrated

detailed

any

of the

account

subsidiary points.

on

of

theory

music

the

But

of

the

method
good specimen of the deductive
employed
that everything in the great Arrangement
Assuming
which
be
he called
the world, must
harmoniously
(#co"r/Aos),
the
that the
at
arranged, and, assuming
planets were
same
the divisions
another
from
of
proportionate distances
as
one
in
he
that
the
concluded
monochord,
passing through the
make
would
ether
sound, and that this sound
a
they must
vary
of
their magnitude,
velocity, and
according to the diversity
the
Saturn
relative distance.
deepest tone, as being the
gave

spheres
by him.

as

farthest

the

from

nearest

be

It may

the

Moon

shrillest,as

the

gave

being

earth.

the

to

earth

just

necessary

to

that

state

the

to

attempt

make

solid basis, and

is utterly without
Pythagoras a Monotheist
unworthy of refutation.
The
is of too great and
of Transmigration
doctrine
of Souls

general
been

also

rather

ue.

regarded

with

no

course

the

perfect.

for
as

us

to

was

all.

two

therefore

was

accursed.

as

De

soul

to

or

be
i.

AnimA^
was

it is moved,

regain its
departure from
to

It has

little reason,

number,

far

silence.

the

Aristy

"

it strives
called

very

defined

He

it was
as
soul, inasmuch
all perfection, in as
But

into

in

over

with

self-moved.

imperfection,whence
perfection. Imperfection he
pass

it

pass

symbolical
at

reason

(unity)which

monad
Of

interest

an

a
2.

One,
must
state

of

unity;

in

soul

The
it has

three

MATHEMATICIANS.

THE

'

54

is in

man

comparative imperfection: ^
(m)s)yIntelligence("^V)9 ^^^

of

state

elements, Reason

has in common
last man
(^v/ao$)
; the two
characteristic.
It
first is his distinguishing

with

Desire
the

brutes

hence

has

been

maintained
the
have
not
Pythagoras could
of transmigration ; his distinguishingman
doctrine
from brutes
being a refutation df those who charge him with the doctrine, t
concluded

that

Without

the

disputing

this

of

ingenuity

argument,

The
wholly unconvinced
Soul, being
by it. \
is
itself with two
it connect
One, whether
monad,
in other

words
The

festations.

Desire,

and

the

essence

One
in

as

remains

soul

brutes

may

aspects

two

with

or

have

three

three;

its mani"

whatever

same

it may

or

the

have

are

we

self-moved

Intelligence

aspects,

as

in

predominate, and the

will then
become
eminently rational,or able, or sensual ;
man
beast
of
he will be a philosopher, a man
the world, or
a
of
and
the
Hence
importance of the Pythagorean initiation,
studies

the

shrivel

What
"

why

may

condition
itself

of

that

thing

has. its peculiarevil tastes,

of

different

which

itself;
in

the
abiding
adapted and reduced

necessity of

the

to

beneath

creatures

it had

?""

closing this

In

have

which
mander

there
science

Thus

maintained

nnmbers,
t

Pierre

Plato
And

is

It

it

of

account

further

only

philosophy.

45.

not

law

soul

under

be

And, if something higher

accurately determining its

Each

likeness

the

to

than

Aijd, if something lower

be

not

and

before

become

there
may
and
descent

it

look

something higher

not

bringing it

of

lower,

elevation

we

shrink and
after,can
incapacityof contemplating aught but the
what
depths of degeneracy it is capable I

it may

beast

may

Music.

and

can

an

moment,

itself,why
and

aspects

of Mathematics

itself into

present

these

soul, which

This

"

of

each

But

man.

remained

in
a

its relation

offshoot

clearly an

of

frankly mathematical.

Aristotle

expresses

the

and

himself

when

to

the

preceding

Anaximander*s

of

logical

more

trace

doctrine,

imperfectlyknown

very

exhibit

to

develops

is

trine,
doc-

In Anaxi-

manner.

goras
physicalinquiry; in PythaNumber
that
Assuming
he

the

that

Pythagoreans
combination
of
intelligence to be a certain
Se Toiovdi {sc,rwv
i.
to
Met,,
ipiOfA"v)if'vxi)
"""
5,
vovc*
De
vol. i. p. 390-426.
THamanit^/
Leroux,
the transmigration to beasts.
distinctlymentions
PJuedrus, p.
the
of the
Pythagorean Timseus, in his statement
doctrine, as
soul

says

"

"

beasts.
Tttrueus, p. 45.
expressly includes
and
f *Ency. Metrop.'" art. Moral
Metaphy,
"

Pkihs.

PHILOSOPHY

is

the

invariable

real

deduction
and

that

from

OF

is

world
the

all

doctrine

system

which

the

developed.
of

One

is

an

maintained
the

that

world."
than

more

later

as

the

the

its

an

the

the

Ionian

its

who

those
in

the

of
the

for

Pythagorean

transmigration,
Number

invariable

represents

Philosophy;

argue

second

the
he

is

parallel

his

the

as

epoch
with

this

the

of

be

the

World

second

as

doctrine
of

Essence

Anaximenes.

renounce

central

the

only

Essence

must

the

come
be-

to

abdication
to

of

doctrine,
and

sively
succes-

^p^v,

invariable
Soul

pass

can

it

them

the

trine
doc-

very

state

not

prove

of

num5er.

self-moved,
which

does

distinctly

(phenomena)

in

much

menon
pheno-

as

Intelligence,

concupiscible,

and

doctrine

system,

Pythagoras
of

and

in

plant,

i^ovs,

Intelligence

Intelligence,

both
of

and

manifestations

Assuredly

or

lie

to

is

is

essential

an

take
which

Monad,

Reason,

and

Reason

of

no

anxiously

so

Mind

Mind

regarded

we

of

writers

of

soul

"

opinion

the

Infinite

an

frequently
of

for

later
of

only

assertion
the

sensual

merely

which

manifestation

brute,

ground

He

If

of

solid

no

conception

this

soul.

taught

Theism,

The

of

state

variable

his

peculiar

the

loses

of

of

proof

of

into

that

is

Pythagoras.

the

there

him.

to

than

And

But
for

attributed

Pythagoras

the

systems

been

doctrine

the

goras
Pytha-

of

these

of
has

It

sketch

daring

became

neifcer

in

quence.
conse-

genius

Infinite.

the

of

as

and

Anaximander

that

Observe,

attribute

rude

of

Infinite

Pythagoras.

Mind

proportions;

followed

mathematical

great

The

but

natural

was

numerical

system
is

it

world,
by

his

of

55

the

regulated

rest

Anaximander's
of

of

essence

the

this

PYTHAGORAS.

things.
Branch

III.

BOOK

THE

ELEATICS.

I.

CHAPTER

XEMOPHANES.

The

contradictory

the

have

to

assert,

was

born

in

hundred

Minor

gnomic

youth

city,

till his

death,

inexhaustible.

grand

of

those

He
of

men

"

will

is well
is of

The

by
poems
of feasts.

Fragmens
observe

worthy

very

us

great

of

the

to

Rhapscdists
heart

Homer

and

over

apparently
with

the

the

the

the

184

1.

but

on

deur.
gran-

able
remark-

most

sincerest.

this

templation
con-

poetical

worldly

essay,
Carminum
'Xcnophanis

Karsten's

treasures

in

little of

little

he, above

him

was

of

very

But

enwrapt

Bnixelles,
in

wandered

within

one

of

one

from

poor.

was

been

certainly

had

He

critical

^The
"

whole

the

Minstrels

the
them

to

rhapsodist,

assembled
and

of

antiquity.

crowds

rhapsodised

and
his

own

learned

They
on

it

Reliqnae*

student.

were

recited
was

have

Philosophiques,'

perusal.

died

but

need

Banished

Plutarch,

vocation

whose

mis-statements

some

value

and

soul

could

to

credit

riches, having
whole

ideas,

antiquity

*Nouveaux

reader

with

ideas, and

to

seems

poor,

whose

of

to

he

his

tion
consola-

the

exercised

he

its

from

poetry

age.

is unknown,

are

lived

He

He

expression

we

dispense

could

men,

if

old

and

amongst

youthhood,

and

city

elegiac

of

of

species

profession

an

seat

nearly

Ionian

Minmermus

his

of

joy

cause

:t

though,

this

manhood

what

from

benefit.

pecuniary
all

his

Rhapsodist

as

the

was

of

support

native

Sicily

it

the

as

poet

cultivated

He

upwards

the

lived

Colophon,

was

famous

ranking

and

men.

and

birth-place

city long

poetry,

celebrated

his

His

We

Xenophanes

that
he

that

and

Cousin's

unconvinced.*

probability,

some

said

be

now

Victor

M.

readers

Olympiad,

40th

the

years.

Asia

of

with

therefore,

birth, may
up.

few

leave

obscured

long, had

so

Xenophanes*

of

will

subject

the

may

date

satisfactorily cleared

been
on

essay

the

of

question

for

which,

statements

the

occasions

divine

verses.

ELEATICS.

TBB

S"

of which

confirmation

In

who

their

represent

while

gods

Thracians

the

of the

clear

Godhead,
abroad,

which
around
who

raise
who

recognitionof
the

it became

that conviction

hid

the

him, and
speculated

yielded

to

tear

black

and

and

his life

of

colour;

ruddy

unity

the

object

Ethiopians,

the

of

plexions.
com-

perfection
spread

to

thick veil of stition

superof truth.
He
looked

the

down

c6unteoance

divided

into

; those

classes

two

of things,and
endeavoured
to
recognition of the Divine, and those
the
to
tions
superstiunreflecting assent
easy

the

u]) to

an

to

mankind

on

themselves

and

august

saw

referred

flat noses,
and
them
blue
eyes

give

attained

Having

satire he
with

easy

nature

religion. The first class speculated; but

they kept their speculations to themselves, and to a small circle
communicate
of disciples. If they sought truth, it was
to
not
it to all minds
work
not
fpr humanity, but for the
; they did
few.
Even
thinker
he was, could
not
as
Pythagoras, earnest
which

be

made

had

believe

to

two

whom

he

Not

listen.

The

what

was

he

Xenophanes.

so

Truth

with

chose

to

latter

in the fitness
doctrine

of

sorts

pleased
the

compose

for all

was

former

was

for

one

what

all

men

for

no

such

to

truth ;
receive.

distinction.

endeavoured

of

as

the

fitted
such

He

disciples,

{q:w

other

were

he

believed

he

thought the mass

He
recognised
to

for truth.

multitude

of the
teach

caution; the

extieme

; and

men

to

to

did

sent
pre-

a
he,
it;
three-quarters
great
century
his countryman
the great
Homer,
Rhapsodist of Truth, emalate
wander
into many
lands, uttering
Rhapsodist of Beauty, and
What
is prethe thought that was
contrast
a
working in him.
sented
Ionian
these
in
in
two
by
singers1 contrast
purpose,
and
The
in fate.
rfiapsodiesof the philosopher once
so
means,
listened
and
affectionatelypreserved in traditionary
eagerly
to,
in briefest extracts
contained
in
only extant
fragments, are now
ancient
ancient
and so
books, so
uninterestingas to be visited
old
and
few
dilettanti
scholar
rare
only by some
a
spiders;
the
while
rhapsodies of the blind old bard are
living in the

and

for

the

^
*

brain

and

heart

as

of

antique

an

thousands

fountain-source

them

Because

the

of

world

the

How

of

thousands,

poetry,

and

as

who
the

go

back

to

crystal mirror

is this ?

in pictures,to
presented itself to Homer
The
Xenophanes
one
problems.
existence, enjoyed it,
saw
also saw
other
and painted it. The
existence, but questioned
is sunny
clear ;
it,and wrestled with it. Every trait in Homer
in

world

and

XENOPHANBS.

in

59

In Homer
there
indecision, confusion.
is a resonance
of gladness, a sense
of manifold
life,activity,
is bitterness,activity,
and
there
enjoytnent. In Xenophanes
infinite sadness.
but of a spasmodic sort, infinite doubt, and
The
was
one
a poet
singing as the bird sings,carolling for very
also of
of life ; the other was
exuberance
a Thinker,, somewhat
a

Xenophanes

fanatic.

is

there

did

He

**

should
philosopher

earnest

him

l^oet, opposed

degraded

actions

is natural

; but

unlike

with

even

motives

and

have

bitterness, on
which

of

account

attributed

he

the sunny

opposed

the

the

gods,
this opposition and

distinguishbetween

must

we

early Gods

of the

"

the

! how

'

That

Ah

large utteratice

that

To

recited

sing^he

not

to

satire.

bitter,not satirical. The

statement
was
Xenophanes
derived
from
satires against Homer
Diogenes, that he wrote
and
Those
think
who
otherwise
Hesiod, is incredible.*
are
referred

the

to

Rhapsodising philosophy, and

of all that
wandered
settled.

he

availinghimself,

of

such

in

fact

Parmenides

speaks

of

silent

respecting Xenophanes,
He

Elea.'*

This
we

various

by

no

with

with

maintain

that he

must

is

referred

to

may,

he

terminated

Ttypa^t
of

meters

Sk Kal

Here,

'Oit^pov.
a

his hexameters

words

says

there

he

the

pose,
pur-

the Eleats

long and

lived

wrote
on

lived

writers

this

on

active

there.

point.

life without

are

to

sent

theless,
Neverfrom

who,

to

verses

there.

in his

observable
resided

Laertius

colony

he

is

there, but

thousand

two

and

on

justly holds

Diogenes

of

writers

describing Elea,

Hegel

modem

Cousin

M.

when

which

actually have

Iv iTmriv,

copyist, as
by Diogenes.

; and

tioned,
men-

for that

ancient

having

as

implies that

means

concur

connexions

again

Zeno

the

the

book,

Xenophanes
of
Colophon,

"

of

any

"

says
foundation

the

on

and

Indeed

suspicious.

vagjie.

before

the

Contrary, Strabo, in his sixth

be

Cousin,

philosophers of his time had discovered, he

from place to place, and at last came
to Elea, where
he finds no
tinct
disHegel questions this. He
says

mention
the

Victor

of

essay

Ritter.

to

or

excellent

the

fragments,
The

Be

reader

that

having

as

it

solved

*Hfft6dov
gal
IXiyiiaQycat IdfiPovQ Kara
the
word
is
either an
Cousin,
lation
interpolanPovQ
statement
and
Feuerlin
Rossi
conjecture,or else it is a miscat

M.

is not

opposes

Iambics
a

could

single iambic
Homer

and

never
verse

Hesiod,

be
of
as

the
his
we

designation
remaining.
have

seen.

of

hex""
But

in

6o

the

great

the

seeds

large
only

part

to

know

in

Timon

by

that

Long,
And

am,

Of

It

the

One

remains

that

we

owe

**

To

Beyond
should

we

of

path

despair

of

nothing
to

the

nothingness
Xenophanes

attained

its climax

bead

at

the

is

sufficient

of the
to

in

thus

Pyrrho.
his

in

although

been

not

many

star,

thought," f
the

on

terrestrial

secure

impossible

consent

to

limit

And

it

series

speculations

of

should

to

head
an

to

the

was

the

cry

men's

knowledge

as

the

has

be

their endeavours

first called

he
at

may.

desire

which

and

to

early thinkers

these

to

human

reputation
fiagments")f

But

XetTophanes,

opens
That

answer

the

the

there

knowledge,

monotheists,

entitle

it is

at

early thinkers

possible.

from

of

conclusions

perhaps,

us.

The

the

certainly known,

be

conceived.

of

sides

distraction

the

these

travel

will

men

escaped

can

of

aviXvtro,)*

vav

not,

sinking

of

to

both

to

and

of

Had

science.

before

which

of

like

able

been

compassing

the

to

finely

heguiied,

rk

to

bound

utmost

looking

Pythagoras,

spirityearning

inductive

slow

impossible,

proved

the

mouth

justified by
jill

knowledge,

have

not

with

science.

Gray

the

will

forget that

never

follow

into

doubt

to

descended

modem

our

puts

some

conclusions

us

is

error,

They

seems

have

the

mind

raitrd

state

; as,

wisdom

trivial,let

appear

to

arrived.

which

of

consider,

to

(iif%v

"

us

of

exposed

yet

Ally

man

science

modem

road

I turn

and

him

enabled

state

and

prudent

the

expectation

reader's

wisdom

that

mind,
on

years,

for

extraordinary

for

of

so

"

deep

strayed

hoary

this great

the

; for, wherever

in

now

which

the

were

now,

lost

am

words

! have

all kinds

to

mine

alas

who

play

to

knowledge

His

knew.

sinograph,

the

these

Xenophanes
Oh,

little he

how

sowed

mind

acute

hereafter

was

his

All

philosophy.

his

of

which

scepticism

that

of

indecision

The

problem.

described

'^

ELEATICS.

THE

was

cry
that

tion
atten-

then

thinkers, which
thus
of

have

been

the

sceptics,

extended

deration
consi-

here.

"

also

Preserved

by

Ritter

Tennyson,

by Sextus
i. 443.

Empiricus:

Hypot.

Pyrrho

n.

i. 224

and

quoted

THE

PHILpSQPHY^

OF

XBNOPHANES.

CHAPTER
THE

The

mind

and

the

nor

which

mathematical
him.

XENOPHANES.

early presented itself

that
problem
by Thales
had

existence

of

unsatisfied.

all sides

On

could

he

Neither

could

explanation

doctrines

these

mind
^*

of

left him

had

within

rose

OF

resolution

the

Pythagoras,

II.

?|IILOSOPHY

great problem

not

The

One

him

and

all

Thales

had

things ;

is God

his

thai

gazed abroad

it

great

was

and

sun

mystery,
whirled

moon

earth

was

of

souls

the

yearnings.

"

Overarching

the

proclaimed

heart

the

sea,

and

It

was

It

Many

was
were

his

of

Aristotle's

of

heaven,
him

he

the

was

embracing

be

God.

gazed

As

he

above

was

him

encompassed
by it. Moreover,
inviting yet defying scrutiny. The
and
fro through it ; the stars
were
in its intense

of

centre

The

of

was

dim

the

mysteries,

felt that

Xenophanes

; so

to

and

which

state

unchangeable,

inane.'*

constantly aspiring to it in the

perpetually aspiring
men
were

itself.
bosom

to

Pinnacled

"

The

upon

resting on its infinite bosom

at the sky, and
felt that he

The

-phrase
immensity

to his

physiological
doubts

one

blue, infinite vault, immoveable,

deep

still the

penetrate.

graphically painted in that

the
Casting his eyes
at
upwards
that

the

oppressed with

was

is

declared

6i

all

The

One.

of

shape

it with

to

existence.

It

was

in

Immoveable

vapour,
vague

ence
existwhose

moved.

buted
explanation of that opinion universally attriGod
is a
to
him, but always variously interpreted,
The
Heaven
encompassing him and all things, was
sphere ?
he proclaimed
God
?
The
One
to be
it not
Sphere which
that this explanation does
not
It is very
true
exactly accord
'

Is

this

not

the

"

"

his

with

earth

by

being

which

relates
the
that part which
to
infinite ;
inferior regions are
whose
flat surface
M.
Cousin,
explained the fixityof the earth.

Physics, especiallywith
he

in consequence

interpret
discrepancy, would
The
the phrase as metaphorical.
epithet spherical is simply a
absolute
locution
indicate
the
Greek
to
perfect equality and
The
of which
be
an
image.
unity of God, and
a
sphere may

therefore,

of

this
"

of ihe .Greeks
a-"bQ.i"ps^o%

is the

roiundus

of

the

Latins.

It is

6a

THE

BLBATICS,

metaphorical expression such

though
an
expression which
is

and

it,

science

of mathematical

birth

in

found

most

Simonides

z"ihaXoi

square^

become

now

meaning per/ed

trivial,had

something noble and

elevated
compositions

at

elevated
of

the
in

poetry.

to his feet, his bands,

man
speaks of a
as
square
the
meta"
a,nd his mind,' meaning an accomplished man
; and
It is not, therefore
phor is also used by Aristotle.
surprising
that Xenophanes,
a
poet as well as a philosopher, writing in
and
incapable of finding the metaphysical expression
verse,
his ideas, should
which
answered
have
borrowed
from
the
to
would
best
language of imagination, the expression which
*

his idea."

render

adopt tliis explanation could

we
be satisfied that the Physics of Xenophanes
were
preciselywhat
such
the
it is said they were,
that they were
at
or
epoch in
should

We

which

he

is
A

tempted

maintained

the

insuperable
lives

who

man

be

to

sphericityof
has

; but

been

hundred

God.

This

unobserved

years,

by

culty
latter diffiall critics.

necessarilychanges

his

such

subjects ; and, when

opinions are
lightly
so
those
of
philosophers at that epoch, it is but
grounded as were
admit
that the changes may
have been
natural to
frequent and
this
In
of
specialinstance, scholars have been aware
abrupt.
opinions

the

on

great

very

irreconcileable

and

contradictions

existing

authentic

ceitain

to
opinions equally
;, showing him
in
have
been
decidedly Physiological (Ionian)
one
department,
and as decidedly Mathematical
(Pythagorean) in another.
in
the
As
of
to
statement
point, Aristotle's express
case
looked
at
having
heaven, and
Xenophanes
pronounced
up
is
One
be
The
to
with
God,"
manifestly at variance
any
of the lower
belief in the infinity
The
regions of the earth.

between

"

One

be

must

the

Infinite.

return, however,

To

to

his

peculiarityof his doctrine.

of
and

He

multiplicityof Gods, but

Intelligence of The One.

God

must

is

be

Self-existent

impossible.

Nothing

monotheism, which is the great

not
only destroyed the notion

he

proclaimed

; for

to

be

conceive

the

self-existence

Being

as

pient
inci-

Nothing.
produced from
itself?
From
therefore, was
Whence,
Being produced?
No;
have
in
it
then
for
must
been
existence
to
already
produce
otherwise
it
would
have
been
itself;
produced from nothing.
the primary law : Being is self-existent
Hence
If self-existent,
consequently eternal.
can

PHILOSOPHY

THE

follows

It also
All

**

unmoved

Without

"

that The

All

he

labour

the

as

Let

was
verses

resemble

it

man

respiraiionV

place,
changes appearance.'*

nothing

so, it must

same

to

external

motion

to

He

it

move

be

remark
have

to

the

on

it

to

itself.

finite

things

maintained

only

soul

maintained, that

air.

was

of man,

that

in

passage

and
saw
; for he heard
is manifestly in allusion

that the

utterly unlike

in the

moved
things were
by God :
nileth all things by reason
and
insight.**
carefullydistinguished from anthromorquoted at page
fied.
60, have already exempli-

he is said

This

Anaximenes

being

as

Finite

only further

us

Laertius, wherein
toot

is

; there

unmoved.

was

monotheism

phism,

times

that he denied
suppose
denied
it to the Infinite.

he

His

remains

ever

at

not

must

without

place

itself;for,to do

because

"

it

when

unmoved

be

must

move

We

considered

when

immoveable,

unmoving

and
in its

change

All

cannot

is

God

that

:"

Wholly

The

63

it is

this

wise, and
The

XENOPHANES.

is all-powerful,and
allimplied that God
all-existent ; a ilkultiplicity
is inccaiceivable.
of Gods

in

As

OF

to

God

things

did

without

doctrine

the

of

intelligenceof

The

is said

all

Diogenes
**

to

be

God,
independent of

with
doctrine
respiration. Only by
connecting one
ancient
another, can
we
hope to understand
philosophy. It is
in vain that we
to
puzzle ourselves with the attempt
penetrate
of these antique fragments of thought, unless
the meaning
we
in relation to the opinions of their epoch.
view
them
This
remark
applies also to the negative portion of Xenohave
the positivenotions
given above
phanes* opinions. We
arrived
in speculating on
he
which
the
at
great problem "A
thus

existence.

But

sidedness.

All

to

of
we

they were
sceptical. He
to

reason

said,

and,

as

he

he

proclaimed
he

the

which

was

had

peculiarityof

one

was

his

the

great
a

is its double-

by the conclusions
dogmatical ; Xenophanes

were

confessed

the

impotence

of philosophy.
exalted^aims

spirit struggling with

earnest

discovery,

philosophy

abided

first who

wide

glimpse

announced.

before

They
the

was

compass

obtained

thinkers

other
led.

his

of

however

celestial
it

travel

might

Truth,

countenance,
contradict

he

what

; various

experience ;
new
contradictory
systems;
the
of
he
desirous
of
was
problem
solving these
glimpses
'working together, produced in his mind a sceptism of a noble,
somewhat
touching sort, wholly unlike that of his successors.
examination

of

different

Long

her

As

and

"

It

ELEATICS.

THE

64
combat

the

was

contradictoryopinions

of

in his mind

rather

steady ; his opinions

knowledge. His faith was
of the existence
of
vacillating. He had a profound conviction
belief
he
but
infinite
this
was
able
unBeing;
eternal, all-wise,
an
is
consistent
There
ness
sadformula.
to
to reduce
deep
a
than

'**

disdain

of

in these

verses

mortal

Certainly no

wists

He

are

recorded
The

out

turn

that

times

for

lived

had

great influence

is

would

his

find

held

unmoved,

to

him

these

prove

of the

many

tendency.

same

convictions
of

truth
; it did

of

any

not

vent
pre-

be .the truth ; it did

not

his

had

system

it awhile.

consider

day) taught

him

could

that

he

having neither

as

(infinite).

ning,
beginfinite,

Not

and

by another,

God,
finite.

be

is

God

logic teach

unmoved.

Not

him,

moved,

that

God

because

neither

was

thing

one

is one, not
by another ; and God
many.
because
is
alone
inasmuch
unmoved',
non-being

goes
such

darken

perfect.

tkingsy

cherished

infinite,neither

be

not

did

manner

moved, nor
only be moved

With

so

the

many.

like

to

must

on

because
infinite,
non-being alone,
middle, nor
end, is unlimited
because
thing can
one
only be limited

neither

attempt

negative portion of

Not

In

all

most

to

his successors,
we
his
of
the
(thatis,
Logic

not

true

of:

treat

we

and

truth.

the

as

he

one

over

spread

be

what

after

Infinite,could

one,

the

utter

be

nature

sceptical of the
this scepticism was
vague

But

prevent
Nevertheless,

to

well

might

proclaiming

Reason

shall there

All, whose

may

error

Cousin

M.

his search

the

ne'er
the

sceptical; especially when

of the
are
opinions of Xenophanes

errors,

his

and
and

not

opinions.

his

at

unconscious

who

man

he

by chance,
not

It is in vain
verses

yet knew,
wel)" the Grods

both

Knowing
For
when,

to

another,

nor

does

another

to

come

can

Not
as

it

it.

verbal

quibbles as these did this great thinker

his conception of the Deity.
not
They were
quibbles
real
the
involved
conclusions
in the
they were
;

premisses from
validity,would
He

which

he

have
was

characterises
clownish"

conceptions were
systematized.

reasoned.

been

to

doubt

To

have

the

their

doubted

of philosophy.
possibility

And
quite prepared for that.
this inconsequence by calling him

totle
Aris-

not

dypotKorcpos (Met.
mde

and

i.

5); meaning

undigested,

instead

"

what
some-

that

of

his

being

ELEATICS^

THE

66

III.

CHAPTER
PARMENIDES.

dialogue
forget the remarkable
in which
tribute
the dialectical
he
to
subtlety of Para
pays
the outset
caution
menides
at
must
against any belief
we
; but
him
in the genuineness of the opinions attributed
to
by Plato.
reconcile
himself
the propriety of altering
If Plato
could
to
readers

The

sentiments

the

to
reason

Let

us

him

his

of

such

could

he

which

were

read

will

Plato

of

the

as

beloved

he

put

had
into

the
/

not

entertained

never

the

mouth

invention

Parmenides/

Socrates, and

master

of

of

one

his

own

; with

far advanced

in

greater

caution

extreme

the

us

Rhapsodist

far

ments
long dead, sentidramatic
genius.

therefore, with

prefer the authority of Aristotle,and

been
which
have
preserved.
Parmenides
born
at
was
Elea, somewhere
This date does not
contradict
Olympiad.
him
to have
according to Aristotle,asserted
listened
whom
he might have
Xenophanes

let

ing
attribut-

of

verses

about,
the

The

the

;
menides
Par-

6ist

which,

rumour

been
to

of

discipleof

when

that great

positive
however, is that by Sotion, of his having been taught
statement,
But
both
the Pythagorean.
by Ameinias, and Diochoetes
may
be

was

years.

most

true.

Born

to

wealth

and

splendour,enjoying

the

and

esteem

which

envy

always follow splendour and talents,it is conjectured that

his early career
that of a dissipated
was
voluptuary; but Diochoetea
taught him the nothingness of wealth
(at times, perhaps, when
satiety had taught him the nothingness of enjoyment), and led
him
from
the dull monotony
endless
of noisy revelry to the
excitement
He
of philosophic thought.
forsook
variety and
the feverish
the bright
pursuit of enjoyment to contemplate
of Truth, in the
countenance
quiet and still air of delightful
studies."*
this devotion
studies
But
to
was
no
egotistical
seclusion.
It did not
prevent his taking an active share in the
political affairs of his native city. On the contrary, the fruits
shown
in a
which
of his study were
drew
he
of laws
code
which
and
deemed
wise
and
so
were
salutary that the
up,
"

"

Milton.

PARMENIDBS,

citizens
of

at

first

And

fearless virtue

first characteristic

The

to

ideas

obtained

through Sense.
of

this notion.

clearness.
all

over

absolute

faith.

abide

by the laws

obtain

aware

; in other
Reason
and

the

noticed

we

it attained

decided

tinction
dis-

words, between
obtained

those

vague
to

throw

to

the

glimmering

something like
an
uncertainty

have
become
logicalthinker,would
saved
from
scepticism by his
was
it by his philosophy. He
from
saved
the deceitful nature
of opinion ; but he

was

of

perfectly aware

gain."

philosophy, is

it contrived

In

Xenophanes
things ; which, in
scepticism. But

boundless

Opinion

Parmenides

In

Parmenides

also

his

of

through
Xenophanes

In

his worth

bringeth

and

Truth

between
the

greater did

something

For

was

their oath

yearly renewed

Parmenides.
**

was

67

he

that within

him

there

certain

were

ineradicable

convictions, in which, like Xenophanes, he had perfect faith,but

he wished
he
led
Thus
"which
to explain by reason.
was
in
doctrine
of innate
ideas.
sort to anticipate the celebrated
some
ideas were
These
truths ; they were
true
concerning necessary
other
ideas
All
uncertain.
were
knowledge.
that they recognised
The
Eleatse, as Ritter remarks, believed
demonstrate
that the truth of all things is one
could
and
and
that the human
unchangeable
faculty of
; perceiving, however,
follow
constrained
of
the
to
things, and
thought is
appearance
and
the
the
forced
changeable
they were
apprehend
to
many,
divine
the
unable
confess
that we
are
fullyto comprehend
to
in its reality,
rightlyapprehend a few
truth
although we may
in conformity
general principles. Nevertheless, to suppose,
human
thought, that there is actually both a plurality and
with
a

change,

would

hand,

be

but

delusion

of

the
that

While,

senses.

in all that

on

acknowledge
appears
all
changeable, including
particular
as
to
us
the
the
in
Godlike
is
evolved
mind,
present, un perthought as
ceived
indeed
blindness^ and
become, as it were
by human
veil, indistinguishable.
a
beneath
this conception more
make
if we
recal
intelligible
We
may
the
whole
of this school.
Their
mathematical
tendency of
the
of
delusive.
Physics was
regarded as contingent
knowledge
of
eternal
Mathematics
self-evident.
menides
Parknowledge
Their
the
led by Xenophanes
thus
one
hand, and
on
was
of the
the
dualityof
other, to the conviction
on
Diochcetes
the

other

we

manifold

must

and

"

"

ELEATICS.

THE

68

His

thought.

human

the

reason"/.^.,

Pythagorean

logic
(which he

is

"

naught existingbut the One

did not, with
Xenophanes, call God, but Being). His sense,
the other
hand, taught him that there were
Many
Things,
on
taught him

that

his

of

because

there

maintained

manifold

two

and

the

other

satisfythe

Reason,

of

His

Sense.

two

work

in

parts;

two

accord

to

with

'

Nature

expounded
in the
second,

it ;

he
to

explanations

the

therefore,divided

was,

is

first

proclaims

Reason

'

on

the

impressions. Hence
Principles. The
one

sensuous

Causes

absolute

the
human

into

Truth*

opinion

as

tomed
accus-

to
**

the rash

Follow

which

is but
is

there

of this

is

there

be

not

maintained

He

rioging sounds

confused, and

imagined

is also

; there

seeming

doctrine

general notion

and

with

ears

seeming (Sofa,appearance)

mere

cause

It must

and

eye,

appropriate

nevertheless,

principle;

sequently,
con-

it.

to

Parmenides

that

tongue,"

had

mere

vague

uncertainty of human
knowledge.
delusive
because
thought was
dependent
the

of

that

distinct
had
as
organisation. He
a conception of this
celebrated
theory as any of his later imitators,as may be seen
in the passage
is the passage.
Here
preserved by Aristotle.
the
of his Metaphysics, is
Aristotle,in
Sth chap. 4th book
of
the materialism
of Democritus, in whose
speaking
system
sensation
this
was
thought ; he adds that others have shared
affirms
and
that
Empedocles
opinion,
proceeds thus :
a
in
condition
in
our
{rqv eiiv) causes
a
our
change
change
thought.
upon

"

"

^'

is in

Thought

in another

and
** *

It is

there

Parmenides
Such

also

The

is the

in

change

and

one

"

TTpoc

t The

vaptbv
last

of

the

changes

of

for

in the

each

the

thought."

which

thoughts.'

of his

nature

impression

of the

moment

'*

"

man

which
(organization)

in all

take

place

in

men

"

style.

same

many-jointed limbs.
; for

it is

thinketh

highest degree

of

in men,

organization gives the

ydp ftrJTtgak^eTat "v9pd"7roiin",

for the highest degiee of organization gives the
thought," is a translation which, differing from that of

sentence,

highest degree

says

himself

intelligenceof

highest degree

to the

in their

is the

man

of limbs

nature

Both

is

to

expresses

to each

as

Such

he

passage

always according

That

**

according

men

*"

PARMBNIDES.

69

organization,and as
thought was
dependent on
organization differed in degree from every other, so would
differ. If thought be sensation, it requires
opinions of men

Now,
each
the

as

little reflection
differ

according

differ

is

not

of certain
a

the

than

That

men.

are

is the

alone

indeed

and

therefore,one
equally false.

person,

all

object

same

persons,

another, and

in all

same

same

the

of

different

of

with

true

more

sensations

as

senses

times

is the

Reason

that

the

to

different

at

opinion
But

show

to

fountain

is but
from
sense
thought derived
from
lutely
is absoReason
("j|a). But thought derived
seemtttg
his antithesis to 8o"a is always viari^,
Hence
true.
faith.
This
is the central
He
was
point in his system.
thereby
All

knowledge.

time to
scepticism,and at the same
fore,
He
the uncertainty of ordinary knowledge.
had, theredistinct
two
doctrines, each proportioned to the faculty

enabled
admit

to

avert

to

it.

adapted

absolute

TO.

ftcTOL
was

concerned,

the

"science

of

Knowledge,

or

his

from

there

that

The

the

which

but

was

reader

not

we

would

opinion.
to

Being

It

is

amounts

only

"

**

Many
the

like],which
fo be ;

from

He

taught
sible.
impos-

was

that non-existence

extremely trivial

appear

metaphysical speculations; but

him
it is a
as
despise,inasmuch
of human
respecting the march

of

one

the

illustrations

many

of

the

dency
ten-

positivequalities to words, as if they were

of things. A tendency admirably
simply marks

our

Mill, and

in

reasons

critical

with

differ much

attribute

It would

Appendix.

saying

to

will

not

in

have

and
have seen,
other we
cveiy
the interpretationof Parmenides'
tuU

and

was

Appearance.

one

evidence

of

of

Pythagoras.
that non-Being

versed

thtngSy and not

exposed by James

at

science

Sense,

did

not

piece

from

of

positionwhich

valuable

itate

the

called

be

may

latter assertion

exist.

cannot
to

science

derived

Thought,

or

Being, Parmenides
and
predecessors Xenophanes

the

On

which

and

of

of Relative
doctrine
The
other
Being."
with which
the
Opinion (Physics,ra KJAJcruca)

faculty of Intelligence,
concerned,

Absolute

physics,
(MetaKnowledge
with which
the faculty of pure Reason
"l"v"riKa)
a dpctnne
called, in the language of that day,
doctrine

One

be

remarks

volumes
nature

have

arisen

supposing

being,

of the
be

kind.

from

believe, of

we

with
"

it

reader

plan
*

Ens

mvolous

it necessary
is referred
to

in
to

the

B.'
cerning
speculationscon-

Entitas, Essentia,

this double

was

interruptthe exposition

to

Appendix

the

ovaia,

overlooking
when

the

It

importance

some

deemed

have

our

See

filled with

Being (r6 ov
that

as

system, we
note, for which

inconsistent

might
of

subsequently by his son.*

meaning

signifiesto existsand

when

and

of the
it

the

words

signifies

THE

70

E LEA

TICS.

tendency which so greatly puzzled the early thinkers,who,

when
theless
they said that *'a thing "" not," believed that they neverof
non-existence.
existence
the
predicted existence,viz.,
These
assertions seerned
A thing is ; and
two
a thing is not.
,to
this

affirmations

be

of

from

which, under

been

free.

Parmenides,
existed, and

however,

of

was

He
sophism.
be,
Nothing can come
phanes taught him);
as, therefore, being
embrace

error

have

not

affirming that Being alone

impossible,did not see the
argued that non-Being could
out
of Nothing (as Xeno-

the

because

not

An

other,later thinkers

or

though

non-Being

existence.

of

states

shape

some

that

real ground

different

two

existed, it

must

all existence.

tical,
existence, idenborn
nor
unique, neither
dying, neither moving
nor
It
The
bold
the
of
changing.
finity
a
was
step to postulate
declared
be
had
to
One, whom
necessarily in*
Xenophanes
Hence

he

finite.

concluded

But

that

have

we

The

One

all

was

evidence

abundant

to

that

prove

menides
Par-

'

regarded
the

distinction

of

Parmenides

That

but

the
the

was

Parmenides
a

it

was

speaks
The
Melissos,

it

of

as

unity

"

and

unity (tov Kara

Xttyov ivos).
unity {tov Kara
rrjy vXrjv).

One

infinite

ancients

the

Aristotle

material

said that The

former

that

as

finite.

rational

was

latter said

appears
limited

One

between

Melissos

of

Hence

The

finite

was

(TrcTrcpao-ftcvov

the

conceived

it

which

From
(airetpov).*'

Rational

unity

as

stand.
under-

it is difficult for

to
us
by itself ; a conception
One
be
because
to
Probably it was
they held The
spherical; all tlie parts being equal ; having neither beginning,
middle, nor end ; and yet self-limited.

His

conception

of the

identityof thought

in

remarkable
expressed
some
been
has
drawn
opinion

which,
them, we

of

verses,

from

existence

and
as

very

shall

is
ferent
dif-

give

literal translation.
**

For

without

You

cannot

Except
be

to
a

some

phantom,

the

same

all these

vol. i. p.
"

is the

Thought

same

thing

the

as

thing
find the thought
existing.''

the

the

in which

; for there

to
specifiedthing, as to be a man,
to be a nonentity, it must
or
even

idea
cases."

104.

and

;
"

that

thought

of

cause

it is announced

meaning

must

is

be

be

yohn Mill, System ofLogic^

nothings

Socrates,

still at the
found

shall be

nor

to

be seen,

bottom

for it which

Raiiocinative

"

and

be

to

to

answer

shall

suit

Inductive

ZENO

OF

ELBA.

71

The
that
only Existence
One, it followed
was
identical.
A conclusion
and
which
The
One
are
Thought
by
contradicts
tity
no
means
the^opinion before noticed of the idensensation
human
of
of these
thought and
being
; both
of existence.
merely transitory modes
or
physical doctrine of Parmenides,
Respecting the second
to
brieflysay that believing it necessary
we
give a science
may

Now,

of

as

the

Appearances,

sketched

he

in

principlesreigning

the

abstract,

admitted

but

out

his

day.

denied

He

according

that

according

programme

to

motion

in

there

appearance

to

the
was

motion.

logicaland

represents the

Parmenides

rigorous side of

more

which
from
the
Xenophanes,
physiological
element
is almost
to the region
banished, by being condemned
ideal
The
of uncertain
alone was
element
Knowledge.
sense
Although
really nourished
by the speculations of Parmenides,
he preserved himself
from
scepticism,as we saw, nevertheless,
the tendency of his doctrine
to forward
was
scepticism. In his
exposition of the uncertainty of knowledge, he retained a saving
It only
clause; that, namely, of the certainty of Reason.
remained
the
for successors
to
same
apply
scepticism to the
and
ideas of Reason,
Pyrrhonism was
complete.
the

doctrine

of

"

'

IV.

CHAPTER
ZEND

Zeno, by Plato

called

OF

with

of the

distinguishedof

most

in his actions

68th

and,

as

The

study.

in

impetuous,

strong,
the

as

or
some

first

his

Stoic
the

works

He

ancient

; and

disinterested

was

Elea,

must

all"accounts

on

philosophers ;
in

remarkable

spirit.

be

not

Bom

at

as

each,
Elea,

one

great
for

about

the pupil of Parmenides,

69th Olympiad, he became
say, the adopted son.
solitudes
of
period of his life was
spent in the calm
his beloved

From

appreciate

the

of

Palamedes

the

confounded

Zeno

ELEA.

the

friend

superiorityof

and

he

master

intellectual

him
From
pleasures that do not satiate.
to
despise the tinsel splendours of rank

had

learned

pleasures
also
and

he

had

the

to

only

learned

fortune, without

Tith

71

misanthropical

becoming
of

benefit
rank

of

or

his fellow

His

thus

have

with

the

of ambition

so

indifference

or

him

made

in

shun

His

office.

impetuous soul, extremely

be

may

he

was

did

hurt

so

not

cause

brave
who

blame

by

timid

In

spiritswho
accept

no

it had

not

minds

Perhaps

to

If the

The

one

that shrink

sensitiveness

battle

the

root

of

those

men

was

was

for

Truth

him

fellow
not

as

why

citizens

cause

me

ridicule

coarse

is fatal ; but

at

lies

the

an

blame;

asked

of my
would

from

than

less

no

who

blame

nothing but their

approbation but such as
One

the

been

heart,

own

integrity.

praise and

to

fear

endeavour.

battle, but

reply
"

ratify,this sensitiveness
noble

delicate

sensitive

knaves, this

and

of his

of its

pain, their approbation

me

pleasure."
of fools

was

in his admirable

seen

voice

consciousness

recompense
have
repaid

would

they
the

was

the

for the

fieryand exalted a mind, might well

of antiquity ; for it was
wonderment
no
sceptical
disdain for the opinions of his fellow men,
which

the

been

which

recompense

beating calmly in

absence

only declined

He

men.

worked

egotistical. He

or

honours

worldly

labours.

those

ELEATJC3.

in

those

consciences, and

own

consciences

their
of

heroism,
His

Zeno.

; it ended

can

and

life

all
was

but
tragically,

in vain.

of all his moral

renowned.

lived

qualitieshis patriotismhas

the

liberty'sawakening,
when
Greece
was
everywhere enfranchisingherself, everywhere
loosening the Persian yoke, and endeavouring to found national
and
institutions on
thusiasm
enLiberty. In the general eflfcrvescence
His
have
Zeno
cold.
not
politicalactivitywe
was
it
know
that
ficial.
of judging ; but we
was
no
means
great and beneElea
but a small
preferred it to
was
colony ; but Zeno
whose
the magnificence of Athens,
luxurious,restless,quibbling,
and
frivolous,passionate,
unprincipled citizens,he contrasted
with
the provincial modesty and
honesty of Elea.
He
there
did, however, occasionally visit Athens, and
mulgated
proof his master,
the
the doctrines
as
by
we
see
ing
openthe
of Plato's
Zeno
also
Parmenides.'
dialogue,
taught
most

He

at

the

period

been

of

Pericles.
On
fallen

the

occasion

into the

hands

of

his

of the

last

return

tyrant

to

Nearchus

Elea

he

found

it had

(or Diomedon,

or

writers)*
diflferently
given by
his
failed
in
He,
project and
conspired against him,
It was
was
then, as Cicero observes, that he proved
captured.
the excellence
of his master's
doctrines, and
proved that a
Demylos;

the

of course,

name

is

ancient

THE

74

dty

city,intent

to

ELEATICS.

startlingenunciation
stirringconfusedly within him

mighty thoughts that were

intent
more
great Logician was

the
the

of

and

earnest

upon

upon

tion
convincing exposi-

alleged againsthis system,

than
itself;for he held
propaganda of the system
upon
any
is exposed.
be accepted when
that the truth must
error
once
not poems,
Antiquity," says M. Cousin, "attests that he wrote
like Xenophanes
and
Parmenides, but treatises,and treatises
of a"
eminently prosaic character, that is to say, refutations."
The
of this may
be easilyguessed.
Coming, as a
reason
of Parmenides, he
to Athens, to preach the doctrine
man
young
of the

of
futility

the

arguments

"

have

must

been

startled

met

with

from

who

had

already

the

doctrine.

the

at

erected

Zeno,

the

have

soon

assailers.

his

empirical Athenians,
ing
philosophy into the reignstunned
first
at
by the

Ionian

doubt,

no

on
noisy objections
also
of the keenest
being
one

would

doctrine

that

subtle,quick-witted,and

which

he

opposition which

all

of

him

surrounded

sides

of

wits, and

his balance,

recovered

Instead

was

one

of the

and

in

but,

readiest,
assailed

turn

teaching dogmatically, he began to

of pure
of resting in the domain

dialectically. Instead
science, and
expounding the ideas of Reason, he descended
the
the
ground of
ground occupied by his adversaries
upon
sense
daily experience and
knowledge,
and, turning their
it was
ridicule
admit
that
them
to
themselves, forced
upon
conceive
The
One,
more
Many as a produce of The
easy to
than
The
the
One
to conceive
assumption of the existing
on
his
Hence
discovery of his Dialectics.
many.
the partisans
The
polemical method
entirelydisconcerted
teach

"

"

of

Ionian

the

lively

philosophy,"

curiosity and

interest

(Pythagorean) school;
civilization

Greek

the

and

says

Cousin,

M.

for the
thus

doctrines

was

fruitful germ

of

"

of
in

excited
the

Italian

the

capital of
higher development of

sown
a

and

philosophy."
Plato

has

Parmenides
the

succincdy
and

existence

of

Zeno
The

characterised

the

difference

between

established
by saying,that the master
One, and the discipleproved the nonexistence

of The

Many.
he argued that there was
When
but One
thing reallyexisting,
aJl the others being only modifications
of that
or
appearances
One, he did not deny that there were
appearances, he only
many
denied their being real existences.
he denied
So, in like manner,

motion^

but

not

the

appearance

of

motion.

Diogenes

the

ELBA.

OF

ZENO

75

walked, as a refutation of Zeno, entirely

his walking was
mistook
more
the ailment
a refutation
no
;
of
of Zeno, than Dr. Johnson's kicking a stone
was
a refutation
would
have answered
Zeno
: Very
Berkeley's denial of matter.

C)naic,who

true

in

walk

you

and

rose

motion

according

according

; but

opinion (to Sofa^ov), you

to

Reason

to

What

rest.

at

are

you

are

given to a series of similar

conditions, each of which, separately considered, is rest. Thus,
object fillingspace equal to its bulk is necessarily at rest
every
call motion

you

in that space

given
the

straightlines

or

called

same

rest

way,
; the

in

; not

of

one

all these

lines

these

points,
individually be

can

lines,considered

of these

number

name

of individual

number

as

totality,

circle.

given them, viz., a

individual
point of space

total of

spaces in which
illustration of the

the

Take

is but

another

intermediate

all these

of

to

name

each

sum

spot

one

composed

general

one

name

is at rest.

circle ; but

have

of

moment

circle is

the

from

total

sum

each

objectat

circle

; motion

the

to

is but

the

object is

of rest

states

the

In

at

is called

motion.
is a things
fallacyis in the supposition,that Motion
In
it is only a condition.
whereas, as Zeno
a
clearly saw,
there
is not
and
the
"stone"
falling stone
thing called
a
"
motion
otherwise
there
would
be also another
thing called
\
** rest.*'
But both
and
motion
rest
are
names
given to express
The

"

conditions
rest

is

Motion

of the stone.

positive exertion
is force

in motion
is

such

no

The

amounts

thing as

other

oi

the

same

proved

that

even

is force

resistent,and
is always
that matter

follows

It

to

has

Rest

force.

triumphant.

which

science

Modem

as

Zeno's

saying,there

motion.
of

arguments

against the possibilityof

Zeno

Motion

have
we
four, the third of which
(and he maintained
above
explained),are given by Aristotle \ but they seem more
like the ingenious puzzles of dialectical subtlety than
the real
of

arguments
that

they
of

ness

were

the

only brought

fallen

as

from

dupe of their
Here

are

own

his two

not, however,

logical net,

others.

Greater

asserted,

ridicule the unskilful-

to

must

own

verbal

has, therefore, been

forward

We

his

easilyas

It

man.

his adversaries.

rescuing Zeno
have

earnest

an

men

into

be

which

than

hasty in
he

he have

may

been

distinctions.

first arguments

"

is impossible,because
before that
1st, Motion
motion
reach the end, it must
reach the dKddle
can

which

is

in

point ; but

76

THE

point

this middle

applies
traverse

it :

to

becomes

since

the

and

so

is infinitelydivisible.
it

before
paces,
then
the second

half of the

can

the

object

first pace,

ad
half ; and so on
2nd, This is his famous

refutation

and

statement

end,

be

stone

reach

must

four

cast

second

the

the first pace

the middle
;
it must
the
the first pace
reach

before

of that

it

fourth

reach

can

and

if

Thus,

the

becomes

the

before

reach

end, and the same

tion
objecit the object in motion
must
o^ infinitum^seeing that
on

reach

to

point ;

middle

matter

but

then

ELEATICS.

and

half

the

it

reach

must

half

the

infinitum.
Achilles
puzzle. We give both the
find it in John Mill's
as
we
'Logic'

(vol.ii. p. 453).
The

is, let Achilles

argument

tortoise,yet, if
overtake

him

interval

of

Achilles
ten, and
without

jof time
does

has

as

**

that

for

argument
embraced

that

them

to

may
proves

within

be

start, Achilles
be

first

at

will have

run

the

therefore

will

has

hundred,

as
never

separated by

Achilles

when

in the

an

run

these

and

when

tortoise

will

have

Achilles

may

run

conclusion

got
for

on

ever

for any

means,

length

supposed ; bnt in the premisses ever

number
length of time ; it means
of
any
"

"

It

that

means

we

divide

may

quotient again by ten,

there

be

need

never

distance, nor,
it is

fast

as

tortoise.

ever

that

the

which

"

of time.

of

subdivisions

ever

any

mean

the

hundred

the

be

can

by ten, and
we
please;
in

for

overtaking

not

time

those

on

has

feet ;

tortoise

the
run

so

subdivisions
feet

thousand

the

Now

for, suppose

feet

thousand

tortoise

the

times

ten

run

performed.

But

which

five

other

an

consequently,

made

no

and

of that

infinityof

minutes.

As

so

on

end

to

to

those

unlimited

an

thousand

often

as

the
of

long

as

the

the

number

is itself limited.
duration

divisions
sub-

than
five

of
The

may

be

minutes

of them
remains
be
divided
expired, but what
may
by ten, and again by ten as often as we like,which is perfectly
compatible with there being only five minutes
altogether. It
in short, that to pass through this finite space
requires
proves,
time
which
but
is infinitely
a
not
divisible^
an
time; the
infinite
had already seen
to
confounding of which distinction Hobbes
be the gist of the fallacy.
Although the credit of seeing the ground of the fallacyis
in the above
also
must
given to Hobbes
we
observe,
passage,
it in the same
that Aristotle had
light. His answer
clearlyseen
to
^ayle thinks
pitiable,"was, that -a foot of
Zeno, which
are

not

"

OF

ZENO

being

space

easily

be

against

existence

The

exist,

then

those

there

something

that

// also

thing,

same

ad

infinitum.

for

all

opened

by

Xenophanes,

and

Mathematical

or

Physiological
But

arrival

the

created

of

Empirical

all

in

Zeno

at

Zeno,

the
so

on

substratum

these

Athens.

two

The

and

of

had

been

did

they

together

the

Dialectics.

method

constant.

influence

result

Ionian,

the

clashed

systems

the

as

systems

little

so

Pythagoras,

to

radical

was

two

by

opposition

Its

inquiry,

characterise

may

lines,

The

new

we

parallel

Sophists

on

conflict
This

was

method

"

and

succeeding
great

one

the

continued

system

of

other.

of

the

and

independent

of

and

system.

coming

the

creation

the

Absolute

each

upon

if not

then,

as

is

What

limited

exist

can

line

great

Parmenides,

almost

developed
exert

second

Anaximander,

or

to

up

thing

to

between

them.

But,

and

separated

One

interval

an

thing.

things

two

limiting

and

divisible,

appearances.
the

which,

be

only

be

suppose

If

suppose

being

To

it finite.

But,

position
one

infinite.

suppose

other

some

must

closes

2Ieno

is

Thus

inanifold

to

separating
It

but

is

and

necessarily

something

two,

is

must

His

things.

^There

divisible.

infinitely

be

must

arguments

"

indivisible

divisible,

is

various

his

of

thus:

up

necessarily

One

in

Z^no

multitude

summed

is

who

of

finite^ it could

actually

time.

follow

to

77

but

infinite^

finite

2i

space

briefly

existing,
that

in

no

the
be

may

potentially

traversed

have

We

it

ov\y

ELBA.

the

schools,

peculiarity

of

Sceptics.
and

It
be

may

and

Socrates

also
said

fluenced
in-

greatly
to

Plato,

have
as

stituted
con-

will

be

shown.
We

which

preceded

must,

however,

philosophy
the

era

previously
took,

of

before

Socrates.

trace

the

the^
crftis

intermediate
of

sophistry,

steps
which

Jbeconb

Wbt

ON

SPECULATIONS

ON

AND

?Epoc]^"

KNOWLEDGE.

OF

ORIGIN

THE

UNIVERSE;

THE

OF

CREATION

THE

I.

CHAPTER

HERACLITUS.

*'

is

Life

comedy

This,

feel."

Democritus
the

and

laughing
One

pitied

One

laugh'd

''

criticism

Modem

"each

which
"

The

be

fables

the

discarded,

wholly

with

the

came

forth

history
in

his

personal

being,

violence

as

"

and

If

bodily

him

which

been

frame,
he

from

it without

drawn

have

ruled

could

not

found

sense,

helpless,

his

call

himself^
isolated

so

he

that
creature

and

power

functions

and
was

it

own

sufferer.
him

within

without

his
effort

an

the

from

yet

an

not

which

from

such

and

must

connexion

no

torn

there

in

said,

thoughts

acts

that
own,

or

had

the

all

over

sigh

that

Heraclitus

highest
poor,

fragments

discovered
which

nothing,

had

The

aggerations
ex-

round

well

philosopher

like

are

torn

needs

Anaximenes

his

very

system
not

meant

been

has

speculations.

his

and

must

principle

as

of

nucleus

crying

the

as

if it

only

are

something

the

it

teristics
charac-

these

been

formed

Heraclitus

him

of

notion

vulgar

both

have

must

which
Of

grew.

as

crimes."

themselves

fables

there

philosophers

these

of

to

antiquity

times
o'er

wept

one

pronounced

but

and

truth,

of

and

indeed

has

fabulous

be

to

follies,

at

woful

the

condemned

one

"

applied

be

may

who

philosophers.

weeping

the

those

to

throughout

celebrated

Heraclitus,

tragedy

epigram,

Walpole's

Horace
and

think,

who

those

to

it
he

universal

life

was,

would

of
within

in

the
have

life, which

HERACLITUS.

with

him

connected

Heraclitus
the

about

the supreme

him,

account

on

Laertius

as

he

declined

to

think

Is

cause.

with

keeping

else

Ephesus,

at

morals, according to Diogenes

ofifer in favour

the

of his brother,

rejectionwas grounded
rejection of magistracy

his

his

not

what

source

he
temper,
offered
his fellow-citizens

magistracy which

disposed

other

Of

Blyson, and was bom

haughty melancholy
a

of their dissolute

; but

are

we

of

son

69th Olym.

refused

absolute

of life/'*

the

was

fellow-men, with the

his

originalfountain

and

79

of him

know

we

perfect
:
ing
Play-

instance

For

some

on

in

temple of Diana, he answered

those who
expressed surprise at seeing him thus occupied, Is
the
it not
better
to play with
children, than to share with you
which
The
administration
of affairs ?
pierces through
contempt
thropy,
misanbecame
confirmed
which
this reply, and
subsequently
of morbid
the
is rather
result
meditation, than of
with

children

some

the

near

"

"

virtuous
he

refused

himself

exert

to

the citizens

because

there

and

Ephesus
him

it because

Was

scorn.

on

home

there

was

of?

retired

the

not

fled

He

virtuous

roots, like

and

herbs

dissolute,

was

make

to

lived

that he

to

the

tains,
moun-

ascetic

an

If

of Greece

rest

it

Was

mountains, that

the

to

that

corrupt

were

them

make

to

conupt

were

citizens

the

for
he

He
heart.
was
a mismight there, in secret, prey on his own
anSirope; but misanthropy is madness, not virtuous indignation
consciousness
is
morbid
of
not
self,
a
a
; misanthrophy

opinion

sorrowful

been,

been

the

former

it is morbid

view

our

his

life had

time

to the

latter it is science.
declined
at

his

the courteous
court,

will best

"

King

Darius^

son

of Hystaspes^

All

to

vain-glory with

attachment

malice

am

vanity of courts,

ground.

the

depart from

men

no

not

he

some

of his character

have
a

in which

spend

to

of Ephesus

Heraclitus

health
*'

Darius

of

; in the

anatomy
letter

contemptuous

invitation

*'

of

This
nature.
says, to explore the depths of his own
the aim of all ascetics,as of all philosophers : but in

has

explain

aim

The

others.

of

he

as

The

formed

Content

kind

of any

the

the
and

with

paths

never

of

of

no

will

little,I live
f

Ency.

truth

avarice

but

obstinacy

envy

of

folly.

one.

place

my

as

Metrop.*

justice. They
they only aspire

and
;

As

for me,

I know

utterly despise the

foot

please."

on

Persian

mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm

80

HERACLITUS.

the nucleus of the fable of Heraclitus as

Misanthropy was
weeping philospher,who refused the magistracybecause the

citizens

throwinghimself
the

cause

The

attemptingto
on

Philosophy of

cure

to

ascertain.

cannot

we

himself

dunghill,hoping

within him

water

than this

More

corrupt.

were

story of his

The

of

that

dropsy by

the

heat

would

evaporate, is apocryphal.

Heraclitus

is,the subjectof

and

was,

expressed himself in such enigmatical

terms, that
the Obscure." ^ A
few
called
fragments have been
us.*
From
it
down
these
would
be vain to hope
to

dispute.He
he

"

was

handed

consistent system could be evolved ; but from

that

from

other

sources

we

may

them

and

gather the general tendency of his

doctrines.

tradition which

The
borne

out

assignshim Xenophanes

the evident

by

as

relation of their systems.

teacher is
Heraclitus

Xenophanes, that is to say, in

him the physiological
explanationof the universe is more
minent
prothan the Eleatic explanation
clitus
Herathe
at
same
time,
\
is neither frankly an Ionian,nor an
Italian ; he wavers
the two.
between
The pupilof Xenophanes would
naturally
regard human
knowledge as a mist of error, through which the
sunlightonly gleamed at intervals. But the inheritor of the
matical
Ionian doctrines would not adopt the conclusion of the Matheof this uncertaintyof
school, viz., that the cause
is somewhat

knowledge,was
that

the

was

led

was

maintained

to

that

than

uncertaintyof

impressions
; and

sensuous

of truth.
only
mathematician
not
enough for such a doctrine.
maintain a doctrine directly
opposed to it. He

consequently Reason

Heraclitus
He

Ionian

more

the

was

the

are

the

senses

fountain

of all true

sources

ledge,
know-

The senses
they drink in the universal intelligence.
deceive only when
they belong to barbarian souls ; in other
the
ill-educated
sense
words,
givesfalse impressions
; the rightlyfor

educated
whatever
false.
to

sense

receive the

Wolf

mark

Unhidden,

the

the

distinction

Schleiermacher
has corected, and
*
and
Museum
der
Butmann's

part iii.
r6 /ii)
t ""Xi}dic
X^dov.

This

thinkers,and
metaphysical

is common

is

Whatever

is remote
from the common,
True
is
The
the Unhidden.!

open
As if to
*

gives truth.

play

is true;
is
exceptional,

common

the

ue.

Those

whose

senses

are

Universal,attain truth.
between

endeavoured

himself
to

and

Xeno-

interpretthem,

Alteithumswissenschaften,'vol.
words
upon
to all ages.

is very

in
i.

chaiacteristic of

di

MERACLITUS.

(soul)within

Ether

vision

the

that the

thought

Xenophanes

intellectual

the

clouded

him.

counselled

one

senses

let

to

man

itself in his soul

mirror

the
through^ the senses;
himself
regard
other counselled
to shut
up within himself, to disthe senses,
with
ideas.
and
to commune
only
between
It seems
that
so
palpable a contradiction
strange

Universal

the

him

doctrines

two

the

should

Heraclitus

fact.

have

ever

overlooked.

been

is said

have

to

the

regarded

is

such

Yet

of

world

perpetual delusion; and this is said in the very

latest
and not
the least intelligentof Histories, to say nothing
the
of former
works.
this opinion ? Simply from
Whence
admitted
Heraclitus
and
scepticism of both
Xenophanes,
with
(appearances). It is true they
respect to Phenomena
the
denied
both
certainty of human
knowledge ; but they
certain
denied
ledge,"
knowhas no
this on
different grounds.
Man
sense

as

"

said
God

from

human

Heraclitus

just

the

boy

part

can

it is that the

Hence

sense) must
opinion of

(common
than

the

consequent

his view

on

lation
accumu-

an

and

Xenophanes,

of

truth

the

to

the Whole.

to

sense-knowledge, was

of

gence;
Intelli-

imperfect.
subject
any

it is

; because

the doctrine

from

upon

approach

nearer

than

approximation

nearer

individual

any

deviation

Another

otherwise

be

conception

Universal

the

of

learns

man

his

In

of all mankind

opinion

making

of parts,

portion

never

be

man."

the

vain

; and

has

God

from

but

intelligencewas
but

as

but

"

the

one

attributing

arrived
activity,Xenophanes
that
God.
at the conception of Unity, and
Unity he named
and
imitate
he did not
his Ionian
But
that
clothe
teachers,
material
element.
He
called it simply-The
Unity in some
One,
clothed
He
Heraclitus
his
God.
called
it
fire.
To
Unity.
or
God

to

him

distinctive

Fire

the

was

flame, which
dry vapour
"

The

is,and
enkindled,
this is but

was

oSrc

rtc

course,

Life

9cc5v
one

and

this

was

be,

an

measure

and

force

intensity of
his

by God*

Fire,

activity;
but

Beginning,
nor

man

; and

of the

Ionian

system,

the

not

warm,

He

fire in due measure

ever-living
How
self-extinguished."

says:

it was,
self-

clearly

reader

will

the
demihere
stands
Fire, which
as
of its spontaneous
Intelligence, because

translation

is the

of the

The

an

neither

made

modification

is the

This

only
Ether;

in due

and
a

of

symbol

type of spontaneous

shall

ever

discern.

once

"

an

"

world

and

at

was

and

element

given by Ritter.
original, i,e,y *" neither one

PolytheisticDeities.

It

is

of

the

not, however,

exact

Gods/' meaning,

of

HERACLITUS.

activity,is
Air

of

Those

but

modification

Anaximenes

who

it

accept

the

is in

only demi-symbolical.
the
other
symbol overlook

pure

which

system

respect

one

the

it is

the

proclaims

deviation

time

the

Ionian

the

from

senses

itself to

knowledge, necessarjly attaches

the
the same
At
primary one.
a^

element

system

very

and

Thales,

of all

source

material

as

The

of

Water

of the

moreover,

parts of the system.

as

Zi

in

ledge.
sense-knowledge and reflective knowHence
placed Diogenes of Apolloniaas the last of
we
the pure
lonians
came
some
; although, chronologically, he
time
his doctrine
is in many
after Heraclitus, and
respects

distinction

the

the

same

between

of Heraclitus.

that

as

which
made
Eleatics
the
Scepticism of phenomena
delusion
assumed
of the
declare
that all opinion was
senses
a
The
the
different aspect in Herg.clitus.
Declaring
great Being,
The

One,

the

of All

Cause

in due

both
self-extinguished,
that

Fire,

be

to

self-enkindled,and

ever

he

measure,

in

a
perpetual flux.
things were
is not
All
and
is/*
said
he,
celebrity.

all

it does

was

being, yet it forthwith

into

come

phrase had great

for though in truth

This

"

"

ever

led to pronounce

This

tp be."

ceases

that it is a distinct
variously interpreted. Hegel declares
affirmation
of the
grpund-principle of Logic, viz. that das

has

been

Seyn

Nichts^

ist das

It is very
obscure, but
of his theory oi

to

seems

us

only

enigmatical expression
is
but
always

an

that

nothing
flux:
perpetually kindling and extinguishing,
becoming. The
its modes
Is constantly changing its phenomena
Existence
/."f.,
of existence.
The
plants ; plants
cjarbon in the air nourishes
is

is

Fire

"

nourish
nourish
it

not

^*

be

to

No

has

one

waters

"

his

Take

been

ever

"

It

the

an

on

"

the

^^

illustration

of

air

flux

to

is

forthwith

being, yet

River

same
; for different
and
; it dissipatesits waters
it overflows
and it recedes

the

constantly
it approaches
again

them

into

comes

beautiful

twice

into

carbon

illustratioii of

flowing down

are

gathers

is

This

plants.
also of the phrase

ceases

back

breathe

men

men;
fresh

stream

"

"

f.^.,

tinction

Hegel
was

have

and

"Being
the

to

said

that

non-Being are
**
Nothing

position
**

No-Existence,

Existence
as

Nothing

was

those

who

No

the
can

Nothing,"
so

This

same."
from

come

he

did

not

feebly ridicule

is in contra-dis-

Nothing."
mean

him

that
suppose
Few

When

Existence
him

to

was
Things t,e., no phenomenon.
persons
logician's right to treat of Existence
/tf/'j# (dcu Seyn) and
"zisteoce/^r aliudf that is, existingthings.

will

meant.

question

the

ANAXAGOkAS.

?4

of^the fluX atid

evidently but a statement
all is in motion
reflux,as in his aphorism that
; there is no
rest
or
quietude." Let us also add here what Ritter says :
"
notion
The
of life implies that of alteration,which
by the
ancients
Life
motion.
Universal
The
was
generally conceived
as
This

fails/*

and

is

**

"

is therefore
motion

towards

must,
of the

course

transition

supposed

certain

which

it

parent

of all

therefore

tends,

every

as

end, even
though this end, in the
of life,present
itself to us as a mere

ulterior

some

and

some

evolution

to
a

motion,

eternal

an

longing

end.
to

be

Heraclitus
inherent

this

on

in

Fire,

ground
gratify

to

itself into some

determinate
constantly transformed
form
of being, without, however,
wish to maintain
it,but
any
in the mere
desire
into
of transmuting itself from
form
one
another.
Therefore
is Jove's pastime."
worlds
to make
other
There
of his on
this point which
tenets
some
are
are
but vaguely connected
with the above.
He
explained phenomena
the
and
efforts
of opposite tendencies
as
concurrence
in the emotion
of the ever
results the
livingFire, out of which
beautiful
All is composed
of contraries, so
most
harmony.
that the good is also evil,the livingis dead, "c.
The
harmony
is one
of conflicting impulses, like that of the lyre
of the world
The
and
the
strife between
is the
bow.
opposite tendencies

The

view

explain the
to

contrary
one

but

he

foot
his
has

things.

order
the

on

the

attempt
to

have

we

taken

doctrines

of Heraclitus*

will

at

once

of

development in which we have placed them,

practice of our
predecessors. He stands with
Ionian
path, and with the other on the Italian :
is not
these two
tor unite
: his office is negative ;

criticise both.

CHAPTER

IL

ANAXAGORAS.

is

AnaxagoAas
in

Lydia,

not

far

generallysaid

and

have

from' Colophon.

splendid patrimony,
but

to

he

seemed

born

l^armenides, he disregarded
elsewhere.
placed his ambition

year,*thepassion

born

at

for

to

all such

figure

Clazomenae
his

Inheriting from

like

his twentieth

been

family

in the

external

State

greatness,

Early in life,so

early as

philosophy engrossed

him.

ANAXAGORAS.

ambitious
all young
men,
in his
intellect exhibited

Like
the

for the

capital.

The

Athens,
youth

word,

in

busy

contempt

His

upon

city.
panted
the growing importance
it,as the amyearned towards
bitious
native

He

provincial town
yearns
for
theatre
a fitting
longs

all energy

as

with

looked

he

soul

and
activity,

him.

solicited

of

85

for

London

on

which

; in

play

to

its part.
He

of

resolute

had

been

stirringepoch.

and

great

scattered

politicalimportance
Greece, was
growing

The

men.

was

oif Persia

hosts

countless

The

It

Athens.

to

came

of

by a handiul
Greece, and of

of
The
to a climax.
Queen
of tlie most
glorious in the long annals of
Age of Pericles, one
The
Poems
of Homer
formed
the
dawning.
mankind, was
of silent heartfelt enjoyment.
subject of literaryconversation, and
had created
The
a
Drama,
early triumphs of -^schylus
the

Athens

such

still remains

as

critics.

The

art,

was

then

was

hereafter

the

delight of

and

scholars

and

Sophocles, that perfect flower of antique

that
in his bloom, meditating on
he
art which

young

bring

to

Philoctetes.
and

wonder

the

perfectionin
philosophy had

to

Ionian

The

shared

Anaxagoras

young

his

Antigone

the

found

with

time

there

home

tlie

and

and

Homer

Anaximenes.*

Philosophy

obtained

soon

universe

the

mysteries of

The

the

declared
fascination,and
of his life was
to
contemplate the
affairs

him.

tempted

that

the

to

His

given up.
solving problems. But
was

estates

in his affections.

place

supreme

He

aim

the

heavens.

and

All

self
him-

purpose

for his

care

whilst

waste,

to

ran

yielded

he

was

day he found himself a beggar, he

** To
exclaimed
Philosophy I owe
worldly ruin, and my
:
my
commenced
had
he
soul's prosperity." He
teaching, and
illustrious pupils in Pericles,Euripides, and Socrates.
He
not
long without
was
paying the penalty of success.
and
uncharitableness
The
of some,
joined to the bigotry of
envy
of impiety to
be
accusation
an
others, caused
brought against
*

this

By

roost

we

no

intimate

more

assert) than

historians

ambiguous
phrase
disciple of Anaximenes
such

at

Olymp.
years
middle

old
of

his

with

vaiiance

that
at

of

the

as

that

was

that in the

have

arisen.

statement,

he

that
he

for he

was
a

So

disciple of

friend

of
the

text, must
Brucker's

own

places the

Anaxagoras, 70th Olymp.

birth of the
pupil, and the

life.

his

simplest facts

the

little griticism

have

Homer.
error

Anaximenes

of

calling

chronology
birth

is

(as
in

But

him

some

the

strangely

of Anaximenes

56th

iTjaslcr
fifty-six
making
such
in the
pupil only became

thus

JiistQrians bestpwed

on

the

ANAXAGORAS.

S6

him.

He

tried

was

his

mitigation of
his friend
of

cause

condemned
into

sentence

death

to

banishment

Some
pupil, Pericles.
his persecution was
this very
and

the

that

and

and

struck

the

eloquence of
supposed that the

to

have

owed

; but

the

Pericles

friendshipof

unpopular
through
philosopher. The supposition is gratuitous,and belongs, rather,
modern
to the perverted ingenuity of
to the
scholarship, than
facts of history. In the persecution of Anaxagoras
sober
we
see
occurred
afterwards
natural, what
was
nothing but what
very
what
has
in the case
of Socrates, and
a
subsequently occurred
in the
thousand
It is the
times
history of mankind.
simple
effect of outraged convictions.
controverted
the
Anaxagoras
he
tried and
in concondemned
was
religion of his time:
sequence.
his

After

statesman

was

banishment

he

resided

preserved his tranquillityof mind

who

have

lost

Athenians

the

the

at

in

**

until his death.

it is the

there

and

Lampsacus,
Athenians

It is not

have

who

his

his studies,
proud reflection.- He continued
and was
highly respected by the citizens,who, wishing to pay
of esteem
his memory,
mark
bed,
asked
to
him, on his deathsome
in what
do so ?
He
manner
begged that the
they could
day of his death might be annually kept as a holiday in all the
this request was
fulfilled.
schools
of Lampsacus.
For centuries
He
died in his seventy-third year.
A tomb
erected
to him
was

me,"

lost

in the

was

city with
**

This

tomb

Whose

His
or

this

inscription:
"

confines,

great Anaxagoras

explored

mind

philosophy

contains

the

heavenly paths

so

many

be more
correct
perhaps it would
attributed
principles are

vain

to

confine

attempt

ourselves

of Truth.

)"

contradictory principles,
to

say,

that

so

many

tradictory
con-

be
him, that it would
them.
We
shall,as usual,
to

systematicview \)f
to leading doctrines.

with

ledge,
subject of the origin and certainty of our knowand
Heraclitus.
He
he differs from Xenophanes
thought,
the former, that all our
delusive
sehse-knowledgeis
; and,

with

the

On

the great

flere is
6een
he

latter,th^tallour
a

held
could

double
that
not

question this

knowledge

scepticism
these

brought

opinions

maintained

have
; for

two

we

denying certaintyto

the
cimiesniirmip;h
into

contradict

both.

connecting

see

the

the

senses

was

play!
We

link.

somewhat

It has

each
may

His

senses,

usually

other

; that

venture

to

reason

for

simiUr

to

that

ANAXAGORAS.

87

Xenophanes, viz.,their incapacity of distinguishingall the

real objective elements
of which
Thus
the
things are made.
which
call a flower; but of that
a complex
mass
we
eye discerns
of which
is composed
the flower
In
other
nothing.
we
see
words
but do
the senses
cannot
perceive phenomena
not, and
observe
naumena^"^zxi,
anticipationof the greatest discovery
of modem
dimly and
confusedly by
psychology, though seen
Perhaps the most
convincing proof of his having
Anaxagoras.
conceived
knowledge, is in the passage
quoted by Aristotle :
so
of

"

Things
Tct

avTOiS

according as they seem

vTroXafiwri), What

to each

are

ola

ovra,

av

"

him

to

is this

(on

rotavra

the

but

tion
asser-

It is
?
to
being confined
phenomena
knowledge
in Sextus
further strengthened by the passage
Empiricus, that
the criteria of our
knowledge of things beyond
are
phenomena
sense," i.e, things inevident are evident in phenomena
(t^s toii^
d^XMV icaroXi^^eQ)?,
ra
(fxuvofjia/a).
be
It must
the above, that
concluded, from
not, however,
Anaxagoras regarded Sense as the sole origin of Knowledge.
the
He
that
the
held
regulating faculty
reason
(Xoyos)was
of the universe.
of the mind, as
The
intelligence(voOs) was

of all

"

senses

copies

accurate

reflect them

Let

us

of

these

as

their

control

in

accurate

are

their reports

things.
They
objects appear

impressions.

reflect

has

to

the

to

objects

them.

to

Reason

apply this doctrine

now

their reports

; but

black.
not

black, because
to

appear

the

that
As

this

useful

word

which

will

senses

our

forbids

knowledge
him

this he

in

Now,

is

the

the

Senses

white
an

we

which

have

not

which

to

is not

did

snow

of

sense-

Reason

But
;

is

composed

doctrine

reports

have

Snow

that

meant

intepretation.
inaccurate

that

it is

; his express

gave

first time

noumenay
be attached

could

such

of

water

has

verify their reports.

explanation of some

those, apparently, contradictory statements

puzzled all the critics. For instance, he says
but

they

but

Reason

of

white

not

are

told

and, in this

but extremely
employed the uncouth
invariable
to explain the
meaning

have

be
it may
necessary
to it in the course

of

these

volumes.

Phenomenon

The
is the
antithesis
it.
former
to
understood, noumenon
the latter means
the
the scholastic
means
Appearance^
Substratum^ or, to use
the
article
the
in
word, the Substance,
Substance,'
(See
Penny
is recognised by us
Cyclopaedia,* by the present writer.) Thus, as matter
still distinguish logically
only in its manifestations
(phenomena), we
may
And
those
the
the
from
manifestations
thing manifested
(noumenon).
will be
in
former
the
materia
materia
the
the
circa
latter,
quani ;
qua,
is

pretty well

Noumenon

is

manifestation.

therefore

equivalent

to

the

Essence

phenomenon

to

the

ANAXAGORAS.

88

instance,

Water

since

the

is the

whole

theory

Take

how

; reSectibn

could

Water

black

from

was

is white

Snow

that

their report was

contradictory^
white.
Snow
the
black, yet
Here, then,
of knowledge
Sense
exemplified :
asserting
him

showed

reason

liquids,white

two

discern

it

and

will be

he

Heraclitus.

marked

From

at

from

once

it will

only
and

Xenophanes

admitting

former, because

the

on

one

discern

to

intervals.

himself

separate

the

pour

unable

made

tion.
illustra-

another

black, and

the eye

certain

at

did

Thus

had

He

drop by drop:
change as it is gradually going

actual

the

white.

be

not

the other

into

assertingthat Snow, being

Sense

be

to

of knowledge, he
only criterion of things,the only source
of truth,
could
not
regard the Xoyos as the unfailing source
but merely as th""reflective
whereby the reports of sense
power,
the

were

controlled.

him

that

the

From

reports

izS"^ \*
objectively

the

of

Heraclitus

senses

maintained

certain.

alone

the other

annihilated

subjectivelytrue,

were

Sense,

the. former, by

that

Both

be

to

that

reports

; the

and

one

principle.

that

showing

the

but

Xenophanes

certitude

principles of absolute

had

Reason,
goras

the

Heraclitus

zxA

were

senses

of

convinced

reflection

latter,because

the

the

claimed
pro-

Anaxa-

reason

was

he annihilated
the
for materials ; and
dependent on the senses
fallacious.
other by showing that the materials
were
Having thus, not without considerable
difficulty,
brought his
under
human
various opinions on
one
knowledge
system, let
for his cosmology.
endeavour
do the same
to
And, as in
us
had to cut almost
have
inch of
the foregoing attempt, we
every
the
the
of

for

way

ourselves,

tolerance

some

arbitraryuse we have made

scattered
passages) ; so, in

it necessary

depart from

to

greatly respect

we

neither
*

do

case

we

and

Subjective

naturalized

amongst
feel

at

of

the

tools

our

that

to

views

be

may

now

so

come,

of those

much

for

(the interpretation

others, Aristotle
liberty to supply

objective are

demanded

used

also feel

we

may
whose
and

Plato.

any
as

authority

passage
almost

In
:

to

we

have

be

superfluous,nevertheless, to explain
Mind
of the Thinker
them.
The
the
subject means
("go), the object
the
means
Thing thought of
(See also, 'Penny Cydop.,'
{Non-Ego)*
art. Subjective^for a full explanation.)
"' the
In the above
being subjectivelytrue "
reports of the senses
passage
that
the
their
of
inform
pressions
senses
means
us
truly
impressions ; but these imall
like
actual
the
not
at
are
objects(as may be shown
by the broken

become

it may

not

'

'

of

qppearance

reports

are

"

stick half

of

which

fals^,"
objectively

is

dipped i4

water

^,and

therefore

th^

ANAXAGORAS.

90

something

it become

does

it is bone

before, and

mingling

beginning

the

In

of homceomericBt

therefore

The

of elements

mass

them

What

harmonious
This

bone

not

was

only be blood,
mingled it is a

can
are

would

Thus

Anaxa-

rejected Fate as
Chance
as
being

This

to

the

an

empty

in

his

by

But

Many.
was

famous

to

mix
one

the

; on

than

glimpse

the

the

on

other

he

jected
re-

unperceived
oydpayn-Cvi]^
Xoyc-cr/i^).
science

what^ modern

of

one

Cause

disclaimed

thus

had

He

name

Intelligence

these

two

powers,

he

Chance,

and

proclaim Intelligenceas

to

equally

arranged in

become

to

early speculation,Fate
left than

course

the

more

Having

be

Thales

What

Universe.

of

remarkable

establish.

potent

other

All

and

a"rfXov alndv
logic (j^v r6)(riv,

is another
to

of

the

them

no

composed
infinite variety. So far

yet unmixed.

as

caused

force

Infinite

the

was

Parmenides

as

all-embracing system
question he answered

human

so

One,

were

power

(vovs)the moving
hand

there

proclaimed

taught, Anaxagoras

was

blood

as

elementary seeds

or

being

All

the

from

by

But,

now.

it

for

reason.

goras

the

nothing,

they
only be bone, whenever
of two
elements, homcBomericB,

bone

and

of

out

the

had

no

Arranging

Power,*
remarkable
whole, the most
indeed
is so
speculation of all the pre-Socratic epoch ; and
the
scientific precision of modern
times, that it is
very near
its original simplicity. We
with difficulty
will cite
we
preserve
a
portion of the fragment preserved by Simplicius, wherein
Intelligence (vovs)is infinite,and
Intelligence is spoken of :
in and
autocratic ; it is mixed
up with nothing, but exists alone
it mixed
it otherwise, were
for itself. Were
up with anything,
it would
of all things : for in all there
participatein the nature
This

to

seems

as,

us

the

on

"

is

part of all ; and

would

prevent

Here
modern

Will
*

We

not

have

no

the
his

was

mixed

with

over
exercising power
distinct an
expression as

as

conception

laws, but in

that which

it from

have

we

so

way

of

Deity

the

mixed

up

with

foregoing remarks
own

words

all

enable

acted

matter
us

to

reported by Diogenes,

who

all things were

confused
"Formerly
a
opened thus:
into worlds.'*
Intelligence coming, arranged them

This

i. 2, and

passage
"

so

Metaph.'

perfectlyaccords
i, 7, that

we

need

with

what

only

things:"!

possible of

acting through
the

intelligence

Aristotle

refer to them.

meet

says
mass;

"

the

invariable
on.

Aristotle's
that

his work

afterwards.

says, *De

Anim^,'

ANAXAGORAS.

91

that
"he
objection to Anaxagoras,
machine,* in respect to the formation
when

is embarrassed

he

that, he introduces
surely, this is

world

the
the

as

this

things

other

that,

so

;
of

cause

all

or

it is

things." Now,
only be valid
everywhere.
Anaxagoras

produces

could

criticism, and

unfair

very

in

but

intelligence which

oi

explain

to

Intelligence;

but

cause

any

how

Intelligence

uses

God
against a Malebranche, who saw
of the homaoassigned to Intelligencethe great Arrangement
tnericB ; but of course
supposed that subordinate
arrangements
of the
take
the case
Let
carried on
us
were
by themselves.
Christian

Thinker

centuries

some

His

back.

being

creed

when

all things ; nevertheless,

Deity created and ordained
he attributed
of the burn
his finger,the cause
he burnt
the

and

God

to

not

attributed

he

with

case

that

that

explain,
God.

these

It is here

we

Chance
effect

causes;

he

whatever

he

is

unascertained
he

cause

called

the

to

opinion respecting

what

to

attributes

he

effect

others

of

the

called

universal

Intelligence.
the

On

have

who

Those

grounds

same

read

have
the

remember
his

misty
the
Phsedo,

read

in

passage

which

poignant disappointment

which

had

he

at

first been
It

expresses

the

of

Socrates,

authenticity.
disappointment

firmly that Socrates

believe
This

from

is

Olympus,

tnachinSL

charge
i. p.

Uchen

this

is to

objection
the

the

to

solve

to

is the

the

it is

; and
of

Plato.

of

merely

the

has

passage

disappointment,

artifice

difficultyof

express

Anaxagoras,

This

speaker

theatrical

to

denouement,

"

that

rare

the

the
and
We

down

bringing

to

God

Dens

ex

that

the

of Horace.

make

We

for

allusion

an

not

of

"

doubtless

say,
made

real

it,in

Plato's

translator?

is

attracted.

so

air of

of

will

we

Plato.

read

not

some

doctrine

the

of

splendour
of

Socrates

at

has

who

forlorn

version

and

reasoning

to *the

^and

"

either;in the

shape or other,
diction, or in the dim
who

Phsedo

the

some

those

object

we

the

in

has

error

"

not

latest
Die

227 :
Charakter
"

remark

to

caution

the

reader

mechanical

There

Intelligence.
adopted
unfrequently been

German

bekannten
s$iner

work,
Klagen

Lehre*^

"

Zeller, Die

^He

der

Alten

then

against supposing
is

need

; and

of

this

it is made

Phiios.
iiber den

embarrassed

does

Chance

sky

parallel /
explain he does /

can

not
understand,
contradictory?
opinions
the
force of Anaxagoras'
see

he

an

as

of

What

fire, I

to

the

in

this

Is not

God.

but

cause

no

muttered

thunder

Anaxagoras?

of

whatever

Are

the

to

natural

explain by

the

when

but

that

der

caution
a

Griechen.*

vol.

einseitig mechan*

quotes Aristotle

and

special

Plato.

ANAXAGORAS.

91

can

we

august

his

of

name

opinions promulgated

of

so

say

But

master.

by Plato

believe

we

the

under
that

also

Plato

participatedin it.
is

Here

Taylor:

the
make

we

in

passage

version

misty

the

alterations,otherwise
whole, which

no

responsiblefor the

ourselves

should

we
we

Thomas

of

hold

disinclined

are

do.

to

*'

But, having

book,

composed

as

things,I

all

that in
to

he

part in which

that

of

be

If

manner.
cause

or

is,he

manner,
of this,

that

it

was

^l, and

this

an

adorn

situation

in

anyone,

therefore, should

therefore, it is proper
himself

excellent,

most

who

about

knows

that

place

subsist

in

this

best

the

willing to discover
generated, or corrupted,
the

best

consequence

consider

others, except

that

it is necessary
that
which
is

but

best:

know

also

in

should

man

about

the

should

case,
thing
every-

be

or

and

the

was

through
everything
subsist
how
it may
ought to discover
In
or
suffer,or perform any thing else.

i^ the
he

is

intellect

for

and

cause

thought

and

thing

it would

which

to

came

is the

and

if this

things,

all

certain

he

cause,

excellent

considered

would

nothing else,either
which

with

from

when

by Anaxagoras,

which

the

reading

person

that intellect orders

says

respect

intellect

in that

said

delighted

of

cause

disposing

he

was

certain

the

heard

once

science
of both.
the same
and
subordinate, since there, is one
that
with
I
I had
rejoiced,thinking
But, thus reasoning
myself
would
instruct
found
in
a
me
preceptor in Anaxagoras, who
the
of things agreeable to my
own
causes
conceptions ; and
inform
in
first
the
whether
the earth is
that he would
me
place
of its being so;
afterwards
flat or round
explain the cause
; and

adducing
that
he

should

besides
and

for

this

it is better
say

that
purpose
for the earth
to

that it is situated
that it

this, show
should

if he

render

was

all

which
exist

is better, and
in this

in the

better
this

if

And

manner.

middle, that

he

would

in the middle

for it to be

apparent

showing

to

me,

was

so

require any other species of cause

; for I by
that
after
said
all
he
had
these
means
no
thought,
were
introduce
would
he
other
intellect,
disposed
orderly
by
any
shows
for their subsistence, except
that which
that it is
cause
I
exist
in
this
for
them
Hence
better
to
manner.
thought that

disposed

as

not

to

common
rendering the cause
explain that
things,he would
all.
of
And,
common
good

in

to

which

and
particular,

each

is best

indeed,

for

would

each, and
not

to

all

is the

have

ex-

AkA^AGOkAS.

93

""

-"

changed

nopca

with

his books

that
celerity,

"

admirable

this

hope,

my

of my
reading,
certain
causes
employ

in the

when,

away,

with

them

read

great
is best

that which

is base.

from

But

But, having obtained

might with great celerityknow

that which

and

for

mighty gain I
I
prodigious eagerness,

tnese

course

friend, I
I

forced

was

him

saw

make

no

the purpose
of
intellect,nor
and
orderly disposing particulars,but assign air, aether,
water,
other
and
of things.
things equally absurd, as the causes
many
in
similar
he
And
be affected
to
a
manner
appeared to me
of

use

to

him

who

produced
the

should

intellect ; and

by

of each

causes

that

assert

all the

for

actions

of

Socrates

afterwards, endeavouring

particularaction, should

say,

that

to

are

relate

sit

now

body is composed of bones

solid and are
and
and that the bones
are
separated by
nerves,
which
intervals from
but
that
the
each other ;
are
by
nerves,
of
intension
and
the
nature
remission, cover
bones,
capable
contained.
The
which
with
skin
in
the
together
they are
bones, therefore, being suspended from their joints,the nerves,
limbs
to bend
by strainingand relaxing them, enable
me
my
inflected
I here sit in an
at present ; and
as
through this cause
of
position.
And, again, should
assign other such like causes
conversing with you, viz.,voice and air, and hearing,
now
my
other
thousand
and
a
particulars,neglecting the true cause,
better
to condemn
that, since it appeared to the Athenians
me
this account,
it also appeared to me
better and more
on
just to
sit here and, thus abiding, sustain the punishment which
they
ordained
have
: for otherwise, by the
me
dog, as it appears to
carried long ago
these bones
and nerves
have
been
would
me,
either into Megara or Boeotia, through an opinion of that which
is best, if I had
not
thought it more
just and becoming to
the punishment
sustain
it
ordered
by my
country, whatever
But
call
to
might be, than to withdraw
myself and run away.
is extremely absurd.
things of this kind causes
Indeed, if
should
that, without
possessing such things as
say
anyone
bones
I could
and
I do, he would
not
act
as
speak the
nerves,
that I act, as I do at present, through these,
truth ; but to assert
and
that I operate with this intellect,
and
the choice of
from
not
is best, would
what
be an
assertion full of extreme
negligence
here

because,

and

sloth

able

to

in the

for

this

first

place, my

would

be

collect,by division,that

different from

that without

which

the
the
a

of

consequence
true

cause

cause

would

of

not

not

being

thing is
be

very

cause*''

anaxagoras.

04

this

Now

reasoning we

take

be

to

ignoroHo denchu

an

The

is

and
would
nothing to the purpose,
in
the least
be
admitted
as
by Anaxagoras
true, without
from
what
Indeed,
can
we
impugning his argurnent.
gather,
that
in
should
not
we
was
comprehended
Anaxagoras
say
ancient
his philosophy was, in certain respects,
times, because
in advance
much
of all ancient
The
appointme
distoo
speculation.
of Socrates
natural.
He
was
expected to find a
moral
the
he
and
found
universe^
tJuory of
a metaphysieo-physical
theory.* He expected to find that, on the theory of an arranging
Intelligence(by which he understood
a human
Intelligence
could be established
idealized),the whole operations of nature
d priori rht
of
found
that this theory was
only an enunciation
the fact of the operations of Nature
being guided by fixed and

illustration

made

immutable

causes

causes

the

could

disappointment, and

he

and

laws) ;

these

that

of Chance, but
Necessity nor
uncongenial to Socrates
theory more
of

result

Intelligence. Now, a
scarcely be found

of

call

modems

(which

neither

were

of

use

therefore

he

it with

read

it with

read

haste

and

misunderstanding.

which

was
in
Intelligence
no
^Anaxagoras conceived
the
wise a moral
it
was
Intelligence;
primum
simply
mobile^
the arrangement
force by which
motive
of
the all-knowing and
the elements
in Aristotle,
affected.
was
Hence, from a passage
inferred that the i/oSs was
have
only a physical principle,
some

The

whose

sole

error

office
of

easy

in

matter

set

to

was

explanation.

Men

motion.

.still

are

is

This
accustomed

so

an

to

Intelligence as only a more

perfect and
of
human
exalted
traces
Intelligence, that where they see
no
of the
latter
to
the
question the existence
they are
prone
creative
When
the
former.
was
Anaxagoras says that Nous
Notis
similar
a
instantly figure to themselves
principle, men
On
gence
to their own.
examination, they find that such an Intellithe
doctrine.
in
conceive
has
no
they
place
They
as
then
declare
It is a
that no
intelligence has any place there.
It means
than Motion, aud
mere
name.
more
might have
no
conceive

been

divine

the

called

Motion.

But, fortunately, Simplicius has

*

Socrates

But

himself

is

Anaxagoras, since
but only of those things that
makes

to

AyaBdv,
moral

"

Repulf,^

theory.

lib. ii"

open
he

(o

says

are

This

good

the
that
:

also

preserved

objection

same

God

is not

atnov

rrdvnov
fij)
shows

the

how

long

that

as

author
top

passage
which

of all

Obov

dXKd

exclusivelyhis

he

things,
twv

was

ANAXAGORAS.

from

the

before, and
NouSy

as

shall

indebted

select

now

cognitive

these

quote

of Anaxagoras

work

the

for

the

is, of all
of

knowledge

95

one

set
distinctively

readily

more

has

passage,

and

portion of it
in which

the

forth ; and
whom
we
"

them

"

we
are

gence
Intelli-

has entire
purest, and
has
a
soul, whether

which

Everything

to

translated

subtlest

things, the
all.

Ritter,

as

not.

sentences

two

or

is

power,

quoted

have

we

by the Intelligence (voOsicparct).

all things (wavra
those
Intelligence knows
cyyco vovs), both
mixed
that are
that are
and
those
the things
separated ; and
and
which
the
those
things which
ought to be, and
were,
will be ; all are
which
which
those
now
arranged by
are, and
vovs*)." Here, the creative,or
Intelligence {iravro.SitKoafirftre
rather disposing,faculty is not
more
distinctlyexpressed than
/\/ous both
knows
and
The
the cognitive.
acts; this is its
that in ancient
A grand conception ; one
duplicate existence.
seldom
far in advance
rivalled ; one
that was
so
speculation was
of its chronologicalepoch, as to be a puzzle to all critics.
The
relation in which
stands
of Anaxagoras
to
the system
Infinite
be briefly characterized.
of others
The
those
may
great

small, is governed

or

Matter

Instead

of

lonians

the
One

of

in his

became

Substance,

such

hands

Water,

as

the

Air,

homcBomeria.

Fire, he

or

saw

substances.
At
the
necessity of admitting Many
same
carried
the
out
Eleatic
time, he
Pythagorean and
principle of
thus
dialectical
The
the
thrusts
of Zeno
One,
avoiding
against
the upholders of The
M.
Cousin
would
Hegel and
Many,
call this eclecticism,and, in one
be
correct
sense, they would
;
inasmuch
led
his
doctrine
the
to
but,
as
by
Anaxagoras was
Ionian
Eleatic
which
and
the
the
development
principles
eclectical
and
had
led
it
method, we
not
to
taken,
was
by any
such
There
of
must
a name.
protest against the application
truth dimly recognised by the lonians, namely,
that
was
a
all reducible
the material
to some
are
noumenon
phenomena
What
that
or
some
beginning was,
they
noumena,
oj^y^.
his
also
but
doctrine
it
variouslysought. Anaxagoras
sought
;
of perception convinced
that it could not be one
him
principle,

the

but
But
*

many
there

also

was

It would

Arbtotle,

in

be

of the

truth

dimly

needless, after this,to

confirmation.

Trendelenburg,

speaking

his homceomertce.

hence

Comment.

vovq^

adds

The

itai

seen

refer

criticsd
de

Aristot.

^vxv*

"

So

far

he

to the

Anim.,'

Craty.y p.

expressions of

numerous

will
p.

400.

Ionian.

an

Elealics, namely,

by the

reader

was

do

466

weU
et

siq.

to

consult

Plato, in

ANA)tAGORAS.

96

that

The

without

there

One

only

there

The

One

could

existent

necessity
Up

this

to

chasm

could
He

be

the
the

was

Many).
and

Matter
horn

more

to

the

These

history

uniformly
doctrine

of

others

of

Stagyrite
he

was

thrown

admitted

entitle
;

not

combating.

him

the
He

One)
the

be

worlds

and

Matter.

He

how

to

as

the

itself.

neva:

thing

other

some

and

became

thing could

one

how

to

as

into

on

Anaxogoras
of

theory

and

admitted

Mind

of

clearly

regret

him,

deep

chasm

with

respect

both

either

we

the

over

Rationalists,

Anaxagoras

disparagingly
did

claimed
pro-

dilemma

the

namely,

dualistic

by

from

only

Philosophy

speaks

flnd

(The

unmixed,

upon

his

by

knowledge.
had

have
act

skill.

fashioned.

was

points

two

since

must

cannot

Sensualists

origin

Reason

it

horns,

Matter

bridge

separating

it

these

and

similar

great

for

act;

fashioning,

the

thing

one

mixed

and

and

pure

was

which

chasm

of

horn

Eleatics,

the

It

{homaomerue,

only

can

gored

who

impure

both

escaped

which

One,

Many,

itself

by

difference.

fashioned

became

Matter

tion
inven-

consummate

lonians,

the

also

Zeno's

Matter

each

Anaxa-

variance

at

Intelligence

Infinite

Self-

saw

modifications,

some

escaped

he

the

with

Infinite

gored

Infinite

than

which

he

means

which

Infinite

the

Infinite

the

the

that

escaped

of

since

beings;

be

Architect

the

why

why

the

that

escaped

he

of

been

over

so

with

existence

this

By

did

He

up.

the

Eleatic.

an

profound

bridge

be

the

by

them.

this

to

doctrines,

both

accepted

who

filled

had

between

of

Anaxagoras

was

many

derived,

and

things

as

must

accepted

he

doctrines

result

far

so

yawned

was

for

In

is

AH

was

Many

were

two

depth

Dialectics

not

there

the

The

the

God

as

ind,

with

things

of

as

Ohe

and

words,

reasoning

One.

point

reserved

was

This

The

infinite

of
of

to

for

One

The

that

saw

other

multiplicity

admitting

He

Many,

in
;

One

into

resolved

be

not

the

proved.

was

goras.

be

whom

of

be

never

could

not

from

necessity

the

could

Many

Sense
to

to

but

apprehend

Reason.

or

very
see

high
that

believe
the

and

Sense

force

in

rank

Aristotle
that
of

the
the

98

EMPEDOCLBS.

^
^

antithesis

the real meaning of that

totle ; and
not
in the Appendix,* the present

critical
bom

about

consent,

is said

was

to

flourished

have

place for such

side.
our
Anaxagoras
Empedocles, by general

on

70th Olympiad

the

in

the

Anaxagoras at least 64 years old at

Empedocles published his doctrine, after which
written ;
have
could
probable that Anaxagoras
when

probabilityvanishes
who

teaching in

was

died

have

to

time

discussion, we
Empedocles

Athens

age
and

it is

barely

even

this

the

point

above

will

now

commence

was

born

in

unworthy

spent in

in

Agrigentum

singularand

dowries
rank

and

supposed

on

Like

have

to

lands

displayed.

Only

secrets

of

been

great

in

the

far East

Medicine

and

rival

them

have

to

namely, in
to

young

been

ing
bestowmen

of

early philosophers,he is
traveller,and to have
gathered
of knowledge
which
he
store

all

the wondrous

that

is said

manner

marrying

girls,and

poor

consequence.

distant

potent

honourable

brief

period in
to Syracuse.
illustrious family,
espousal of the
at

was

his wealth

of

Much

of

flourished

Sicily,and

and

party.
a

77 th
88th

or

narrative.

our

formidable
a
splendour,
height
descended
from
wealthy and
a
Empedocles,
acquired a high reputation by his resolute
democratic

76th

the

not

was

Agrigentum,

of its

the

life of Anaxagoras,

the

upon
about

at

84th Olympiad.

the

about

back

when

flourished.

that

Trusting

in

the

Lampsacus, in exile, in the

Empedocles
years after the epoch at which

Olympiad, and who

01)niapiad,viz.,16
is said

look

we

; this

84th Olympiad

make

would

examine

being the

is

inquiries. Chronology

will

we

the

could

he

have

learned

the'

Magic.

the EgypOnly from

tian
the art of prophecy.
he
did travel into Italy and to

Magi could he have learned

that
It is probable, however,
in
little of his personal
mention
Athens.
But,
can
truth, we
rivals that of
history that is not open to question. His name
The
same
Pythagoras in the regions of Fable.
august majesty
the same
of demeanour, and
marvellous
nature, are
power over
attributed
Miracles
both.
his
to
were
pastimes. In prophesying,
the
in medicine, in power
winds
and
over
rains, his
wonders
and
he
were
so
numerous
so
renowned, that when
all eyes were
appeared at the Olympic Games
reverentially
fixed

upon

him.

His

dress

and

demeanour

reputation. Haughty, impassioned, and

*

See

Appendix

C*

accorded

eminently

with

his

disinterested

EMPEDOCLES.

refused

in character, he
him

offered

the

of

tyranny

the citizens \ but

by

99

Agrigentum

his love

of

when

freely

distinction

showed

golden girdle, the Delphic crown,

train of attendants.
He
and
proclaimed himself
a numerous
and women
whom
God
But
men
to be
a
reverently adored.
take this literally. He
not
assumed
must
probably only
we
which
he promised all soothsayers,
by anticipationan honour
priests,physicians and princes of the people."
has also taken
Fable
advantage of the mystery which
hangs
overof
it various
his death, to create
stories of marvel.
out
after
h
e
sacred
drawn
One
festival,
was
a
relates,that,
to
up
heaven
in a splendour of celestial effulgence. Another
and
threw
himself
that
is
he
into
the
more
headlong
popular one
of Mount
crater
-^tna, in order that he might pass for a god,
itself in

priestlygarments,

'^

of his brazen
being unknown
; but one
sandals, thrown
eruption,revealed the secret.
up in an
his Teachers
A
similar
his
and
to
uncertainty exists as
Writings. Pythagoras, Farmenides, Xenophanes, and Anaxaall been
his Teachers.
have
Unless
as
positivelynamed
.goras
of his death

the

cause

we

understand

the

word

absolutely reject these

must

who

them,

reports

absence
that

there

does

at

was,

so

least, one

statements.

in

his

criticism,remarkable

of

in

Teachers

figurative sense, we
Diogenes Laertius,

dullest
in

even

hundred

and

with

manner,

him.*

an

Considering

forty years

between

need
further argument
to
no
Pythagoras and Empedocles, we
between
them.
^disprove any connection
Diogenes, on the authority of Aristotle (as he says),attributes
of Rhetoric;
the invention
and
to
Empedocles
Quinctilian
We
have
longer the
(iiLc. i) has repeated the statement.
no
of Aristotle

work

arisen

from

but,

as

Ritter

says,

misunderstanding,

the

have

assertion
been

have

must

said in

jest by
the
teacher
of Gorgias;
Aristotle, because
was
Empedocles
most
likely from a misunderstanding, since Sextus Empiricus
mentions
Aristotle as having said that Empedocles
first incited^
Rhetoric
or
an
(irpSrrovK"Kivr)Kiv"a. Adv.
impulse to
gave
Mat.
his
in
and
'Rhetoric,' says that Corax
vii.). Aristotle,
Tisias were
the first to publish a written Treatise
on
Eloquence.
in rejecting the statement
We
feel the less hesitation
of Diogenes,
which
in the very passage
because
succeeds
he is guilty
a

or

"

work
lor

Diogenes
is useful

anything

of the

stupidestof

is

one

as

containing occasional

else.

the

stupid race

extracts, but

can

compilers. His
rarelybe^reliedon

of

EMPEDOCLES.

loo

of

misquotation of Aristotle,who, as
gross
'
of * the
Poets
speaks of Empedocles

very

his book

rich

his
eloquence,
powerful
poetical figures." Diog, viii. c. iL "
in

in

of

Aristotle, on

the

the

reverse

very
"

passage
with the

"

Poets,

fortunatelyextant

Diogenes alleges.
indeed, connecting the poetry

denominated

has

other

this work

Now,

57.

In

Homeric,
and

of what

Custom,

mdrey

is

"

says,

as

metaphors,

3, p.

"

he

and

it proclaims

Here

is the

making

or

elegaicpoets, others epic

according to the nature of

some

thus

distinguishing poets not

their imitation, but
according to that of their metre
only ; for
Natural
treatises of Medicine, or
even
they who
composed
Poets : yet Homer
and
denominated
Philosophy in verse, are
the
except their metre;
Empedocles have
nothing in common
the
of Poet ; the other
name
former, therefore, justly merits
Poet."
De
rather
be
called
a
should
a
Physiologist than
poets

"

Poet,,

c.

this, and

After
we

i.
indeed

reasonably

may

tragedies attributed
philosopher.

diversityof

The

the

accept
to

Empedocles

opinion

Tenneman
cannot

destroy

each

should

see

be

without

other

; but

works

of

the

the

position of
opening of this chapter, is not
such as Hegel, Ritter, Zeller,

strong

reasons

importance
it does

not,
Each

to

respect

false grounds.
upon
in
it
truth
being the whole
; but, not
of the difference
The
to
seems
cause
all build

the

not

were

with

the
at
Empedocles, indicated
without
significance.- That men
and

strength of this very passage,

suspicion of critics,that the

the

on

to

for different
the

cation
classifi-

Historian*

therefore, follow
of their views

truth, it

has

that
a

They
they*

certain

prevail.
has
: Empedocles
of
the
and
Anaxasomething
Pythagorean, Eleatic, Heraclitic,
in
each
his
that
historian,detecting
systems
system ; so
gorean
of
these
and
to
one
give due importance to
omitting
elements,
the others, has connected
Empedocles vith the system to which
that one
Ritter
and Zeller have, however,
element
belongs.
relations of the doctrin",
been
of some
of the complex
aware
but failed,we
think, in giving it its true position.
belongs partly to
knowledge, Empedocles
Respecting human
With
the Eleatics.
them, he complained of the imperfection
of the Senses
for truth only in Reason, which
is
looked
; and
and
in other words, partly clouded
partly divine
partly human
is opposed to the senThe
divine
suous
by the senses.
knowledge
cannot
knowledge ; for man
approach the divine,neither
"

be

this

cannot

EMPBDOCLES.

seize it with

he

can

the

conjoined
he

duty

the eye.
contemplating God

of

have

to

appears

the hand

loi

nor

proclaimed

Hence

Empedocles

in

mind.

But

this

divine

the

existence

the

of

without
its relation
to
attempting to determine
knowledge
human
In
this respect he resembles
rather Xenoknowledge.
phanes than Parmenides.*
have no
We
clear testimony of his having studied
the worka
of Anaxagoras ; but, if we
difficult to
be
had, it might not
explain his inferior theory of knowledge ; for, in truth, the
far in advance
of the age to be
too
theory of Anaxagoras was
the
to
rightly apprehended.
.Empedocles, therefore, adhered
With
Eleatic theory.
delusion
the
Xenophanes, he bewailed
of the

Like
Each
On

Nor

neither

find

These

by eye nor
grasped by mind
that

verses

of

as

further

no

the Senses

the
from

revealing
Mundane
body.

The

Fall

If with

of

Thrice

ten

thousand

Hence, doomed
To
raging strife
But
when
Divine

had

he
he

other

Nature.

thought

Gods

of the

poUuteth

Dsemonf

he

must

years

olden

an

wander

t An

immortal

in

the

from

doom

Heaven.

"

members.

and

from

blessed.

the

outcast

an

to

He

philosophical ground

more

existence

the

prove

maintained
we

we

that

learn
learn

of
like

this respect he
soul.

ranks

with

to

Reason

go

and

upon
of

the

could

only be known
the
earth, through fire we
and
strife,
through love we

Having quoted (p. 70) Aristotle's

testimony of
in
the
need
knowledge
Kmpedoclean
theory, we
in

upheld

enactment,
his

that

as

submissive."

by like : through earth

learn
fire,through strife

adding

he

system,

apart
Gods

fugitivefrom

Reason

imprisoned

disgraced

been

wandered,

only prevented

was

his

in

was,

of
that

was

it

distinctlyenunciated

thus

Fate,

show

because

hast

of mortals."

scepticism

he

had

as

man,
thus
thou

knowledge

passages

truth

I stray,

some

wished

which

murder

guiltor

the

\ but

whole

he

is the law

This

"

thou, when

indicate

souls

of Man

existence

immortal

such

of

and

reaches

Reason,
the

perceptible to

ear

to

seem

integrityof

the

"

and

to he

Wilt

well

wind-ddven

the

vain

In

his lament

to

brief is life's pleasnreless portion !

conscious, how
and
backwards
smoke, they are camed
forwards,
his
what
to
save
vouches,
experience
nought
trusting
find out the whole
all sides distracted
truth.
; yet wishing to

Swiil-fated

"

Listen

experience.

and

senses

Parmenides

the

nature

sensuous

only

here

rather

refer
than

to

of
it

phanes.
Xeno-

MMPBDOCLES.

to2

by like,
If,therefore,* like could 'only be known
Divine
known
the Divine
could
be
Reason
by
only
; and,
is
Divine
inasmuch
it
is
the
recognised by man
a
as
proof
and
Divine
exists.
Existence
that the
Knowledge
mutually
learn

love.

imply

each

other.

in his attacks
also
resembles
Empedocles
Xenophanes
God, he says, has neither head adjusted
anthromorphism.
limbs like human
hands
beings, nor legs, nor
:
**

ineffable,holy,
is,wholly and perfectly,mind
rapid and swilt-glancing thought pervading the whole

He
With

We

these

compare

may

with

verses

the

on

to

world."

lines

of

phanes
Xeno-

"

Without

"

Thus

Empedocles
Pythagoras are
analogies which

of

those

detected.!

In' his

resemblance

strong

Heraclitus
of

fewer

; for

in

his

Eleatics.

cannot

regard

moral

his

the

and

also

only

an

said

these

there

nothing

was

world

there

arrangement.

views.

"

that

**

Or,

that

truth

there

but

Which

was
Empedocles
he exclaims,
to

unfold

be

which

perish and

is, can

now

creation

no

no

natural

of mortal

Nothing

is
are

philosophy

perpetual flux
was
as
a flowing

things, nor death's

there but a mingling^ and
called

birth

and

death

Anaxagoras
of

now

formerly was
not,
utterlydecay. J
birth

destruction
then

elements, but
to
amalgamate

final ;

separation of the mingled^

by ignorant mortals.}
a

"

We

The

extant.

f agments

faculty ;
All
t

we

See

have
them

and

d"ne

tell

us

also

that

is to

supply

noticed

we

here
are
thinking for Empedocles
is, we
; that
authority for this statement, than that something of the kind
make
out
a
plausibleexplanation of what is only implied in
"

nence
absti-

consequent

of

was

begin

aught can
aught which

Another
Is

Fools

"

think

Who

is

food.

the whole

said

such

as

there

precepts,
in

but

The

critics has

some

phenomena
river, ever-changing yet apparently the same.
had

insight."

the

to
we

and

reason

ingenuity of

the

Pythagoras ;
metempsychosis,

had

things,that

belonged

life,and

animal

from

things by

to

beyond

none

see

all

ruleth

he

far

traces

all

labour

in

that

Reason

he
did

bielieved in Reason
in

some

way

is
the

to

fragments

the

recognise

other

no

wanting

the

dent
transcen-

Divine.

the

link wanting.
Zeller, Philos. der Grriechen/ p.

j Compare

as

have

169-173.

do
the
as
Greeks
Anaxagoras,
quoted, p. 89 :
Wrongly
that
be.''
to
or
ceases
begins
aught
suppose
\ Compare Anaxagoras :
So
that all-becoming might more
properly
be called Decoming mixed, and all-cairuptionbecoming
separate."
"

"

EMPEDOCLES.

So

distinct

103

relationshipas

these

manifest

verses

towards

cation
will account
for the classifiAnaxagoras
the same
adopted by Hegel, Zeller, and Renouvier
\ at
time, it gives greater strength to our
opinion of Empedocles

both

Heraclitus

the

as

and

of these

successor

The

differences

Haviftg asserted
separation, he
primary elements
Heraclitus
the

two.

however,

are,

things

all

that

which

Fire

affirmed

had

existence

the

of

and

certain

mingled.

principle and

the

both

be

to

mingling

materials

the

were

resemblances.

the

as

but

were

admitted

have

must

great

as

moving, mingling force, and the mingled

matter.
Anaxagoras, with great logical consistency, affirmed
that
the
homcBomericb^ since nothing
were
primary elements
whatever
could
arranged must,
was
proceed from nothing, and
of primary elements.
Empedocles
therefore,be an arrangement
that the primary elements
affirmed
Four, viz..Earth, Air,
were
Fire, and Water : out of these all other things proceed ; all
element

; both

things are

will
of

this is

that

being

four.

preceding

the

both

on

ceptions
con-

indubitable
evidence
; it bears
modification
and
of its antecedents.
a

conception,

although superior as

Ig^calconsistency of

the

not

of these

denied

be

Nevertheless,
it has

advance

an

scarcely

later

minglings

various

the

but

Now,

the

physiological view

maintained

that

goras
by Anaxa-

taught that like can

only be known
identical
and
were
knowledge
that
ever
whatmaintained
mutually impH/g^ve,he ought to have
distinct
be
is regp^isedby the
mind
distinct,must
as
;

for, a"/Empedocles

eirfstence
and
by like,/5^"^at

in

esse

With

respect

to

the

Heraclitus

and

Heraclitus

maintained

Desire

Anaxagoras

architect

Mind

that

itself,the

Nous
from

that

these

two

Both

Here

we

see

He

there

the

the

all

the

proportion.

same

impelled by
determinate

irresistible

existence.

Intelligence was
material
elements;

Matter.

of

traces

The

great

the
the
tinction
dis-

is,that the Fire transforms

is radically
something which
these
conceptions were
mated
amalgathe
creative
Love
that
was
taught

systems

transforms

by Empedocles.

see

infinite

fashioned

and

we

the

some

the

arranged

itself.

Wherever
power.
Love
is exerted.

was

itselfinto

controlled

between

different

who

about

Fire

that

maintained

great

Power,

in

Anaxagoras

transform

to

Formative

is

Desire

mixture

of

of

Heraclitus

different

elements

sublimed

into

its

wmm^m

/"

"MPED0CLES.

104

and
highestexpression,

of

the Nous

Anaxagoras rediK^ed

to

its moral

The
difficultiesof the Heraclitean
expression,Love.
how
Fire
become
can
ever
doctrine,namely, as to
anything
f
rom
avoided
the
of
the
Anaxaare
Fire,
adoption
different
by
dualism; while the difficulties of the Anaxagorean
gorean
moved
the great Arranger was
doctrine,namely, as to how

incited

and

to

avoided

the primary elements, are in some*

arrange
by the natural desire of Love (Aphrodite),

sure
mea-

If Love
still to be overcome.
difficulty
the creator, that is,the Mingler, what
caused
separation?
As the perfectstate
to Hate.
explainthis,he had recourse
supra-mundane existence was Harmony, the imperfectstate

But
was

To
of
of

there

was

existence

mundane

Formative
said that
This

Discord.

was

Principle,and

Hate

L6ve

is but

Destructive.

the

the

of God

phrase

Heraclitus

of

is, nevertheless, most

things."
hate
as
regarded
only a mundane
the

theatre

of the

of

Gods.*

the

For, inasmuch

perverted God,

doomed

but
sky-aspiring,

sense-clouded

to

so

may
Does

space.

with what

opinions?

Man

is

the

on

I^ve, strugglingthrough

power,
nowise

as

as

wander

that

probable

and

world,

the other"

Strife is the parent of

"

docles
abode

he

Hence

after

one
together,

war

It

on

therefore,the

was,

"

All the members

"

all

Hate
not

Empe-

only operating

the
jiisturbing
a

fallen

face of the
be

and

earth,

only perverted

this idea

accord

conception
we
God,
in
the
bosom
that of a
of
is, of The One, was
sphere
harmony fixed in calm rest, gladlyrejoicing." This quiescent
the moved
is Love, exists above and around
sphere, which
World.
Certain points are loosened
from the combination
of the elements, but the unity established by Love
continues.
Ritter is convinced
the
smaller
that Hate
has only power
over
portion of existence,over that part which, disconnecting itself
from
the
itself with crime, and thereby
whole, contaminates
know

of his

that

Our

the

to

account

errors

of

of mortals.

Empedocles

will be found

from
the

that
true.

of

"

devolves

by

His

that in Aristotle ; but our

great Stagyrite himself,who

excuse

to vary

ably
consider-

is that furnished

constantly tellingus
for his opinions. This is
Empedocles gave no reason
that his interpretaMoreover, Aristotle makes us aware
tion
is open to question; for, he says, that his interpreta-

An

opinion subsequentlyput

Plato in the

"

Phaedrus.'

forth with

is

great splendourof diction by

lo6

DEMOCRITUS.

experienced

wisest

and, in the calculations

hath
of line-measuring no
the
one
surpassed me, not
even
I sojourned five years."
whom
In travel
Egyptians, amongst
he spent his patrimony ; but he exchanged
it for an amount
of
had
Abone
knowledge which
no
previously equalled. The
The
him with vague
wonder.
derites,on his return, looked
on
traveller brought with him knowledge
sun-burnt
which, to them,
have
divine.
He
must
Curiosity encompassed him.
appeared
exhibited
few samples of his lore, foretold unexpected changes
a
most

in the weather,

and

which

to

power

and

political
supremacy,
It would
tradition

be
hands

impossible
put
be

soul,

which

to

credit
his

the

dying

the

at

even

parts

so

its due

the various

here

They

of

He

oflfered

was

mostly either

are

his

that he

order

undisturbedly acquainted

his

the

great inlets.

having

led

quiet sober

advanced

More

age.

we

having
might

with

theory of

very

of

one

was

his

to

that

which

anecdotes

instance, of

for

contradiction

very

summit

it.

burning-glass, in

and

eye
of

account

his
the

We

may
and of
life,

credit.

cannot

certain evidence
Philosophy we have
more
;
is
in
and
that has been
variously interpreted,
so
many
loss
been
at a
to give it
obscure, that historians have
Reinhold, Branposition in relation to other systems.

Respecting
but

with

is in violent

reason,

bow.

wiselydeclined

improbable. That,

or

perfectly

more

pride to

the

to

respecting him*.

down

his eyes

out

nation's

detail

to

exalted

but

idle

men

once

at

was

it is

of

his

and

dis, Marbach,
Tennemann,

him

view

Hermann

Eleatic

an

as

Ionian

; Buhleand

the

of Herasuccessor
Hegel, as
clitus,and the predecessor of Anaxagoras; Ritter,as a Sophist ;
and
of Anaxagoras.
the
Of all these
Zeller, as
precursor
is the worst
that by Ritter
at
classification,
: it is
attempts
has
Democritus
occasional
plying
an
phrase impitiable. Because
mentioned
and those
to
by Ritter seem
great vanity
^he is a Sophist. That
is a
kind
to imply nothing of the
us
sample of Ritter's arguing !
an

as

"

"

We

and

convinced

are

for

similar

classification
from

the

primary
existence
same

from

that all the above

reason

to

that which

Empedocles.
lonians, by the denial
of

elements
of

; from

the

of
multiplicity

is

Democritus
of

all

the

erroneous,

sensible

distinguished
quality to

by his affirmation
; from

elements
as

are

guided historians,in their

Eleatics

ground ; from Anaxagoras,

Empedocles, by denying

attempts

we

shall
Four

Heraclitus

the

of the
on

the

presently ; and
Elements, and the
see

DEMOCRITUS.

Formative

Love.
such

resemblances,
derived

or

and

All

from

one

did

What
to

This

teach

no

question

we

Parmenides

will endeavour

principles.

its central

from

with

commence

Democritus

Knowledge
accredited

universally
Aristotle,
"

from
historians ; but
diflferently
our
certain
evidence,
precise and
on
wholly grounded
than
other
that of developing the
originality

shall be

We

coincidences,

been

thinkers

later

The

somewhat

with

system

have

may

radical.

are

example.

Democritus

answer

answer

are,

of the

two

or

for

Anaxagoras

differences

these

they

as

107

says,

is

the

; or, if so,

true

of

passage

variously enij^loyed ;

though

nothing

that

with

and

it is

not

dent
evi-

Nevertheless, as, in his system, the sensation

time is but a change
the same
at
constitutes the thought, and
in the spntient beiiig,
the sensible pha"nomena;(i.e.sensations)
this pregnant
What
does
of necessity true." *
3xe
passage
is
inasmuch
it
?
that
It
sensation,
sensation,
as
mean
means
to

us.

be

must

true

it is

as

thinks

that is true

sensation,

; but

cannot

Democritus

that

established

the

was

first to

will remember

readers

our

sensation, inasmuch
subjectively
; but
be
true
objectively, M. Renouvier
tion
this distinc-

introduce

that it

was

the distinction

Empiricus quotes the very

exists only informjWiQ
"The
of Democritus:
words
sweet
cold
in form^ colour
in fornix the
in
bitter in form, the hot
and
exist.
only atoms
form \ but in causal reality(iirii))!
space
sensible things which
The
supposed by opinion to exist
are
real existence,but only atoms
and
Adv.
have
no
space exist."
that
vii. p. 163.
he says
Mathem.
When
colour, "c., exist in
sensible
that they are
images constantly
form only, he means
shall
emanating from things ; a notion
explain presently.
we
little further
A
Sextus
opinion, that we only
on
reports the
perceive that which falls in upon us according to the disposition
Sextus

by Anaxagoras.

"

"

of

Neither
identified

Condillac

and

he

does

But

We

feel bouDd

'faZr\Kov* "OXbic
ravTt)v

dXi}d^C
t

d'c7vai
tlvau

Modem

preserve

the

"

thought,

quote

l\. Zia

Met

in the

so

to

dXXocoxrcv,

editors
old

to

Destutt

nor

sensation

passages.

is hidden

; all else

bodies

our

rb

de

from

us.

Tracy have

than

Democritus

spiritof

distinctly

more

in .the above
rather

Kant

than

that

the

original: ^roc ohQiv {Ivai ciXiyOcc4 hv^^

virokayipavtiVf^p6vi\ffivfikv Ttjv alaOrifriv,
icard
aiaOijtnVt i^ AvdyKtiQ
^aivofitvov
rrjv

Iv. 5.
read

reading,

lr"^,
as

more

**

in

reality.''We

antithetical

to

are

incliaed, however,

vofitf.

to

DEMOCRtTVS.

io8

of
**

Condillac;

c'est sentir," yet

Penser

distinction
But

nothing
there

between

did

he

phenomenal

and

constitute
but

man

with

would

the former

draw

Was

knowledge?
his

of

reports

say,
the

perception.

noumenal

all

the

he

latter

there
Yes

senses

Refleciionr

was

This

guide

the

would

sensation

to

with

for, although

Reflection, as with

the source
of
not
Anaxagoras, was
truth, but fulfilled a controllingoffice,and established
could
be certitude
in human
ledge.
knowcertitude,as far as there
And
the
existence
he
of this Reflection, very
proved
in the style of the
much
addition
celebrated
the aphorism,
to
Mind
the
which
Nothing is in
not
was
previously in the

absolute

**

Senses

;"

Leibnitz

which

to

added,

"

the

except

itself."

Mind

of our
most
Democritus, aware
conceptions are derived
the
also
that
of them
through
was
aware
were
senses,
many
in
and
the
defiance
Thus
to
utterly independent of,
senses.
the "infinitelysmall"
the ** infinitelygreat" escape
and
sense,
that

but

are

Reason

affirmed
told

far

Thus

him

we

Anaxagoras

but,

seen

the

as

the

view

some

So

the

also

which

atoms

primary elements

of

Democritus

as

his

things,he could

sense.

epoch

may

we

ofJlv
are

attention

greater

considerable

devoted
nated

by

have

distinguished by
of knowledge, we

the

were

known

have

never

Reflection.

by

the

inheritor

considering

now

bestowed
that

the

on

of his

had

was

origin

Democritus

reasonably expect
the
thought on
subject, and

of

had

origi-r

own.

with

the

There
Anaxagoras.
remained
unsolved
deed,
difficulties which
were
by it ; which, inhad
been
the grand probappreciated. This was
never
lem
Democritus
himself
solve:
How
do
set
to
we
perceive
It is no
external things ?
to say that we
answer
perceive them
This is no
better
that of
by the senses.
explanation than
an
the
occult
quality of opium, given by Molibre's
physician :
vertu
L'opium endormit
parcequ*il a une
soporifique." Ifow
is it that the senses
perceive?
He

was

not

content

theory

of

"

one

Siavoia

translation.

had

asked

this

to
question ; to have asked it was
form
in the
Men
an
era
history of philosophy.
began by
of the
the reports
of any
reasoning on
unsuspicious
senses,
If they saw
that
what
error.
anything, they concluded
they

No

etymology,

no

less

than

pyschology,

seems

to

support

our

ZXEMOCRITUS.

existed,and existed as
began to question the

saw

who

denied

who

those

be

to

reports

the mind

on

they

of the

senses

what

In

"

settle the

Once

The

the

itself

forced
the

senses

operandi

and

real

ingenious and

both

was

before

pronounced

modus

be estimated.
efficacymay
he attempted
hypothesis by which

the

then

lastly.
came

could

manner

others

came

question

the

Thus

things?

perceive external

Then

altogether,and

accuracy
delusions.

of Democritus

it.

saw

accurswy

that

mere

109

better

one

bold

; and

explain

to

tion
percep-

centuries

many

elapsed

He

supposed that all

off images of themselves

suggested.

was

constantly throwing
the
ing
surround(ctSwXa),which, after assimilatingto themselves
sensitive
of the
The
the soul by the pores
air,enter
organ.
humours
of aqueous
water
; and
eye, for example, is composed

things

were

water

of whatever

is

how

image

the

does

But

sees.

and

material

did

and

that

they

This

it.

to

will confess

hypothesis,we

things?

sions of

presented

centuries, believe

for

It is diaphanous and

see

their

but

\
senses

is

did

receives
very

rude

philosophers,
received
impress
they had imager
not

that
suppose
this latter
Now

not

things reflected in the mind?

hypothesis is
perhaps, less obviously fantastic and gratuitous ; but it is alsro
be ^ mirror
less logical; for, if the mind
reflecting the images
it that
the
of things, how
comes
images vary with different
of

with

and

minds,

is it that

But,

appearances?
as

the

all, how

The

states?

things, but

And

how

only

their

is it that

mind

the

The
hypothesis
reflecting the images?
it
in need
of explanation as
the phenomenon

much

explain.
hypothesis of Democritus

pretends

of

nature

than

more

difterent

at

mirror

stands

mind

same

know

never

we

becomes

the

to

admitted

once

considerable

its pose
purexternal

serves

Only the
off in the
of a body is thrown
surface
shape of an v.liiiKov or
that only imperfectly and
even
obscurely. The
image^ and
off is not a perfect image of the object tiirowing
figure thrown
it off.
It is only an image of the external
form, and is subject
; at

least, to

in its passage

variations

to

the

sindXy phenomenal

exhibited.

The

knowledge

our

With
other
that

this

greater
he

nature

idols
is

to

or

extent.

the
of

This

mind.
all

being
is

knowledge

images, being themselves

the

case,

accurately
imperfect,

imperfect.

theory of knowledge

question

rejected The

of Creation

One

of

the

how
?

We

could
shall

Eleatics, The

he

exhibit

see.

It is

Four

of

the

said,
Empe-

DEMOCRITUS.

lid

the

docles, and
invisible

homaomericB

of

intangibleto

and

declared

Anaxagoras, and

be^the

elements

primary

Atoms
that

; and

of the triplearrangements,
of one
but modes
things were
being
Viz.,configuration^combination^ and position* The atom
is necessarily
is necessarily one ; and, being one,
indivisible
fied
satisself-existent.
By this hypothesis,therefore,Democritus
all

demands

the

things
the

Eleatic

and

Anaxagoras

; or,

Democritus

schools

would

say,

idea

in this

primitivenature
which
qualities
are
arrangement.

idea

other

speculationsbears

the

question

tate
hesi-

cannot

we

betrays its

more

positivequalities atoms,
by combination
or

affected

or

divested

its

changing

quality,and

of all

tion
combina-

in

when

phenomenal,

as

than

to

of the atom

and

atoms,

later
becomes

homceomeruB

it dXtnbMies

only assuming that quaUty

with

this

of

changed

not

The

On

of

homceomericR

the

from

of these

idea

The

He

place Anaxagoras
It
originated this idea.

question, therefore,as to
impress of greater maturity.
pronounce.

many
than

more

who

which

to

never

Many.

this

those

as

were

be

the
amalgamated
in his speculation,correcting both.

the

derived

could

One

self-existent

the

that there

declared

who

the

become

never

doubtless,

He,

that

that

declared

who

of those

existing,and

One,

Ionian

; and

One

be

must

of those

quality

with

every

scientific

hx

indubitably a
moi:e
combination,
change
in
it
is
of
also
later
development.
speculation;
point
obviously
of

is

goras
like,"AnaxaDemocritus
his homceomerice,'
formed
accepted the
act
axiom, but gave it a wider
application. If only like can
alike
said
be
then
all
in
and
must
like,
things
he,
esse;
upon
of
the only differences
tation;
manifesthose
of
phenomena,
are
/.^.,

axiom

the

From

these
Atomism

that

depend

on

Atomism

be

of

in the

celebrated

was

fact

the

had

**

the

led

Monadologie

Leibnitz

prima

of

called

materia.

weight ; they
impulsion given by superior

atoms

arrangement.

any

of

qualities. It is,

been

not

sufficiently
preciated
ap-

it appears
us
one
subtlety. Some

To

terminology.
him

and

has

Democritus

seen

upon

stripped
greatly improved.

afterwards, having been

His

act

caii

combination

speculation.
yet reached
by human
as

foundest
may

like

is homaeomerianism

therefore, Anaxagoras
The

"

only

centuries

is but

his Monad
So

essentiallysimilar.
Atomism, with a new
that to
2i force; and

doctrine

a
"

pro-

proof of this

great Leibnitz, many

to

the

of

Democritus

denied

only force, and

it

also

had

force

which

constituted

was

that

the

weight.

DBMOCRJTUS.

iix

It is

that not
worthy of remark
only did these thinkers concur
in their doctrine
of atomism, but also, as we
have
Jn their
seen
doctrine
which
of the originof knowledge, a coincidence
gives

weight

dependent

in

supposition that

the

to

the

on

said,the

already been
assertion,that it would
profounder view in the theory

Ritter's

all mechanical

to

from

"

vain

seek

to

Democritus

of

than

physiologistswho

bias

that this theory is the

We

for

mechanical

the

difference

the

neither

were

Ritter's

believe,

attributed

these

to

authority,!and
maintain

the

vwepoxvv.)

But

vidually be heavy
of
We

made,
deduce
gorean

; er^o,

combination

enter

can

from
an

of

into

certain

atomic

says,

of

Only

very

his

even

text

he

physical property

This

Aristotle

from

passage

they
in

worst

the

one

weight."

"

have

point, and

every

meaning
"

Philosophy.*

the

of

is

there

two

nor

way,

one

almost

the

and

same

is

weight

is in defiance
which

is

ol

quoted

See

our

is

not

of each

property

atom,

atoms.

further

details.

Attempts have been

to
expressions attributed
Democritus, to
no

similar

Intelligence,somewhat

doctrine, as
"

declares

next

is this :
believe,against it. The passage
are
heavy according to excess"
(xara rrpf
of what?
of aggregation,
Clearly excess
if only heavy
indi'in excess, they cannot

Excess

/"., of force.
but

theory but

the

Science

the

the

atoms

very

first

it,is, we
indeed,

"Atoms,

seize

to

instance, he

For

quotes.

to

in

at

misrepresented

has

He

failed,we
was

arrived

signification.
Democritus
chapter on

same

book.

Positive

of

of

theory.
palm of
atomic
theory is the
theory is merely the

puzzled
opinion we
modem
The
misconception.
law
of definiteproportions ; the ancient
Between
combinations.
affirmationof indefinite
They

reduce

to

Having

award

shall

historical

preciselythe

mon
com-

consideration

that of the modem

as

same

to which

are

any

assertion

here

He

for

that

sought

himself.
grossly contradicts
that there was
declared
nothing in the Democritian
had
what
the lonians
previously discovered, he
Nature.

estimate

may

conceptions ; an
as
posterous
preDemocritus
follows
it,namely, that
in
the
modern
as
theory
logists,
physiosame
way

his atomic

at

was

which

that

as

arrived

in

be

reader

mathematical

everything to

doctrine

one

other.

has

what

From

minds

both

the

Formative

Introduction.'

to

that

Principle.
See

Renouvier,*

in the Anaxa-

We

cannot

i. 245, 6.

see

.-'

DBMOCRITVS.

112

our

on

way

that

refrain

we

In

it
the

and

impossible

opening

mistake
new

is

line

which
a

in

very

each

Certain

his
In

we

questionable
it

is

but

that

he

whether

uncertain.

that

observe

so

Destiny;

to

not

or

and

it.

things

predecessors.

physics,

to

of

may

his

of

that

psychology
is

we

small

so

on

of

intelligent

was

conclusion,
on

pronouncing

formation

Destiny

that

is

Evidence

path.
from

the

attributed

of

this

have

decided

department.

system

the

two

considered
progress,

was

an

great
at

as

vance
ad-

points
length,
well

as

SOPHISTS.

'^HE

114

as

class

thinkers,Aristotle,if

: as

the

work

represent
his,also mis-

be

them.
This

look

may
the

of what

nothing remaining
opinions reported by

have

We

presumptuous.

the

Sophists taught, except

garbled. And
Sophists were
powerful;
why? The Sophists were
gate
Interrothe Sophists were
dazzling, rhetorical, but shallow.

others.

These

human

ask

opinions

nature

of

nature

philosophers
"

and

respecting these
Ask
the solitary thinker
Sophists by their contemporaries ?
what
is his opinion of the
showy, powerful, but shallow
The. man
rhetorician,who usurps the attention of the world.
of convictions
has at all times
superb contempt for the man
a
knows
of mere
oratorical,or dialectical display. The Thinker
that
the world
is ruled
expression
by Thought ; yet he sees
knows
He
gaining the world's attention.
perhaps that he has
welfare ; yet he
within
him
with
human
thoughts pregnant
enthusiasm
the
excited
with
the
drunk
sees
giddy multitude
He
daring sophism, clothed in enchanting language.
by some
others
make
sighted.
clearas
through the sophism, but cannot
sees
what

will

all the

above

"

be

to

pronounce
wealthy; the
we

His

the
triumph. Now
with
this
equanimity.
in lamenting the
angry
angry

become

he

ought

we

Thinker

would

does

of

fate

world

to

expect

in his

of this kind

of

the

He

can

so

could

who

his

of the

account

was

that

it.

so

age,

onward

if he bore

human

be

not

bear

not

of one
in his contempt
historian
the critic or

Somewhat

is spumed.

popular Idol is carried

The

He

wisdom

His

is unheeded.

is frustrated.

in

and

entertained

sentiment

the

warning

ambition

His

be

is loud

and

led ; loud
lead it. Should
be

what

exactness

popular idol

relation in which

the

Sophists

and

Philosophers stood to each other.

hated
because
Sophists were
by some
powerful, by
others
because
shallow.
They were
misrepresented by all.
In later times, their, antagonism to Socrates
has
brought them
ill-will ; and
this ill-will is strengthened by the very
prejudice
The

of the

Uar?
the

Could

name.

As

well
of

Sophist

ask, could

odious

be

Devil

other
be

than
other

than

cheat
Evil?

and

In

this
qualitiesare implied : and
Call the Sophists Professors
implicationperverts our judgment.
pf Rhetoric, which is their truest designation, and then examine
their history; it will produce a very different impression.
W.e said it was
that the Sophists really
to maintain
a paradox
And
promulgated the opinions usually attributed to them.
by
nama

Sophist

all

SOPHISTS.

THE

this

we

that not

mean

of what

caricatures

but

only

115

of those

some

are

opinions nothing

really maintained,

but, also, that

in our
interpretation of the others
we
fusion
grossly err, by a conwith Heathen
of Christian
views
Modems
of morality.
cannot
help regarding as fearfullyimmoral, ideas which, by the
Greeks, were
regarded as moral, or, at least, as not disrepuFor instance
table.
Greek
orators
: the
are
always careful to
their
in
that
audience,
impress upon
bringing a charge against
the
actuated
are
they
by
strongest personal motives
any
one,
;
that they have been
injured by the accused; that they have
Can
good honest hatred, as a motive, for accusing him.
thing
anybe

of

being

opposite

more

is

accuser

was

just

anxious

as

influenced

Christian

to

feeling?

extricate

to

himself

from

personal considerations

by

Christian

charge

any
the

as

Greek

of

was

place

his motive

to

the

would

be

received

statement

that

evident.

the' contrary

making

Ethics

Ethics

do

with

vengeance
but
vengeance,

only countenanced
probated informers : consequently,
tion

not

had

do

and,
example
to

This

the
"make

grand
To

the

aim

teach

himself

clear

to

he

so,

from

the
his

the

this

art

accusa-

an

of

being

former,
in-

an

personal
to
judge, without precipitancy,
Sophists, that they could

reader

This

they demanded

This

reason."

enormous

object

; to

sums

the

was

their avowed

was

it

learn

readilygiven, and given by many.

have
understood
Now, understanding this ob^ct as moderns
^,*and thereby forming our notion of the Sophists, let us ask
enormous

Is

were

sums

it credible

that such

being avowed,

an

be

think,
an
immoral, consequences.
all

morality ;

how

Let

it makes

dialectical

subtlety.Then

respecting
blasphemy
honesty and

its

"

Could
ask

the

have

should

art

rewarded, in
instant, of what are

should

for

us

re-

motives.

belter

the
appear
of their endeavours.
worse

Greek

much

very

ignominy

of the

celebraj:ed boast

the

made

whoever

showed

will prepare

to

abstract

countenance

not

seeks

justice; and his

it known
great suspicionwere
is that the
it. The
reason
of

accbunt,

personal feeling prompted

Christian

Christian

the
let

morality, any

such

defiance

integrity
"

us

such

us

state
to

the

its moral,

ask

but

whether,

could

have

with

very

of

allowed

the

Athens
some

its

playthings for
our
opinions

fundamental

demolition

or

Let

rather

utterly it destroys

laws

very

state

and,

avowed,

civilized

reflect how

this ; and
was
any state
reader
to realize for himself
do

been

such

open

principle of

social contract
that

notion

state

of

the

We

Athe-

SOPHISTS.

THB

ii6

citizens^not
merely as statues ; to think of them
as
of
human
human
passions,not simply as architects,
beings, full
this we
ask
philosophers. Having done
sculptors, poets, and

nians

as

him

listened
a

he

whether

"

how

one

of

sum

unjust

an

be

would

have

morality a farce,and
he

money

cause

proclamation
execration, according

such

not

make

to

Athenians

these

all

man

quibble

Would

that

proclaiming
proclaiming that for

to

any

believe

can

answered

appear
with

all law

struct
in-

could

just one

?.

shout

of

in his
to
derision, or of
in the corruptest
have
sincerity? Could
age,
any charlatan,
escaped lapidation for such effrontery? Yet the Sophists were
were
wealthy, by many
greatly admired, and
enormously
delicate
ambassadors
selected
missions.
on
as
They
very
of
connexions.
Around
of splendid talents,
powerful
were
men
rich
flocked
and
noble
of
the
them
city they
youth
every
their
If
intellectual
the
leaders
of
entered.
They were
age.
their adversaries
what
describe
could
them, Greece
they were
Belial
been
where
earthly Pandemonium,
an
was
only have
belief

the

King.
this is

believe

To

frivolous

be

would

centuries.
that

beyond
our
refute, had

to

have

Some

endeavoured

Sophists were

the

from

adduced

are
passages
fact appears

to

of
power
Plato's constant

and

be

to

us

the

in

held

profound

Sophists

the

"

it

very
them

and

proof of this.

of this.

it

paradox

for

by maintaining

contempt,

in

reverse

maintained

been

to escape

Plato

the

Such

power.
it not

The

certain
the

But

great wealth

importance

implied

in

that they were

polemic against
prove
not
Objects of aversion
they might be
objects of contempt.
to one
always are.
Objects of contempt
party ; the successful
sincere
and
But
profound thinkers.
they might be, to some
the question here is not
one
relating to individuals,but to the
State.

It is not

Athens

allowed

whether
him

There

that there

been

knew

what

he

avow

it,is in such

nature

"

tlw

We

as

are

Athenians

at

been

have

has

to

told

by

becanse

shameless

men

and

speculator so daring
grossly immoral, and
so

any
be

contradiction
to

once

Plato

despised Gorgias, but whether

guised
teach the most
to
unblushing and undisThere
have
been
daring speculators in all

immorality.
times.

"

be

Sextus
he

to

our

But

corrupt.
to

as

promulgate

shameless

experience

of

as

to

human

rejected.*
that

Prptagoraswas

condemned

piofessed l^mself nnafileto

say

to

whether

death

by

the Go(U"

SOPHISTS.

THB

Ii;

It is

evident, therefore,that in teaching the art of

making
the
the
better
not
worse
guiltyof
Sophists were
reason,"
appear
serious
thinkers,
anything reprehensible to a Greek ; however
shallow
detest
the
and
such as Socrates
philosophy
Plato, might
from

"

it sprung
of truth, which
which

love

It may

be

; and

the

their

owing

was

their

to

Sophists outraged.

doctrines

could

make
easy
be regarded

will try.

If he

is familiar

not

detestation

the

to

reader

otherwise

as

with

Mr.

than

moral.

Macaulay's

such

how

understand

But

brilliant

we

and

such
how
see
searching article on Machiavelli, he will at once
virtuous
If he
doctrines
held by very
might have been
men.
has not
himself
acquainted with that masterly
already made
will be
acceptable both
performance, the following extracts
in themseflves
and in reference
to our
present subject :
**
the rude nations which
lay beyond the Alps, valour
Among
could
beit, none
was
absolutely indispensable. Without
Cowardice
therefore,
eminent, few could be
secure.
was,
the
the
foulest reproach.
naturally considered
as
Among
polished Italians, enriched
governed by law,
by commerce,
done
and passionately attached
to
literature, everything was
pacific
more
by superiorityof intelligence. Their very wars,
civil than
than
of their neighbours, required rather
the peace
while
the
was
military qualifications. Hence,
point
courage
in other
the
of honour
became
point of
countries, ingenuity
in Italy.
honour
From
these principleswere
deduced,
strictly
by processes
fashionable
of
morality.
Analogous, two
opposite systems
which
the
vices
the
of
peculiarly
Through
Europe,
greater part
which
defence
timid
the
natural
and
are
dispositions,
belong to
reputable.
disof weakness, fraud, and hypocrisy, have
always been most
the
of haughty and
other
On
handj the excesses
with
been
treated
even
daring spiritshave
indulgence, and
with respect.
The
Italians regarded with
corresponding lenity
vation,
those crimes
which
self-command,
address, quick obserrequire
fertile invention, and
of human
profound knowledge
"

"

'

nature.
"

Such

the idol of
and

the

as

North.

desolating ambition

existed, or
the

prince

what

Athenians

nnderstood

by

our

Fifth

follies of

The

of his manhood,

they were, owing

are
supposed to
modems

the

Henry

to

haTe

the

his
the

would

have

been

the

selfish

youth,

roasted

Lollards

of knowledge.
insuflScie'ncy

tolerated

the

Sophists

as

they

Yet
are

n8

SOPHISTS.

THE

the field of battle,

prisoners massacred
on
for another
expiringlease of priestcraftrenewed
century,
dreadful
legacy of a causeless and hopelesswar, bequeathed
wlio
had no
interest in its event, everything is forgotten
people
the
the
but
victory of Agincourt I Francis
Sforza, on

fires,the

slow

at

the
the
to

his
the model
of the Italian hero.
He
made
hand, was
He
first overpowered
employers and his rivals like his tools.
his open
enemies
faithless
the
of
allies
help
by
; he then armed
other

himself

against his allies with the spoilstaken from his enemies.

By his incomparable dexterity,he raised himself from the precarious
and dependent situation of a militaryadventurer
to the
first throne
such
of Italy. To
much
a
man
was
forgiven
Such
hollow
violated
faith.
enmity,
friendship,ungenerous
their morality
the opposite errors
which
commit, when
are
men
"

is not
*

science, but

ciple for accidental

"

from

associations.

illustrated

have

We

history.

will

We

meaning

our

select

by

instance

an

the

his wife ; he gives orders

for the murder
ends
Yet
he
by murdering himself.
; he
affection of a Northern
and
reader
esteem

and

ardent

which

which

shrinks

he

passion

with

interest
of

to

from

which
with

fearlessness

he

listens
the

thought

commits

he

which

his

to

he

of

his

lago, on
loathing. Many
are

the

of

tempest

the

haughty

extraordinary

an

is the

contrary,

inclined

with

agony

crimes^ and
the

loses

never

the

shame,

them, give

avows

his lieutenant

intrepid
fidence
unsuspecting con-

adviser,

his

his character.

universal

The

Othello

of

"

spiritredeeming everything.

taken

fiction.

from

another

murders

with

prin-

eternal

they abandon

; when

taste

object

suspect

to

that

into an
seduced
Shakspeare has been
exaggeration unusual
with him, and
has
has drawn
who
monster
a
archetype in
no
human
nature.
Now, we
suspect that an Italian audience, in
the fifteenth century, would
felt very differently. Othello
have
would

have

inspired nothing

follywith

The

whose

man

which

he

his

he

promotion

trusts

he

the

the spectators.
condemned
that

have

The

had

; but

excited

conduct

they would

of his victim.

contempt.

the

unsupported
unanswerable
proofs, the violence
exculpation till the exculpation can

misery, would

and

friendly professionsof a
obstructed, the credulity with
stances,
trivial circumassertions, and

to

takes

for
silences

which

detestation

but

the

of

abhorrence

lago they would

have

of

he

only aggravate
and
disgust of
assuredly have

condemned

Something

which

with

interest

it

as

and

we

demn
con-

respect

THE

would

have

SOPHISTS.

mingled with

119

disapprobation. The

their

of

his

he

penetrates the dispositionsof others

wit, the

would
"

insured

have
wide

So

clearness

neighbours.
of

the

the

existed

Christ,

before

of their

esteem.

Italians

and
the

between
their

and

their
Greeks
the

masters

resolute, faithful

and

brave

conquerors,

portion

which

his own,

conceals

and

between

difference

century

The

certain

skill with

judgment, the

difference

similar

second

Romans.

him

to

the

was

his

of

readiness

to

their

and

strongly influenced
by religious feelings,
the
at
With
time,
ignorant, arbitrary,and cruel.
same
were,
the vanquished people were
deposited all the art, the science,
In poetry, in philoand the literature of the Western
world.
sophy,
in painting,in architecture, in sculpture, they had
no
engagements,

rivals.

manners

invention

their
But

Their

ready; they were

and sincerity
they

The

of courage
rude warriors

for

their

and

taste

who

intellectual
seemed
The

slaves.

had

tolerant, affable, humane.

almost
utterly destitute.
were

subdued

make

to

long continued
admirable
subject for the

an

themselves

knowledge

that

atheists, cowards, and

to be strongly marked,

men

distinction

furnished

consoled

them

inferiority
by remarking

only

and

polished,their perceptions acute,

were

fierce

of

sarcasms

Juvenal.
**

citizen

The
time

the

joined

of

in

of

Like

commonwealth

the

and

Juvenal

one.

artful and

Italian

an

Greek

former,

the

the

of
he

of

of

timid

was

Greek

Pericles,
and
pliable,

time

But, like the latter,he

unscrupulous.

the

was

had

country.

If his
him.
dear
to
independence and prosperity were
character
crimes, it was, on the
mean
were
degraded by some
other
hand, ennobled
by public spiritand by an honourable
ambition.
A vice sanctioned
by the general opinion is merely
Its

vice.

the

The

in itself.

terminates

evil

The

taint.
too

The

Highland

black
which

mail

remains

gentleman

from

Wild

hundred

the

flingsthe

often

was

his

condemned
the

is

former

When

vice

pernicious effect on
local malady, the latter
a
reputation of the offender

general opinion produces

character.

of his virtue

who,

century

after

ago,

neighbours, committed

accoiflpaniedto Tyburn
But

.thousand

there

the

by

the

be

conduct

of

the

Roman

who

treated

is lost, he

it in
lived

despair^
by taking
crime

same

huzzas
doubt

the

whole

tional
constitu-

can
no
people.
than
deed
Wild.
much
less
The
was
a
depraved man
Mrs. Brownrigg was
hanged sinks into nothing when

iKith the

by

for

of

two

that

he

for which

compared

public

to

i
THE

120

huDdred
such

pair of gladiators.Yet

considered

from

The

error.

of

woman

virtue,than

Classical

probably wrong

In

our

own

country,

cruel

so
a

woman

place in society
by what, in a man, is too commonly
honourable
and, at worst, as a
an
distinction,
as

forfeits her
venial

Brownrigg.

of Mrs.

should

we

was
supposed that his disposition

if we

Roman

that

as

SOPHISTS.

is notorious.
The
consequence
is frequentlymore
impairedby a
of

that

would
antiquity

by twenty

man

furnish

years

principle
singlelapse
moral

of

intrigue;

instances stronger, if
referred.

with

us

possible,than those to which we have

"We
must
before us.
apply this principleto the case
Habits of dissimulation and falsehood,no doubt, mark
a man
of our
and
abandoned
worthless
and
as
utterly
country
;
age
be
but it by no
follows that a similar judgment would
means
On the contrary,
justin the case of an Italian of the middle ages.
faults
which
find
those
accustomed
we
we
are
frequently
to consider as certain indications of a mind altogether
depraved,
with generosity,
in company
with great and good qualities,
with
From
$uch a state of
benevolence, with disinterestedness.
society,Palamedes, in the admirable dialogueof Hume, might
have

drawn

with

which

illustrations of his
liessons which

know, the
to teach, or

readers most
How

useless.
therefore,
where

nea,

as any of those
theory as striking

furnished

Fourli

Hannibal

him.

The
us

no

wiser.

He

the

crossed

inquirymay

well

we

careful

Alps, whether Mary blew up

Twelfth,and ten thousand

the

us, but

amuse

reads

powerfullycircumstances

how

not,

generallymost

are
description,

same

alone

are

are

willingto learn. But they are not,

Philipdisposed his troops at Chsero-

Siguiershot Charles

Darnley, or
other questionsof the

These

historians

in themselves

important.
un-

the decision leaves

historyarightwho, observing
and opinions
feelings

influence the

into virtues,and paradoxes

of men,
how
often vices pass
into axioms, learns to distinguish
tory
what is accidental and transiin luiii an
nature, from what is essential and immutable.''
We

rical

must

refer also to the universal

all inculcated

practiceof ancient

this

rheto*

Even
art.
writers,who
sophistical
who
in
his
loved truth as much
as
Aristotle,
certainly
any man,
^f
after
the
means
Organon,*
examining
truth,
investigating
he teaches the art of
adds what he calls the Topics, in which
discussion without any
reference whatever
to
truth: indeed,
the Sophiststaught; but no
him
he teaches what
one
accuses
'

of

being a Sophist,

SOPHISTS.

THE

t22

what
and

to

and, when

say;

weak

capitally,
you
hold

takes

would
of

gifted

however
trial,

to

if ha

might be,
perish. Can

accuser

your

brought

chose

this be

contemptible
to

wisdom,

the

indict

you
if it

which,

of his
destroys
and
incapable of preserving himself
nature, rendering him
others
from
the
to
greatest dangers, enabling his enemies
tion
plunder him of all his property, and reducing him to the situaof those
of the
been
who,
by a sentence
court, have
deprived of all their rights?
a

man,

excellence

"

If it be

admitted

instruction
in
Serjeant Talfourd's
forensic
would
be
however
not
unusual, we
immoral,
oratory
have only to extend
the sphere to include
politics,to represent
of Athens, where
the democratic
to ourselves
state
demagogues
the
and
shall
be
were
on
alert,
ever
we
fullypersuaded that the
further
considered
immoral
not
art of the Sophists was
; and, as
select
the
in Plato's
proof, we
Republic,' as coming
passage
from
an
unexceptionable source.
that

Socrates,

speaking of
Sophists,says

people call
the things which
this

the

they

"

"

is

It

appetites of

approach It, how

manner

to

cries it

makes, what

teachers
mercenary
These
Sophists teach

themselves

people

call wisdom.

instincts and

the

as

great

profess
a

had

man

them

only

observed

yet
the

powei'ltilbeast, in what

and

appease

the

in assemblies

why it is ferocious

or

tones

if

whom

and

What

or

tones

calm, what
irritate it ;
commenced

having learnt all this,and calling it wisdom,

teaching it without having any knowledge of what is good, just,
instincts and
these
unjust among
shameful, and
appetites;
which
the
and
that
flatters
but calling
that bad
animal,
good
after

which
what

irritates it ; because
is good in itself and
is

There

the

he knows
that which

vein

usual

is

of

not

is

the difference

between

good."
only relatively

caricature

in -this

description

Quarterly Review,' t and there

(which
paraphrased in the
of the
and unexaggerated ^ctrines
given as if the undoubted
Sophists ; but- it very distinctlysets forth the fact that the
Sophists did not preach anything contrary to public morals,
*

the very fact

morality. Indeed
of their popularity would
that they did but respond to a
prove
they
public want ; and because
they responded to this want
received
of money.
Some
large sums
people believe that the
their,demanding
distinguishingpeculiarityof the Sophists was
however

contrary

to

abstract

'

Plato, "Rep.,'

vi. p" 291*

f No.

zlii. p.

289.

THE

SOPHISTS,

for their instructions ; and

he
being mercenaries
; but

money
their

sucli

The

sarcasms.

constantly harps upon

was
wealthy, and could afford
paid their Musicians, Painters,
and
Teachers. in Schools; why
their philosophers?
of
Zeno

Greeks

Plato

Sculptors, Physicians, Poets,

therefore
should
they not pay
Democritus
Elea was
paid ; so was
been

sometimes

in Poets

than

more

for handsome

We

the

considered

with

of

have

these

the

amongst

; and

we

the

knpw

how

to

conclude

this

entitled

ourselves

Sophists taught
disliked

both

latter

stipulated

payment

believe

was

; but

We
Sophists.
see
derogatory in Philosophers accepting money,

included

nothing,whatever
any

Ii3

of

art

immoral

uneasiness

where

the
that

disputation,they taught nothing

by the Greeks.

tampering

that

with

truth

the old

doubt

no

the serious

doubt

No

men

saw

youth exercising a dangerous

and
in all the Sophists'pupils;
foresaw
demagogues
weapon,
but that they did not
regard the Sophists as "corrupters of
from
this striking
of the State, is evident
youth," and enemies
fact, the Sophists not
only escaped persecution, but were
with wealth
rewarded
and
honours
Socrates
was
tried,
; whereas
and
executed
the charge of having corrupted
condemned,
on
the Athenian
youth.
the

Athenian

"

We

cannot

perfectlytrue
shameless
himself

that

the
but

later

his

of

account

Sophists

became

the

makes
with

But

respect.

more

he

frivolous

not

so.

of the

some

is

It

opponents.

were
early masters'
the distinction,and
speaks of

race

teachers

Plato's

accept

and

Plato
elder

always misrepresents

them.
admit

We

and

many

argued

that

when

trivial.

In

the

not

there

were

often
first

Plato

have

ventured

to

in

place do

other
we

be

misrepresent their
This
against him.
is

It

daily see

not

still

were

therefore

may

cases.

misrepresentation of opinions, the

stillalive ?

It

living witnesses

used

there

wrote,

Sophists living.

could

argument

an

gross

he

time

the

at

powerful

doctrines
is

that,

authors

extremely

instances
of

which

of
are

be
misrepresentation a thing which cannot
the effect of party spirit,
guarded against, being sometimes
sometimes
? In the second
that of legitimate dulness
place we
have
no
proof that the disciples of the
Sophists did not
contradict
It is assumed
that they did not, because
Platq.
no

works

have
are

Is

been

not

transmitted

mentioned.

But

to

it

us

might

in
have

which
been

these
done

tions
.contradicvivi^

voce.

SOPHISTS.

THE

124

Plato's
of it

of

account

is
Sophistical doctrines
it is impossible that any

the

caricature,since

seriously entertained

have

Gorgias thought

and

them.

j it

is

It

is the

ad

face

should

man

what

not

reduciio

die

on

Protagoras

ahsurdum

what

of

Plato
seizes hold
mental
of one
of their fundatwo
or
they thought
makes
doctrines, and, interpretingthem in his own
way,
them
lead
to the
most
absurdity and
immorality.
outrageous
if
been
transmitted
had
It is as
us
by
Berkeley's doctrine
it
is
denied
of
Beattie.
well known,
the existence
Berkeley,
the external
of ideas.
world, resolving it into a simple world
him
with
his
Beattie taunted
not
out
having followed
ciples,
prin-

with

and
a

having

not

the

Now,
the

those

of

plan

him

suppose
of Plato

vulgarly
world

is

there

that

in.

believe
ideas.

of

is

There

If I

to

were

world

no

sake

"

over

tain
main; I

which

that

as

effect ;
he
would

Yes

of

of

how

:
"

thus

existence

walk

it is

the

refutation

Somewhat

external

such

no

as

way

of easy

absurdity for the sake

made
Berkeley speak ?

have

exaggeration for

of

of

and

dialogue
making Berkeley
he Beattie
interpreted
a

him

suppose

in such

his argument
expound
it,and with a flavour

understand
mis-

his

from

written

have

to

was

understood
mis-

Beattie

conclusions

drew

and

argument,

This

precipice.

over

misrepresentation; dcaignoratio elenchi:

gross

on

walked

but

matter,

only

should

precipice I

men

ideal

precipice."
only an
it is most
how
This
is Beattie's
true
men
interpretation;
Plato's
it is,however,
know
interpretationof
quite as true as
:
Beattie.
convict
the Sophists.
From
Berkeley's works
we
can
that
convict
from
Plato we
nature
experience of human
can
;
receive

injury :

no

experience tells us that

seriously,publicly, and
heaviest

penalties.

To

of success,

rigid Morality.
it is immoral, was,

To

which

statement

broach

immoral

must

"

In

to

the

shamelessness

be

man

doctrines

ledged
acknow-

incurring the

doctrines
do

so

could

men,

with

in the

the
of

name

that
immorality, and openly to avow
according to Plato, the office of the Sophists;*
carries

absolutely necessary
Sophists should
undergo
data

of

teach

trusted

it its

with

It is

few

set

any

all morality,without

of

faintest prospect

far less

man,

constantly broach

subversive

be

to

no

that
a

own

'Protagoras* ihis passage

of the Sophists ; and

task

attributed

opinions

the

thorough

that the

contradiction.

must

is often
sometimes

revision.
be

referred
of the

There

to
are

the
so

extremely delicate.
(o

as

ill-favoor

proof
with

of

the

which

SOPHISTS.

THE

will make

We

with

Our

tendencies

rather

opinion

Sophist,was
as

knot.*

bom

The

indicates

in

accepted

of

unity

rejected the

Let

doctrine

the

is

story

between

There
not

were

viz. the

accept,

other, in the

each

the idea

for

Democritean
of

perceived by

not

Atoms;

the

reject Reflection.

knowledge
Did

the

not

story lead

He

to

feel authorized

menal.
phenohe

imply

two

is
of

could

sary
neces-

Atoms,

therefore

Sensation,
the

is

and

traditional

with

Democritus,
expressions of Plato,

adopt certain

to

learned

Reflection

could

was

connection

some

suppose

idea
of

and

Atoms,
Thought

that

said,

existence

the

the

the

consequently only individual.

less
than
place of his birth no

one

might

we

that

sense

it is from

the

therefore

Reflection

system.
and

Protagoras rejected

proved.
all

and

Atomic

also

to

have

to

maintained

which
in the system
Reflective, These

theories

two

then

him

he

of the

the

apocryphal, but
the speculations

with

have

to

gave

Protagoras

Democritus,
and

inventing

Democritus

With
this doctrine
Many.
all knowledge
that thought is sensation, and
existence

himself
first noticed

in

suppose

Eleatics

the

avowed

that

was,
The

us

of

itself

concerns

Democritus

existed

have

to

thinkers.

two

this

Philosophy.

connection

have

to

great address

of

consequence

of the

have

showed

it

as

be

may

opinions, will not

information
respecting the

where

Abdera,

at

instructions

him

successors

individual

is said

first who

porter, who

with

than

deficiencyof
Sophists.

of the

Protagoras,the
him

where

the

greatly suflferfrom
exact

line

history,inasmuch

fortunate.

more

in

venture

125

his doctrine
from
Protagoras to have derived
He
Heraclitus.
the
last-named
in the
certainly resembles
his speculations led him.
main
Be
that as
results to which
is
it may,
the
fact
the
unquestionable, that he maintained
doctrine of Thought
this
being Sensation.
Now, what does
?
It
doctrine
implies that every thing is true relatively
imply
consider

and

"

sensation

every

sensation

true

sensation, knowledge
such
melancholy mind

but
In

is

they

It

regarded.

were

is

is

and,

as

there

is

nothing

inevitably fleetingand

to

us

doctrine

only

would

proof

of

imperfect.
deepen sadness,

Plato's

tendency

to

cancature.
*

knot,

What
such
had

still used

the
as

real
is now

conttived

by

of rvKti
signification

used, is the
a

sort

the porters in

is

common

of board

Italy.

such

we

are

unable

to

say.

porter's

goras
interpretation. Perhaps Protawhich
the glaziersuse, ana
as

is

126

THE

tillit

it had
this effect
In
despair. In Heraclitus
in
of greater confidence, such
men
greater elasticity
would
lead
ism.
to an
energeticscepticism or individual-

produced

minds
a

SOPHISTS.

of

"

doctrine

the arrogant
formula
Protagoras it became
of all things."
is the measure
Sextus
Empiricus gives the psychologicaldoctrine
In

explicitly
; and

very

suspicion.

We

his

translate

account

portion of

said

it

of

received

be

may

''

of

Man

goras
Prota-

without

"

is in

Matter,"
a
Protagoras,
perpetual flux ; * whilst
it undergoes
and
also are
augmentations
losses, the senses
modified, according to. the age and disposition of the body*
He
of all phenomena
said, also, that the reason
(appearance^
"

in

resided

matter

v-KOKwtBox

fiei'cov

whatever

it

"

iv

versd,

vice

well
as
ages,
criterion
the

him

exists,

as

of

in

is
to

appear
course

all

which

which

is

itself,
might be
different

have

men

0a4vo"

rcav

in

perceptions
the

changes
a
healthy state perceives
others in a healthy state
: and
to

the

in

with

holds

sleeping and

that

that

But

Travrcui/

in

matter,

times, according
Whoever

similar

that

SO

each.

to

different

things perceived.
things such as they

vXi^);

ry

appeared

at

(yov^ Xoyovs

substrata

as

respect

to

Man

is

waking.

is

exists; all that

perceiyed by no

different
therefore

perceived by

man

does

not

exist."t
tible
thought irresisthe
doctrine
such
to
a
as
above, and then
arguments
how
see
naturally all the scepticism of the Sophists flows from
difference
it
the Sophists and
The
between
the Sceptics was
ledge,
this : they were
both convinced
of the insufficiency
of all knowbut the Sceptics contented
with the conviction,
themselves
while the Sophists gave
their attenturned
tion
up philosophy and
Satisfied with the
elsewhere.
to
vanity of all endeavour
penetrate the mysteries of the universe, they began to consider
their relations
other
themselves
to
to
they devoted
men
:
no
possibilityof Truth
politicsand rhetoric.J If there was
If one
there
the possibilityof
Persuasion..
only remained
that is, if neither
true
true
opinion was
were
as
as
another,
it was
nevertheless
desirable, for the sake of society,that

Now,

conceive

conducted

man

he

by what

"

"

"
Trjv wXijv p"Vffrrjv dvaty ah
from
confirm
Sextus
Plato, would

as

See

the

Hypoty.

expression which,
the

conjecture

if not

above

borrowed

origin of Protagoras' system.

^rrhon,'p.

Plato's

detinition

44.
of

the

by

clitus,
respecting Hera-

art, * Sophista,'p. 146.

sophistical

SOPHISTS.

THE

la;

prevail ; a^d, if Logic was

powerless,
Rhetoric
efficient
Heace
to
Piotagoras is made
was
say, by
He
i" the
physician of the soul.
Plato, that the wise man
since
into
the
indeed
induce
cannot
truer
mind,
thoughts

certain

opinions

shoud

thoughts are equally true"; but he can induce healthier and

heal Society,
more
profitable thoughts. He can in the same
way
introduce
since by the power
of oratpry he can
good useful
sentiments
hurtful.*
and
in the place of those base
*^ This
natural
doctrine
be fake;
but is it not
a
conse*
may
It
of
the
of
the.
immoral;
epoch?
maybe
philosophy
quence
but
and
buted
is it necessarily the
shameless
bdd
immorality attribe
neither
it
?
to
To :us
to the Sophists
more
nor
appears
radical
the
result of a
of
the
of
less than
insufficiency
sense
knowledge.
Protagoras had yspent his youth in the study of
idle ; he had
that
study vain and
philosophy; he ;had found
A
his
attention
had
turned
elsewhere.
utterlyrejected it,and
wanted
of practical tendencies, he
man
a
practical result.
admirable
writer
Failing in this,h" sought another
path. An
in
said a few years ago that although
Blackwood's
Magazine
all

'

'

metaphysics
fatal

to

age

of

the

world

was

if

them

an

they

excellent

study for

had

settled

not

also was
thirty. Here
necessity of having, something

Plato

action.

of

could

more

definite

with

wherewith

called

have

eind in life thsin

nobler

before

doubts

firmly impressed

man

would

Plato

ao

see

their

that

him
of

it

yet

men,

young

to

was

the
the
enter

Sophist.

ing
contemplat-

with
the
Eeiiig than that of familiarisingthe mind
all
Beautiful
of
which
the
and
the
eternal Good,
ness,
goodJust,
such
the
With
beautiful
and
a
justice
thingswere
images.
view of life it was
that he should
natural
despise the scepticism
This
of the Sophists.
scepticism is clearly set forth in the
of
translation
from
the speech of Callicles,
a passage
following
in Plato's
Gorgias :
it is moderately cultivated
Philosophy is a gracdiil thing when
in youth ; but, if any
one
occupies himself with it
it
ruins him;
\
beyond the proper
for,however
great may
age,
if
be his natural
he
he
must
capacity,
philosophizes too long
of necessity be inexperienced in all those
one
things which
the

"

"

'

"

"

who
must

the

would
be

mode

be

great andaeminent-nmst
with

unacquainted
of

influencing
"

"

the

other

la\ys
men

be
of
in

experienced
his country,

the

Xhe^tete"if'p..223.

intercourse

in.

and
of

He
with

life.

isS

of

men

in

such

when

SOPHISTS.

with

privateor public,and

whether

THE

short, with human

called

are

men

to

upon

to

"uripides

with

cope

on

privateor

to

your

argument;
with

And

manners.

ridicule, just as
conversation, and

themselves

himself

occupies

says,

in

you

and

act, whether
to

passions

pleasures and

characters

public occasion, they expose

politiciansdo when
they come
attempt

the

for

every

man,

in

which

he

that

as

finds

he is inferior he avoids, and

superior ; that in which
speaks ill of it,but praises what he excels in, thinking that in
The
best thing in my
doing so he is praisinghimself.
opinion
It is good to partake of philosophy by
is to partake of both.
it is not ungraceful in a young
of education, and
to
man
way
if
he
do
when
he
continues
to
so
philosophize. But,
grows
him
I
older
he becomes
ridiculous, and I feel towards
as
and
towards
who
should
at
lisped
a
played
grown
person
I see
still continuing to
childish
old
an
plays. When
man

himself

think

philosophize, I

deserves

he

be

to

However

flogged.

talents,he is under the necessity of avoiding

the assembly and
public places, where, as the poet says, men
hide
become
to
himself, and to pass his life
eminent, and
great his natural

three
but
whispering to two
or
striplingsin a comer,
speaking out anything great, and bold and lil"e]:al."
The
distinguishingcharacteristics of the Sophists were
of science and their art
protests against the possibility

orators, and

As

expression

truth

to

travellers,because
not

fail

there

that

nature,

but

the

no

were

only by

fundamental

precept

convention.
with

This, therefore, became

It was
but
corollary
a

them.

For
dogma respecting Truth.
there was
"temal
Right because
no

''

That

0vcr4 dXAa

which

prefer

in the
varietyof laws and ordinances
them
with
tion
convicvariety impressed
a
such
things as Eight and Wrong
by

their

alxrxphvov

putation.
of dis-

to

it was
their art ; as
orators, because
cities they could
in their visits to various

This

States.

as

they learned

their

as

remark

to

different

travellers

never

vofi^

appears

law

just and

there

man

Truth
but

was

the

ro

law

honourable

to

was

no

Eternal

StVatov
of
each

of

each

kcX

to

city.

city,is

so

for that dty, as long as the opinion is entertained," says

denial
This
of
(p. 229).
Protagoras in the 'Theaetetes'
abstract Truth, and abstract Justice,is easilypushed to absurd
and
such
.

often

imihoral

consequences;

consequences
judges them

were

by such

but

maintained

have

we

by

consequences;

no

the

evidence

that

Sophists.
independently

but

Plato

jfourtl^ "poc6"
A

NEW

ERA

OPENED

METHOD.

NEW

Whilst

and

money

teaching

the

suddenly
a

had

slighted

his

soul*s

with
He
to

know

his

he

Yet

by

not

mission

of

could

for

do

ideas.

What

light, he
they

refused

did

she

with

them

in

examined

them
;

demanded

every

bribe

no

of

the

his

if

nothing.
enormous

could
his

to

see

if

kind.

His

This

in

he

an

labour

having
they

he

accoucheur

were

false, destroyed.

pecuniary

fellow-

profession,

women

was

be

learn.

mother's

He

to

knew

to

birth, and

their

professed

others.

of

for

ideas.

welcomed

were

he

to

Renown.

They

service
them

thoughts

by. reference

assisted

assistance

steadfastly

the

communion

anything

of

be

her

untiring

demanded

helping

by

pregnant

men

if true,

but

midwife.

He

into

he

examine

explained

viz., that

this

believed

he

that

could

made

and

Money

and

They

with

perfect

that

denied

He

had

poverty.

knew

only

He

labour,

for
in

He

physically.

and

after

Truth

there

Oratory,
antagonist.

her.

toil

her

call

strange

everything,

teaching,
to

was

humorously

for

teach

to

and

patient

to

He

Disputation,

denied

soul

constant

call

morally

slighted

had

and

with

and,

recompense.

taught.

had

everything.

sums

live

they

large, wise

They

in

them

remained

professed

of

them

mistress;

They

men,

to

Philosophy,

they

them

reaping

were

against
they

which

amongst

Truth

her.
had

which

insincerity

contrast

did

energy,

protesting

word-jugglery

perfect

was

Sophists

dangerous

by

appeared

SOCRATES.

OF

but

renown

impassioned

the

LIFE

brilliant

the

'

I.

CHAPTER

THE

OF

INVENTION

THE

BY

recompense

brought
fit

to

And
;

he

THE

The

Sophists

does

he?

The
crowds

For

of

listeners,treated

with

ineffable

Barefoot, he wandered
thought, and sometimes
he

; or

gonist.
anta-

new

Sophroniscus.

What

He

humbly-dad
and
ungainly

and

poor

rude

was

the

resembled

he

tation
in medi-

fixed

disputed with

market-place and

into the

His

Silenus.

in

absorbed

of Athens

streets

standing still for hours,

appearance

by

respectable citizens in his habits.

all

about

strolled

In

one.

the

contempt.

; unlike

their

with

To
?
error.
expose
purpose
their flowing robes, followed

Sophists,in

eager

of

son

131

what

gorgeous

movements

every

puzzled

Socrates, the

Converse.

Socrates
in his

SOCRATES.

somewhat

were

is he ?

Who

OF

LIFE

tened
flat-

upturned nostrils,his projecting

wieldy
eyeballs, his thick and sensual
lips,his squab figure and unridicule might fasten.
which
all points upon
belly, were
Yet when
this Silenus spoke there was
a witchery in his tongue
with

nose,

which
And

fascinated
Alcibiades

flee away,
"grow old in
him

I will

"

statue.

for

the

for

the

might not
listeningto his
he

stop

beside

sit down
talk."

to

Let

ears

and

Alcibiades

hear

us

his

Socrates

"

begin the praise of Socrates by comparing

Perhaps he will think that this statue
of

in two,

gods.

found

I assert
form
you

in

that

and

assure

all other

is introduced

it is necessary

that

flutes

venture

to

things,now

pipes,

or

are

appearance

will not

you

to a certain

which, when
withinside
the images of
to contain
is like the satyr Marsyas ;
Socrates

holding

are

him

is
Socrates
assert, then, that
that sit in the sculptors'shops, and

Silenuses

carved

are

them

appearance
forced
was

he

that

disgusted.

had

his

ridicule ; but
illustration of truth.

that your
that even
to

whom

sake

divided
the

those

that

exactly like those

which

and

declared

and

describe

wide

like

deny
hear.

but

satyrs, I think
how
like you
are

these

; and
Are

not

you

scornful

Are
If you
petulant ?
deny this,I will bring witnesses.
For
he ?
than
wonderful
far more
a piper, and
a one
you not
now
Marsyas, and whoever
pipes the music that he taught, for
which
that music
is of heaven, and
described as being taught
of the mouth
by Marsyas, enchants
men
through the power
;
it
for if any
this music,
musician, be he skilful or not, awakens

and

alone

enables

divinityof

its

him

to

retain

gods and initiation.

circumstance, that you
the

words,

all that

he

can

do

minds

evident

makes

nature

the

You
effect
; for

differ

of

men,

those

who

are

from

in want

the
of

Marsyas in this
instruments, by mere

only

without
when

and

we

from

hear

Pericles,or

any.

accomplished
cares
anything

other
were,
or

even

unskilful

and

If

"

confirm

assure

you

hearts

related

discourse, iid

But

when

One,

one

any

by another, though

hears

you,

so

rude

ever

woman,

it

as

or

man,

by the discourse

were,

mind.
afraid

to

him

by

you

am

oath

an

the

heart
my
the
celebrate

he

drunk, I

too

which

effects

strange

his words,

from

deal

great

and

still \ for

suffer

than
leaps up far more
Corybantic mysteries ;
thing I have seen
happen

the
my

to
talks,a
I have
other
and
beside myself.
heard
Pericles
others
many
have
been
excellent
pleased with their discourses,
orators, and
but
I suffered
soul
was
on
nothing of this kind ; nor
ever
my
and
filled with self-reproach,as
if it
those
occasions
disturbed
But
this Marsyas here
has often
were
slavishlylaid prostrate.
in the way
I describe, until the life which
affected
I lead
me
seemed
not
living. Do
hardly worth
deny it, Socrates; for

tears

poured

speak,

who

those

that

suffered

I have

of

it.

speaker, be
person
and
struck
retained, as it

hear

about

that

not

was

would

when

deliver

child, we are
clinging to our

socRAfEii.

orator,

words

your

oP

life

The

132

are

I well

know

out

as

if

that

resist,but should
friends,he forces me

again

not

want

to

I chose

now

even

to

the

suffer

and

Syrens,

down

him

beside
has

man

imagine

flee away
and

reduced

me

no

one

would

with

remorse

inspiresme

old

grow

myself am
necessities,and

that which

in

from

sit
I may
not
his talk ; for this

listeningto
sentiment

he

shame, which

of

in

was

; for

awe

what

attend

therefore, as

ears,

readily believe
and

still in

possible, that

as

feel the

to

incapacity of refuting

my

fast

as

could

effects, for, my

same

confess, that while

of many
things,I neglect my own
I stop my
those of the Athenians.

the

listen to you,

to

says,

; he

me

alone

in his presence
of refusing to do

feel
or

directs ; but when

I depart from
him, the glory
which
confers "overwhelms
the multitude
I escape,
therefore,
me.
hide
and
him
I see
when
I am
him, and
myself from
he

with

overwhelmed
what
and

have

men.

among

should

and

suffer
I

many
"

And

wonderful

I wished

have

often

what

humiliation, because
him ought
confessed
to

can

that

But

if that

far

greater

do

others
observe

power

were

pain

with

this man,
suffered from
how
he

like he
possesses.

he

have

be

to

were

I well

know

the

to

know

do

to

; and

longer

that where

; so

done

no

happen,

to

neglected

often

be

seen

that
turn,

can

this

I
or

have

this satyr.
I said, and
what

All

not.

pipings of

is

to

what

I know

that there

is not

one

THE

of

who

you

IS

LIFE

the real

of

aware

OF

SOCRATES.

nature

133

of

Socrates

since

; but

You
him
observe
plain to you.
begun, I will make
the
how
affects
passionately Socrates
mtimacy of those who
how
beautiful, and
ignorant he professes himself to be;
are
in themselves
excessively Silenic.
This, my
appearances
with which, like one
form
of the sculpfriends, is the external
tured
himself; for if you open him, you
Sileni,he has clothed
I

have

will

within

find

admirable

wisdom

and

temperance

he

for

thgin any one

can
beauty, but despises more
it be beauty or wealth
imagine all external
possessions, whether
the multitude
felicitates
or
glory, or any other thing for which
the
these
who
He
honour
esteems
things, and
us
possessor.
them, as nothing, and lives among
making all the objects
men,
the
of
his irony. But
of their admiration
I know
playthings
divine
have
the
if any
of you
not
images which
seen
one
ever
is
serious.
when
he
has
been
I have
within,
are
opened and
seen
them, and they are so supremely beautiful,so golden, so
commands
divine, and wonderful, that everything that Socrates
like the voice of a God.
surely ought to be obeyed, even
other
wonderful
and
most
Many
qualitiesmight well be
buted
praised in Socrates, but such as these might singly be attriis
that which
But
to others.
unparalleled in Socrates,
is that he is unlike, and
above
comparison, with all other men,
for

not

cares

mere

"

those

whether

exist

now

others

with

are

with

; for
such

and

conjectured,

with
But

other

probability,be
to

discourses

such
are

so

deserves

singular

no

uncommon,

many

of

persons

into
man

and

comparison

excellent

drawn

wHb

those

or

Brasidas

that

Pericles

and

times,

comparison
this,both
as
one,

should

the present or the past

parallel among
unless
that he regenerations of mankind;
they should
say
him ; for assuredly
I latelycompared
^mbled those with whom
the
his discourses
like nothing but
Silen and
he and
the
are
make
observe
how
first
At
L
like his
forgot to
satyrs.
you
when
if any
those
for
discourses
to
are
they are opened ;
satyrs
will listen to the talk of Socrates, it will appear
him at
to
one
the
first extremely ridiculous
expressions which
phrases and
;
he employs fold around
his exterior
it were,
the skin, as
of a
about
is
rude
and
He
wanton
Satyr.
always talking
great
skinand
and
and
leather-cutters,
market-asses,
brass-founders,
he

seek, would

in ancient

Achilles.

Antenor;

may,
other.
his

be

was

times

each

himself

as

lived

have

it may

and

Nestor

various

who

(ll'egsers
; and

find

this is his

perpetual custom,

so

that

any

dull

unobservant

and

if any

But
the

his

of

sense

all that

it

words, he

into

enters

opened,
of

persuasive meaning, and that

they presented* to the mind

and
that

moment,

is

of what

essential

towards

rather

or

the

to

"These

they tended

that

and

excellence,

are

they
towards

profound

divine

most

were

innumerable

all, that

discourse.

utter, had

to

.man

his

at

it were,
and
get within
find that they alone of

as

then

would

mind

the

SOCRATES.

might easilylaugh

person
should
see

one

OF

LIFE

THE

134

images

of

and

every

objects of the highest

he

who

the

seeks

supremely beautiful,and good, need

of his ambition.
accomplishment
the
friend, for which
things, my

sion
posses-

regard

as

praise

Socrates."
Silenus

This
that

the

him

who
in

names

hereafter

the

to

world's

the

human

grand

the

to Truth.
martyrdom
Everything about

death.
been
that

Pantheon

who

"

mind, and
example of

of

one

leave

the

give

pulse
im-

new

to

life crowned

is remarkable

Socrates

reverenced

inheritance

an

as

praise for

most

to

was

heroic

an

antagonist

this is small

; but

become

to

formidable

most

encountered

Sophists had
was

the

become

to

was

kind,
man-

with

personal appearance,
moral
physiognomy, position, object, method, life,and
his tendencies
and
have
Fortunately his character
in
works
of
Plato
the
and
so
clearly pictured
Xenophon,
be
flattered
of its
we
are
sure
although the portrait may
;

resemblance.
He
a

him

the

father's

his

unable

behind

Acropolis,
authentic, it would
were
close

The

creditable

more

the

Laertius,

on

Athenian,

charmed

withdrawn

have

Br.

sneer,

the

names

Wiggers
a

authority
him

from

says,

that

of

the
the

**

Timon

relinquished

Timon,

place

Minerva

imply great

account,
with

of

of

shop, and
the

He

the

the

walls

on

to

in

are

early.
Graces

Phidias.

is that

however,

we

it

that

proficiency in

Demetrius.
manners

in it

progress

he

by

found

the

any

as

to

a stone-scraper.''
sculptor,as Lucian informs

\idot6oQt
for

not,

report, alluded
had executed

Socrates

made

he

probably

say;

was

which

of

Whether

art.

to

There

son

His

midwife.

give

Sophroniscus, a sculptor,*and Phaenarete,

it is said, to
parents, though poor, managed,
Besides
he
which
learnt
ordinary education.

the

was

of the
If

this

the

art.

Diogenes

Crito, a wealthy
Socrates, is said to
have

educated

him

Sillograph caUs Socrates, with a

of
forgets that \iBo^6oQ was
one
of his earlylife"
us in the account

THE

SOCRATES.

OF

LIFE

135

became
{koL TratScvo-at).This Crito afterwards
discipleof the great genius he had discovered.

reverential

which
given to the statements
and
With
Archelaus.
make
Socrates
a discipleof Anaxagoras
with
Dr. Wiggers, that, in
respect to Parmenides, we
agree
phrase in Plato's 'Sophisto' (p. 169^,
spite of the ambiguous
credit

No

is

there

whatever

reason

lectures,though

to

believe

he

must

Oratory;
(iii.c).

that
have

in the

the passage

trust

be

can

Socrates

his works.

read

If

(p. 96), Prodicus

Meno'

his

attended

never

we

to

are

taught him

supported by that in 'iEschines*

But
both
with
what
directly at variance
they are
is made
Convivium
in Xenophon*s
Socrates
to
(i.5.),
say
from
where
he denies having gained any instruction
Protagoras,
Prodicus, or others.*
directed
that they were
Of his early studies we
only know
When
I was
to
young,"
Physics, and left him dissatisfied.
said he, '^I had an astonishing longing for that kind of knowledge
and

the passage

seems

'

"

Physics."
Aristophanes of

accuse

he

represented

is abundant

lead

finding them

on

did

He

not

have

teaching.

One

domestic

the

of

her

it

he

to
as

""

am

forced

to

because

me

and

to draw
"

so

m^r

many

he

to

become

wish

spirited horses
they

can

that

to

in

endure

men,

case

skilled

; after

bridle

with

converse

to

two

is nymous
synoexplanation of his

most

able

and

submitted
name

who

be

him

Her

those

live and

her, I should

disdain

f Xenophop,

the

type.

firmly convinced

being

Gorgias, Prodicus,
I

select

wish

it is my

You

that,

bore

which

playful

gave
"

Xanthippe

with

his

of

Indeed, the violence

with
a

them

filled up
his first

and

She

temper.

become

which

father

ensued.

those, they believe

bridle

this woman,
able to endure

her

He

by remarking

horsemanship,

Now,

has

Shrew.

with

able

which

middle

the

events

leaving his
his marriage

equanimity

the

and

temper,

choice

was

with

bore

of the

records
first

these

proverbial. She

are

in

scepticism.
teaching till about

squabbles

children, and

only relinquished

to

his

of

he

that

prove

but few

period between

the

who

ignorance when, in the

Clouds,'
as
speculating on physical siibjects.
speculationslater in life ; but there

to

commence

We

career.

those

gross

Socrates

evidence

to

answer

'

relinquishedsuch

Socrates

is sufficient

This

called

being

all others.
I married
I should

be

all others.** t

have squandered money

upon Protagoras,
others,in return for their teaching| whereas

yon

philosophyfirom my

Convivium/ ij,

own

brain,"

OF

LIFE

THE

136

Before he gave himself up

and
service in three battles,
the

SOCRATES.

encourage

related of him
of

winter,when

he

went

in

he performed military
teaching,
himself in each.
In
distinguished
awarded

such

Various

honour.

during his campaigns.

the ice and

bare-foot and

him.

to

were

snow

clad.'
lightly

On

In

quished
relin-

He
it

Alcibiades,whom

of

favour

deserve

to

to

the prizeof bravery was

first,

his claim

might

anecdotes

spiteof

are

severity
ground,

the

thick upon the

occasion he stood
one

before the camp

for four-and-twenty
hours
in
meditation.
has
Plato
givenus
wrapped

on

the

same

spot

beautiful

during the campaign,which we

magnificenttranslation by Shelley:
time we were
At one
and had
fellow-soldiers,

description
give in the

of Socrates

"

"

in the camp

Potidaea.

before

Socrates

our

there

mess

gether
to-

overcame

of toils;
only me, but every one besides,in endurance
reduced
in
often
to
a
campaign, we were
when, as
happens,
few provisions,
there were
who could sustain hunger like
none
had
Socrates ; and when
we
plenty,he alone seemed to enjoy
drank
much
fare.
He
our
never
willingly
military
j but when
he was
in that to which he
rompelled he conquered all even
least accustomed, and what is most
was
no
astonishing,
person
not

"

ever

either then

Socrates tirunk

saw

or

at any

other

time.

In

rigid)
(and the winters there are excessively
he sustained calmly incredible hardships
other
; and, amongst
and no
whilst the frost was
went
one
intolerably
severe,
things,
of their tents, or if they went
out
out, wrapt themselves
up
their legs
and put fleeces under their feet,and bound
carefully,
cloak on
with hairyskins,Socrates went
out only with the same
bare-foot upon the ice ; more
that he usuallywore, and walked
had sandalled
themselves
indeed, than those who
so
easily,
delicately
; so that the soldiers thought that he did it to mock
the

depth

their

of winter

of fortitude.

want

It would

all that this brave

commemorate

man

indeed
be worth while to
did and endured
in that
I'

expedition.
earlyin the morning standing
in one
placewrapt in meditation,and, as he seemed not to be
able to unravel the subjectof his thoughts,he stillcontinued to
stand as inquiring
and
discussingwithin himself;and when
the soldiers observed
noon
him, and said to one
came,
since
another :
Socrates has been standingthere thinking,
ever
"

In

instance he

one

was

seen

morning.* At last
havingsupped,as itwas
the

some

lonians

summer,

came

to the

spot, and,

their blankets,
they
bringing

138

LIFE

THE

he

was

question

This

happy

OF

SOCRATES.

is

pertinent; fortunatelyit

can

be answered.
His

bravery
He

senator.

as

soldier

that

had

surpassed by his bravery

was

moral

high

which

courage

as

brave

can

only death, but opinion. He presents an example, almost

who
could defy a tyrant, and
also
unique in history,of a man
defy a tyrannicalmob, an impetuous imperious mob. The Thirty
summoned
occasion
him, together with four
one
Tyrants on
others, to the Tholos, the place in which the prytanes took
not

their

meals.

Salamis

He

commanded

there

was

to

obtained

bring

Leon

of

the

right of Athenian
citizenship,but, fearing the rapacity of the Tyrants, had
Leon
Socrates
retired to
Salamis.
To
steadily
bring back
refused.
He
Government,
although it
says himself, that the
into doing anything
so
was
powerful, did not frighten me
of the Tholos, the four went
oat
came
we
unjust j but, when
to

Athens.

had

Leon

"

Salamis

to

and

should

Government
On

have
had

senate

been

soon

I went

death

suffered

Senator, the

Athenian

not

but

Leon,

occasion

another
then

was

took

on

account

broken

up."

the

braved

he

of

the

And

Five

he

haps
per-

this, if Xhe

of

clamorous

office

only State

consisted

home.

away

mob.

He

held.

ever

Hundred,

The

who

were

tribes.

Every thirty-fifth
or
thirty-sixth
tribe had
the presidency : these were
cdW^d^prytanes.
day, one
the
had
Of
the fiftyprytanes, ten
presidency every
seven
the
ten
of these
enjoyed
highest dignity,
days : each day one
He
laid
of epistates.
the
with
everything before the
name
assembly of the people, put the question to the vote, examined
the whole
business
the votes, and, in short, conducted
of the
He
enjoyed this power, however, only for a single
assembly.
with the keys of the citadel
invested
day ; for that day he was
elected

and

the

from

the

ten

treasury of the republic.

the unjust sentence

epistateson the day when
be
had neglected to bury
who
to
was
passed on the admirals
after the battle of Arginusse.
To
the dead
take care
of the
of
the
burial of the dead
sacred
The
shades
was
a
duty.
believed
unburied
wander
to
were
restlesslyfor a hundred
The
of the Styx.
the banks
Antigone of Sophocles
years on
is founded
the sacredness
of this duty.
After the battle of
on
Socrates

was

'

Arginusse,a violent storm

from
obtaining the bodies
tfaiS|
they left behind them

arose,

of the
some

which
slain.

the

prevented
In

order

inferior officers

to

admirals

remedy

{taxiarchs)to

THE

attend

to

the

office.

impossible.
evidence

behind, so
This
produced

the

enemies

minds

of the

had

admirals
the

dead

(so the

be

head,
people

all

did

in

wrong

and

latter.
would

had

the

But

meanwhile
inflame

to

been

the

appearance
for the

hired

all

with

prytanes,

the

by

Socrates

of

majority

death

to

put

The

bodies

by the

condemn

to

the

up

it

that

mournful

taking

not

But

The

law.

to

the

In

they could

slain, who

the

confiscated.

refused

the

on

people, who

and, if they should be condemned

be
senate
to
ordained), they were

contrary

was

fall

to

their property

the

taxiarchs

the assembly.
on
powerful influence
the general question, whether
given on

done

had

rendered

left the

hands.

lamentations

The
of

had

the

on

of

show

admirals

people.

to

were

the

kinsmen

tragic scene,
votes

to

of the

of the

effect

the

had

tempest

it

produced

an

count

to

They

which, they
ought

rendered

storm

acquittal,if put to the vote.

adjourn the assembly, pretending

given

dark

too

of the

if any,

blame,

managed

the

that

besides

139

tried.

were

its natural

instantlyhave
accusers

the violence

show

of

SOCRATES.

OF

admirals

The

that

the

But

pilotsto
impracticable;

burial

was

LIFE

and
vote

one

at

their

The
vote.
illegal question to
became
that
those
who
furious^and loudly demanded
themselves
be
resisted their pleasure should
brought to trial.
alone
The
Socrates
remained
wavered, yielded.
prytanes
to

put

firm, defying the

administer

the

the

threats

justice.

He

of

mob.

the

would

stood

He

administer

not

there

to

injustice. In

his

refusal,the question could not be put to

The
the vote, and
next
again adjourned.
assembly was
and
and
the
other
chosen,
epistates
day a new
presidents were
of

consequence

the

admirals

condemned.*

were

the
to enter
impossible for the queer-looking Socrates
becoming an object of attention.
market-place without at once
His
Silenu^
figure, his moral
character, and his bewitching
It

was

tongue, excited
"

to

every

demolish
was

The
not

who

citizen.

enjoyed

not

and

the

Who

his

talker

so.

may

they

many,

"

became

He

him

to

had

Who

pretension

must
were

listened

irony ?

sound

Socrates
that

to

curiosity.
not

and

arrogance

prodigious

believed

had

inimitable

last sentence
meant

enchained

of

known

Who

had

not

seen

him

sophist?

some

doubtless,a
disrespectful. It

somewhat
have

He

prodigious bore.

been

wise, because

'Wiggers,' pp. 51-55.

bore

they

to

could

all

was

people

discourse

LIFE

THE

^O

SOCRATES.

OF

He
that he
not
few.
always declared
fluently; and these were
knew
nothing. When
professed knowledge
on
point,
you
any
that
if
crowds
admiring
testimony to
especially
sion,
profesgave
Socrates

was

to

sure

step

to

up

professing

and

you,

with
humble
a
taught. Charmed
so
assented
listener,you began. Interrogated, you unsuspectingly
from
conclusion
evident proposition;
that,
to
some
a
very
that
From
received
almost
assent.
evident, next
as
your

ignorance,

moment

With

lost.

were

you

be

to

entreat

web

formed

was

Your

yourself.

admissions

own

conclusions

monstrous

with

which

from

could

you

extricate

not

proved

were

not

where

see

the

of all

It

thus

was

that

Socrates

mistaken

became

to

you

gist of the sophism

Before
bystanders bespoke your defeat.
you
adversary, imperturbably calm, apparently innocent
but
at
Confused,
making you ridiculous.
attempt
left the
indignant with yourself,
luted, you
spot
adversary.
indignant with the sophistry of your
could

lead

to

repugned, but
lay. The
laughter

conclusions

; these

logic, with
during sophistication,
of

power

sometimes

great ingenious subtlety, and

a

great

for

was

of
not

your
all
con-

but

more

Sophist;

the
Sophists by his constant
distinguished from
of truth, he
the possibility
only
they denied
object. Whilst
in
the
make
truth
ironical,
to
evident,
playful, and
sought
in
which
he
sometimes, quibbling manner
destroyed the
his
in his
Truth
of opponents.
was
object, even
arguments
lightestmoments.
in Athens
This
of disputation daily occurred
to
sort
; and
in
of
The
doubtless
the
which
it we
owe
Clouds,*
comedy
Aristophanes uniformly speaks of Socrates as a Sophist. No one

but

he

was

that

will doubt
the

him

first

to

his adversaries

magnitude."
No

so.

one

was

this

And

he

the

was

meaning

his attack.

safe from

been

have

must

No

had

describes
him

declared

this.

understand

daring
puzzled.

to

not

**

to

to

be

went

to

sensations

himself

words

of
to

of the
of

one

on

wisest

the

Knowing
the

wrong,

his

be

think

wise, thinking that

oracle

bore

our

of

calling

who

sumed
pre-

know

there

Socrates

of
one

anything could escape him.

the
In confirmation, let us
account
quote
in
his procedure, as
of
reported by Plato
to

**

those

be

god

and

to

be

able

to

the

'Apology.*
hearing that Apollo

wise

in

could

be

should
*

say,

not

nothing, yet
false,he was

esteemed

are

could

He

men.

who

here, if anywhere,

gives

Socrates

Here

the

prove

is

be

to

man

tHM

than

Wiser

1/

liPe

but

*I

wiser

him

this

not.

am

this

he

went

away,

neither

for

man;

wiser

than

he,

know.

and

he.*

too, and

said

ceivjng with
service
the

necessary

to

the

and

of

god,

therefore

persons

by going to all who

appeared
O Athenians, tWe impression made
on
of
to
most
me
reputation seemed

deficient
much
**

of all ; other

of much

persons

than

affronted

him

When

I had

which

with

done

appeared

(that I might
what

these

the

truth,

the

the

at

poems
but

know

me

enthusiasm

must

say
have

not

like

that

oracles; for these^ too,

know

one

this

The

nearly the

most

seemed

account

I went
politicians,

time

same

I soon
they.
accomplish not by wisdom,
an

of

anything.

was

smaller

particleof

what

laboured,

most

me

meant

could

who

to

found
but
of

by

was

better
what

that

kind

prophets

of

and

poets,

should

surely
of

those
I

their

asked

them,

from

them)

Athenians, to say
scarcely a person

ashamed,

am

the

to

something

learn

it; there
spoken

than

poems

meaning

the

tragic,dithyrambic, and others, thinking that I

find myself less knowing
than
they. Taking up

present

per; but
to the

enemies

rational.

more

poems

matter

manner^

to

not

still wiser
I

for

oracle

And,

do

small

one

same

seek

to

would

considerations

all other

postpone

so

making

was

it

knowing, fancies

by this
in the

on

that

fear

and

sorrow

went

many

myself,

to

us,

another

and

result;

same

others.

many

it seemed

the

to

came

wise,

and

of

in

be

I seem,
therefore, to
After
this I went
to

himself

him
I

upon
There-

so.

thought

offended

means

When

than

that

not

was

but
knows
he, not
:
anything valuable
seem,
he
does
I
know,
I, as
know;
really do not

think

man

wise, but

be

to

convince

By
the bystanders.

of

14

name
(I need not
of
and
the
politicians),
conversing with
one
seemed
to
others,
opinion that this man
many

tried to

was

this

examining

After

him, but he was

him, it was
my
and
especially to himself,
I

SOCRATMS,

op

concerning

their

do,

they

turn,

and

poets
natural
those

who

fine, things,but
speak many
they speak.

utter

do

not

conscious
that I
Lastly, I resorted to artificers ; for I was
nothing at all,but should find them
myself knew, in a manner,
in this I was
taken
misvaluable
not
things. And
knowing many
so
far,
things which I knew
not, and
were,
; they knew
wiser than I.
But
fall into the same
to
they appeared to me
"

error

as

the

art, insisted

poets
upon

each, because

being

the

wisest

he
man

skilled

was

in

other

in
and

his

own

greatest

things;

this

and
of

possessed

to

consequences

enmities, and
upon

me

mistake

imputations ; but,

false

hand,

one

kind, which

formidable

most

the

on

the

on

the

Athenians,

search, O

been,

have

me

they

what

overshadowed

this

From

of the

many

theirs

of

wisdom.

SOCRATES,

OP

Um

THE

142

many-

brought

have

hand, the

other

general repute of a wise man."

for the country.
care
Socrates, like Dr. Johnson, did not
"
have
when
field,
seen
one
Sir,"said the Doctor,
green
you
Let
all green
fields ; sir,I like to look upon
men.
you have seen
and

name

"

walk

us

Cheapside.*'

down

Socrates

Phsedrus, who

address
even

anxious

very

to

with

the

learn

I can
nothipg.
only
be
found
to
was
always
with

argue

words

In

from

learn

from

where

in

men

demanded

he

city/'

the

from

money

am

learn

can

assembled.

were

men

trees

quainted
unac-

"I

Athens.

and

fields

being

of

of

does

import

same

him

accused

neighbourhood

and

one,
he
:

every
lectures

of the

And

he

Ready

to

*He

none.

he
books
He
wrote
no
only talked.
:
had
He
'cannot
argued.*
properly be said to have
a school,
trine.
since he did not
give a systematic exposition of his doceven
his school, must
called
What
be understood
has been
whose
it was
the
custom
to refer
to
delighted admirers
many
him
hrm
whenever
he appeared, to talk with
to surround
as
often as possible,and
to accept his leading opinions.
on
Although Socrates was a knight-errant of philosophy, ever
truth
from
the dungeons of
the alert to rescue
forlorn
some
not
scrupulous as to who or what
prejudice, and therefore was
the
his adversary
might be, yet his especial enemies
were
Sophists. He never
neglected an opportunity of refutingthem.
no

gave

them

with

knew

all

combated

He

He

ground.

their weakness.

and

their
their

Like

and

own

weapons,
tactics.
He

thenv he had

Truth

to
:

the

world

"

Phantom,
in

defeated

No

For

be

his endeavour

without^ he

Physics

he

turned

substituted

he

because
to

The

to

had

them
But

he

the

had

seen

not,

proclaimed

not

not

penetrate

his attention
Morals.

strength
Physics, in the

studied

could

own

their

knew

speculations of the early thinkers; and like

that these
speculations led to no certainty.
like them, made
scepticism a refuge ; he had

their

on

embrace

her.

mysteries of

the world

certitude

within.
which

he

therefore, disposed to accept as historical,the language Plato

of books.
Books
be
cannot
respecting the inefficiency
teach.
cannot
We
learn
therefore,
answer
iterrogated, cannot
can
only
;
them
from
that which
w%knew
he^ore."PhadruSf
p. 96.
We

are,

into his mouth

guts

SOCRATES.

OP

LIFE

THE

143

respecting the operations of nature, had not

truths
certitude
of the moral
the
his convi";tionof
shaken
his conscience
which
irresistibly
impressed upon his attention*
world'
of sense
The
might be fleeting and deceptive. The
failed

to

voice

of

inwards

gain

conscience
he

could

certain

discovered

his attention

Turning

deceive.

not

admitted

which

truths

question. They were

eternal,immutable, evident.
opposed to the scepticism of the sophists. Moral
was

the

rock

he

could

repose
world, and

the

his relation

Impiety

and

upon

his

In

judges

Immorality.

think

we

no

he

These

certitude

cast.

There

could

survey

to it

was

to

When

in

his life spent.

before
his
appear

Thus

had

shipwrecked soul was

its heights he
safety. From
his

which

upon

of

He

the

to

two-and-seventieth

the accusations

answer

appeared, and

character

of

year

this

he
of

condemned.

was

great

whose

man,

virtues,luminous
of

in the

distance, and

imperishable glory,so impose

on

with

surrounded
our

imaginations

the halo
that

they

of his trial
hear
exalted, we cannot
and condemnation
without
indignant disgust at the Athenians.
decide.
But, for the sake of humanity, let us be cautious
ere
we
The
and
Athenians
cruel : all masses
volatile,credulous
were
it is
But
of men
they, perhaps, were
eminently so.
are
; and
much
have
that
to
too
they, or any people, would
suppose
had
Socrates
he appeared to them
what
he appears
condemned
such
Had
to
deed, the people wOuld
a
a tyrant committed
us.
what he appears
have avenged it. But Socrates
not to them
was
offensive to them, and paid the penalty.
He
to us.
was
A great man
be understood
cannot
by his contemporaries.
He
can
only be understpod by his peers ] and his peers are few.
of
fame
Posterity exalts a great man's
by producing a number
to appreciate him.
great men
is also necessarilya reformer
The
in some
shape
great man
has
other.
combat
with
to
or
Every reformer
existingprejudices
and
deep-rooted passions. To cut his own
path, he must
rubbish
encumbers
which
it.
is therefore
He
displace the
in opposition to his fellow-men, and
their
attacks
interests.
and
Blinded
cannot
by prejudice, by passion*
by interest,men
him
excellence
of
the
and
hence
it
see
is,as
they oppose
;
Heine
that
soul
so
admirably says,
a
everywhere
gives
great
also is Golgotha."
utterance
to its thoughts there
seem

as

evident

as

they

were

"

Reformers

are

mart5rrs

and

therefore,his condemnation

Socrates

was

appears

to

reformer.
us

very

though,
Al-

mijust

tiPE

'^HE

144
and

to
frightful,

very

banishment
Pure

of

offensive.
hatred

incurred

He

fell.

oppose
errors, since

lost

those

no

was

the

what

injusticeand
of exposing them.

critic of his age cannot

censured
freely,openly.
the

But, perhaps, the

undisguised contempt
capacity for government

To

critic's

does

kinds,

How

he
and

sets

penalty.

part of his

his

be

to

them

who

man

; he

interests.

our

follyof all

offensive

most

the

with

the

escape

believe

we

situated

hated

He

Protagoras.

of his intentions

war

no

wage
Athenians

of

thd

than

more

opinions were
party-spirit
by that
; and

of

pardon

can

errors

occasion

an

the hatred

We

us.

differentlywere
offensive.

it

recognise the purity

We

not

Athenians

the

Empedocles, or the condemnation

his intentions,his actions
and

were

as

SOCRATES.

OP

was
never

for
up
Socrates

behaviour

was

uniformly expressed for the

assumed
by all men.
Only the wise,
fit to
he said, were
Government
few.
and
they were
gov^ern,
is a science, and a difficult science.
It is infinitely
cult
diffimore
the helm
of a ship.
to govern
State than
to govern
a
Yet,
the same
in
who
would
themselves
not
trust
a
ship
people
without
themselves
in a
trust
not
an
experienced pilot,
only
with
State
to
an
inexperienced ruler, but also endeavour
become

his condemnation
in

have
"

his

"

instant.

made.'**
he

that

But

in the

he

that
the

opposed

the

could

and

and

ancient

cause

it was

modern,

impiety ; and Xenophon

credited
have
been
for an

much
merited
as
charge was
other
it was
philosophers against whom
interpretationsto the reigning dogmas
that

the

and
interpretations,,

mythological

"

wanted,

was

to

guilty of

charge

new

gave

pretext

sufficient

was

defenders,

not

was

the

of

case

He

His

believe

we

contempt

better

impiety.

declared

wonders

as

; but

he

This

themselves.

rulers

found

which

that

was

impiety.
It has

been

with

remarked

the

The
harmonises

with

all and

Sexlus

Second

of the
riQ

fAi

'

Alcibiades

opposition

to

that

it

expressly says

an

writer,that, in

anonymous

plying
com-

her superrites of his country, Socrates

avoided
stitions.
it
rite of sacrifice,
natural
that
and
so
simple

gods by poets

Adv.

"

and

the

the

of

Math.

the

was

because

that

he

was

he

did

accused

not

of

to

be

heresy, calls it wc
'Dialogues of
69.
evidence
crates*
enough of Soare

Socratic

ii. p.

Plato*s

"

Euthyphro
Mythology of his day.

Uaftaprdi/eii/.
p. 359.
"

religious truth, required

any

speaking

Empiiicus,
iK^avWXtOvaav to Belov.
the

by

In

the

believe

impiety

the

Euthyphro,*

fables

d^d $ri wq

he

recounted

Ioikc,^^oft

THE

I4b

LIFE

also thought it

SOCRATES.

OF

impiety to importune the gods

with our
inquiriesconcerning things of which we may gain the
it being, as
it
knowledge by number, weight, or measure;
himself
seemed
to him, incumbent
to make
on
man
acquainted
He

*'

kind

of

for
gods had
placed within his power
; as
his
such things as were
comprehension, for these he
beyond
ought always to apply to the oracle ; the gods being ever
ready
had
been
those whose
to
to communicate
to
knowledge
care
i.
i.
render
them
chap.
propitious." Memorabilia, book
The
trial of Socrates
belongs rather to the history of Greece
than to the historyof Philosophy. It was
a politicaltrial. His
bearing during the whole period was worthy of him : calm, grave,
and touching ; somewhat
haughty perhaps, but the "haughtiness
with

the

whatever

"

of

fightingfor the truth.

admirers, and exasperated

brave

af his

Plato, then

his adversaries.

present

was.

man,

young

tion
the admira-

It increased

soul

trial,and
Apology.'

the

at

has

The
picture of it in his
preserved an admirable
of death
after sentence
had
by Socrates
closing speech, made
been
pronounced, is justlysupposed to be pretty faithfullygiven
it :
We
extract
by Plato,
O Athenians, that you
It is for the sake of but a short span,
*

"

'^

incurred

have

the

evil of the

city,of

those

are

who
if I

even

; I

years

this

with

that

have

I have

to

upon

if I had

escape

condemned,

been

been

working

success,

in order

means

life,and

to

near

have

not

condemned

the

you

thing

see

my
I address

for

persons,

for

wise,

am

voted

same

(for

man

death.

haps
Per-

"

skill

of

want

the

minds, as I might have

thought it rightto employ all
your

condemnation.

from
and

for

agency;

but
to
those
who
you,
this
I say to the
and
too

of

modes

your

speak

to

wise

will say that

time
short
a

of

all

think

employed

in

wish

who

Socrates,

waited

you

without

far advanced

capital sentence,
in such

those

reproach you

Had

happened

to

you

to

not).

am

not

inclined

am

have

would

imputation, from
having put to death

from

want

Far

from

things to

of

it

say,

I did not
daring and shamelessness
; because
the things which
would
choose
to
have
to say
been
pleayou
for you
to hear, weeping, and
santest
lamenting, and saying and
doing other thingswhich I affirm to be imworthy of me ; as you

but

from

are

accustomed

fit to do

want

made

the

to

see

others

do.

But

neither

anything unworthy of a freeman

myself. I would
having dius defended
and die, than have
defence
made
one

or

repent of

of

say

did
;

I then
nor

do

far rather

the

other

think
I

now

have

and

THE

Neither

live.

it

make

to

death.
life

In

in

his

by throwing

away
in all other

which

but

from

And

now

in

happen,

evident

off with

are

life if he

we

man

imploring

and

arms

that

many
dare

arid

slow

of

foot,

ought

war,

we

escape
his
save

may

may

of his suers
purcontrivances
by

mercy

do

or

Athenians, is not to escape

guilt is swifter than death, and
old

I, being

^^

justice,nor

dangers there

get
person
may
The
O
difficulty,

guilt; for

SOCRATES.

that, whatever

it is often

battle

; and

of

court

object

our

OP

LIFE

have

thing.
every-

say

from

death,

runs

faster.

overtaken

been

of the
but my
who*
are
by Death, the slower
two;
accusers,
brisk and
We
the swifter.
vehement, by wickedness
quit this
place ; I have been sentenced
by you to death, but they having
sentence
them, by Truth, of guilt and injustice. I
passed upon
submit
to my
punishment, and they to theirs.
have
But
condemned
who
I wish, O men
to prophesy
me,
I say, then, that,immediately
is to come.
what
next
to you
far severer
after my
ment
punisha
death, there will come
upon
you
"

that which

than
done

this,thinking by

for your
to

lives.
There

you.

hitherto

have

But

have
inflicted upon
me
; for you
it to escape
from being called to account

you

have

I affirm

will be

many
restrained,and

that
to

the

very

reverse

call

you

to

whom

you

saw

will

will

account
not

happen
whom

and,

being

will

be
more
give you
they
annoyance,
you
to death
provoked ; for,if you think by putting men
from
deter
others
to
reproaching you with living amiss, you
think
ill. That
mode
of protecting yourselves is neither very

younger,
still more

and

noblest
and the easiest
: the
very noble
other people, but so to order yourselves as

possible nor
't^- "iut dff

too
to

is not
attain

the

excellence.
grfeatefet
Thus
I beg of you : Wheft
much
toy sons
grow
up, punish
tormented
them
I
O
them,
Athenians, by tormenting
as
you, if
they shall sttvs^ to study riches,or any other ends, in preference
to virtue.
And, if they are
thought to be something, being
really nothing, reproach them, as I have reproached you, for
not
attendingto what they ought, and fancying themselves
something when
they are
good for nothing. And, if you do
"

this, both
your
"

has

and

my

sons

shall

have

received

what

is just

at

hands.
// is

now

the better

This
of

the

time

thai

we

depart^ I

to

die^you

to live ; but

which

to all except the GodP

destiny is unknown
is very grand and impressive,and
paints the character
animo
et vultu
man.
intravit, says
carcerem
Magna

Seneca.

for their

them
man

complaints

faced

ever

it

vielcomed

as

the

injusticeof

to

higher

No

sentence.

; for no

greater calmness

birth

new

the

at

with

death

SOCRATES.

weeping friends,and gently upbraided

his

consoled

He

OP

LIFE

THE

148

state

of

ever

man

being

with

greater faith.
He

would

that

the

which

have

day

next

thirtydays.
the

in
"

On

the

last

verses.

This

death.

festival lasted

awaiting his end,

with his friends,and
cheerful conversation
"During this time," says Xenophon,

held

he

of

the

Plato's

conversation

and

arguments
it is

; and

own

Cyrus, in Xenophon's

with

his friends

on

the

subject of .Plato's
in that
most
dialogue are
bably
prosupposed that the dying speech of

This

soul.

The

Phsedon.'

opinions of

to

the

day

immortality
'

put

of all his friends in the same

manner
eyes
admired
his past life was
most
on
days ; but now
cheerfulness
and
of mind."
calmness
his present

of

account

in

before

in former

as

be

could

interval

lived

first of the

Socrates, though in chains

composing
he

day, but it happened

festival of Theoria, during

the next

executed
the

was

criminal

no

spent

been

forms

the

Cyropaedia,'is

closer

of

copy

the

Socrates.

Phaedon, describing the impression produced on him by the

this final day, says :
*Cl did not feel the
sight of Socrates
on
of a friend :
natural I should
feel at the death
pity which it was
the contrary, he seemed
to me
on
perfectlyhappy as I gazed on
"

him

listened

and

And

of the

to

him

so

calm

and

dignifiedwas

thought that he only left this world

destined
him
to a more
gods, who

his bearing.
the

under

than

tection
promortal

He
then details the conversation
the
felicityin the next."
on
of
the close
immortality of the soul ; after which, he narrates
that glorious life in language worthy of it.
We
can
only offer
of Taylor ; but, even
the bald version
in that,the beauty of the

narrative
"

that

When

he

he

might

ordered

manifestlyout.

stands

us

to

had

thus

wash

wait

discoursing over,

spoke, he
hunself, and

for him.

and

We

rose,

and

Crito

went

followed

into

room,
he

hi^n : but

waited, therefore,accordingly,

reviewing

among
speaking about

oursel^fes, what

had

his death, how

said; and sometimes
great
be to us ; and
calamity it would
a
sincerelythinking that we,
like those who
are
deprived of their father,should pass the rest
life in the condition
of orphans.
of our
he had
But, when
washed
himself, his sons
were
brought to him (forhe had two
been

littleones,

and

one

considerably advanced

in

age), and

the

'

THE

belonging

women

OF

LIFE

149

family likewise

his

to

SOCRATES.

in

came

him

to

but,

before
Crito, and had left them
spoken to them
such
the boys and
injunctions as he thought proper, he ordered
returned
he himself
And
it was
to depart ; and
to us.
women
had
the setting of the sun
been
for a
absent
near
now
: for he
he came
in from
But, when
long time in the bathing-room.
afterwards
washing, he sat down, and did not speak much
; for,
of the eleven
ing
in,and, standthen, the servant
magistrates came
him, I do not perceive that in you, Socrates
near
(says he),
he

when

had

which

I have

angry

with

and

me,

magistrates,
poison. But,
time

to

ever

came

be

most

into

this

I and

And,

he

away,
"

the

is proper
have
You
it

to

this

the

whom

authors

of

I allude
tell

to

came

vinced
con-

to.

well
you), fare-

necessityas easilyas possible.

turning himself

tears, and

the

it?

but,

as

potion?

the

at

was

to

What
make

I understand

you

grant may

the

the

you

indeed,

trembling

colour

of rt, or
think

we

but

nor

nance,
counte-

or

the

case.

not?

man

We

sufficient

it is

to

cup

(sayshe) respecting

(says he) ;

be

legs,

him, and,

pray to the gods, that my

with prosperous
be attended

to

your

do, beholding

you

as

have

which

in

in his

libation

much

poison,

you

place in

neither

to

proper
thither may

them

as

when

extended

it from

to

say

came,

But, Socrates,

manner

he

worse

accustomed

(says he),Socrates,

purpose.
lawful and

time,

the

but

takes

cheerfulness;
for

the

(sayshe) ; but what

knowing in these affaurs.

is the.

same

time,

some

cup.

him.

near

friend

received

great

alteration

Is it lawful

in

(says he)

this

stood

administer

to

till a heaviness

Socrates

he

staid for

are

do

to

that

boy

was

for you

lie down

with

that

well, my

It's

bull-like aspect

I entreat

properly prepared
"

And,

sufferingany

hence

know

what

person

with

But

Echecrates,

bruise

it

nothing
walkabout,

act.

those

sign to

else

Socrates.

with

me,

know

well

now

am

with

but

You

the

man,

do

to

afterwards

should

with

bear

to

the

brought

beholding

and

angry

you

gave

him

with

who

drunk

same

at the
present
you
best of all men
who

mild, and
and, therefore,I

boy departing,and, haying

the

found

time, bursting into

Crito

bringing
and

( for

that

mean

departed.

Then

And

not

endeavour

the

at

place

condition.

therefore

I have

contrary,

generous,

are

you

present

Now,

the

they are
when, being compelled by the
me,
that
drink
them
the
to
they must

announce
on

in others

of

curse

the

that
your

notice

taken

this

only
for the

certainlyboth

departure
fortune

And,

at

the

from

which
same.

THE

ISO

LIFE

SOCRATES.

OF

ending his discourse, he drank the poison with exceeding

thus far,indeed, the greater part of
facilityand alacrity. And
tolerably well able to refrain from weeping \ but, when
were
us
that he had
drunk
him
could
drinking, and
no
it,we
saw
we
from me,
ing
But
indeed, notwithstandlonger restrain our tears.
I employed
the violence
which
in checking
them, they
flowed
abundantly ; so that,covering myself with my mantle, I
I did not, indeed, weep
for him, but
deplored my misfortune.
be
I should
associate
for my
fortune, considering what an
own
deprived of. But Crito, who was not able to restrain his tears,
And
was
compelled to rise before me.
ApoUodorus, who,
during the whole time prior to this,had not ceased from weeping,
then
aloud, and with great bitterness; so that he
wept
time

infected

all who

present

were

^What
seeing this,exclaimed
:
For, indeed, I principally sent

upon
men?

are

"

should

they

produce

it is proper

heard

quiet, therefore,
when

heard

we

to

and

disturbance

die

attended

with

to

your

found, during his walking,

excellent
lest

women,

For

have

assistance.

But

propitious

restrained

blushed, and

we

the

this kind.

of

Socrates,

doing,

you

away

fortitude

summon

this

But

Socrates.

except

Be

omens.

But

tears.

our

legs felt heavy,

and
had told us so, laid himself
down
in a supine position. For
him to do so.
had ordered
time, he
And, at the same
th^ man
the
considered
him
him
at intervals,
whp. gave
poison, touching
his feet and
had
legs. And, after he
vehemently pressed his
he, when

he

him

foot, he asked

if he

felt it.

And

poison

the

(forhe
we

owe

for me,

his

reached

heart

that

us

he

himself, an^ said

he

should

then

and

cold

was

when

that

leave

But

us.

when, uncovering himself

his last words), Crito,
was
covered) he said (which were
to Esculapius.
Discharge this debt, therefore,
a cock
and don't neglect it. It shall be done
(saysCrito): but

his lower

now

showed

he

also touched

Socrates

did

he

answered

Socrates

again pressed his thighs : and, thus

And, after this, he

ascending with his hand,
not.

stiff.

But

his

that

consider

whether

enquiry

of

have

you

Crito

he

the

man

hifnself,and

almost

belly was

when

made

eyes.

This, Echecrates,

.just.''

me,

no

Crito

Which,
to

any

the

him.

best

the end
of those

besides

closed

of

our

whom

this, the

fixed

his mouth

associate
we

moved

after

Socrates

he

were

most

this

To

commands.

And

perceived,

was

time; and;

other

reply ; but shortly

covered

eyes.

it appears
as
with
that
at

cold ;

his
and

man,

acquainted
prudent

and

PHILOSOPHY

OF

and

perished this great

Thus

His

character

good

151

man,

to

fairly,

represent

the

add

sophy.
Philo-

to

martyr

endeavoured

have

we

SOCRATES.

though briefly.
now
summing-up
Xenophon,
us
his
love
and
who
him
loved
expressed
tenderly,
gracefully :
him
of
such
truth
be
As
to
a
to myself^ knowing
a man
as
towards
the
I have described
take
underto
gods, as never
; so pious
without
first
consulting them ; so just towards
anything
the very
to do
slightest,to any
as
an
injury,even
never
men,
Let

of

"

''

whilst

one,

all with
not

as

and

many

he

whom

great

had

whatever

appetite or
and
becoming

any
modest

was

dealings ;

any

benefits
so

he

conferred
and

temperate

inclination

indulge

to

the

were

the

at

prudent

; so

on

chaste
of

expense
as

to

never

of
good and evil, nor wanting the assistance
others to discriminate
rightly concerning them ; so able to dis-*
define with the greatest accuracy,
and
not
only
coiurse
upon,
likewise
which
but
of
have
been
those
we
points
speaking,
into
the minds
it
of men,
cover
disother,
were
and, looking as
every
the very moment
for reprehending vice, or stimulatingto

in

err

the

judging

virtue:

of

love

of

experiencing, as

expellencies in Socrates,
the

is any

there

and

virtuous

most

is

Socrates

compare

determine.*'

the

and
who

one

disposed

of

think

to

any

all

done,

these

considering him
all mankind.

as

But,

otherwise, let him

other, and

afterwards

if

go

let him

chap. vii.

bookiv.

MemarctMHa^

"

happy

most

have

cease

never

can

with

of his virtues and of

the memory
After-ages have cherished
out
his fate ; but, without
by his example, and withprofitingmuch

learning
a

His name
story,
for School-boys and Rhetoricians.

Thesis

Moral

it could

from

tolerance

become

Influence

Moral

his

CHAPTER
PHILOSOPHY

Opinions

Socrates,
scanty,

diffidence.

skill; and
confident.

on

any

attempt

The

historian

such

grounds

Would

that

II.
OF

at

become

SOCRATES.

considerably respecting the

vary so
and
materials
be
whereby they can

that

has

exposition
to rely solely
must

has

he

will

not, if

philosophy
tested

are

be

made

on

his

prudent,

of
so

with
critical

be

very

PHILOSOPHY

152

be

formed

are,

and

is

he

by

called
made
two

which

opinion

an

may

general tradition of Socrates

very
in thought ; in consequence
revolution
of
initiator
of a new
regarded as the
epoch ;

by

all

as

the

some

from

ist, The

having produced
which

SOCRATES.

materials

scattered

the

Amongst

OF

founder

Greek

of

Philosophy, properly

so

Aristotle,that he first
testimony
andly,
express
and
of
These
proceeded by induction.^
use
definitions
each
other.
If
Socrates
positions mutually imply
duced
procould
in
revolution
he
done
have
philosophy,
a
so
only
The

of

That
Method
Method.
by a new
phrase of Aristotle,but it is there

concentrated

first of Induction.

And

exhibited

see

only exhibited

in

the

in his brief

requiresto be elucidated.
In
our
reading for this chapter

and

manner,

we

we

of
want
at the
perpetually amazed
just notions
and
Bacon's
conception of it,
respecting Induction, in general,
histonans
and
in particular, which
critics.
prevails amongst
stumbled
have
the
assertion
that
over
we
Constantly
Socrates,
like Bacon, proceeded inductively. Constantly have
we
seen
ranked
Bacon
with
him
have
to
being
supposed
destroyed
;
the vain hypotheses of the physiologists of his day, as
Bacon
insist on
did those of a latter day.
Now
must
we
a
complete
been

have

revision of such

opinion.

an

withdraw

confessedly to
of the phenomena

was

truth

looking

"

was

nature,

to

be

outwards.
the

was

and

of
interpretation

of Socrates
purpose
from
its contemplations
it

its

on

own

by looking inwards,

sought
and

aim

fix

to

of this ; he

reverse

and

the mind

of

The

aim

The

of

purpose

exhorted

the

to

men

not

Bacon's

phenomena
by

sophy
philotion
observa-

natiure, and

denounced
energetically
the operations of mind.
If Socrates
all attempts to discover
of physics.Bacon
pushed too far
pushed too far this contempt
his contempt
of psychology:
the exaggeration was,
in each
and

by the absurdities

produced

case,

Not

decided

more

of Induction.
''

mere

it

Socrates

simplicem, or

collection

of

contemporaries.

is the contrast

With

per enumerationem

of

between

was
*'

more

no

their
than

conceptions
that Indudio

reasoning by analogy

particular facts

"

process

which

"
"

it

the
was

Socrates
must
things of which
jastlybe regarded as
and
Abstract
author,
Reasoning
Definitions** rohq
Arist.
r* iiraKTiKoiiXdyovQ leai rb 6pi^cffOaixaOoKov.
Met,, xiii. c. 4.
*

"*

There

the

are

two

the

Inductive

"

"

Xenophon
that

lew

has

Socrates

several

indications

of

always

proceeded

from

known, which is a definition

of

the inductive

method

propositionsbest

Inductioq,

he

known

also says
to

tho^e

PHILOSOPHY

154

that which

words, he

other
Tt

and

above

was

OF

had

below

could

sense

explain

to

SOCRATES.

perceived

be

knowledge

our

of

essences

^in

"

to

"OTt.

this be

could

How

of

essence

thing

else, you
from

done

it

the

from

thing
everyit
demarcate

you

thing before

the

present

so

know

To

distinct

as

defineit ; by defining it

must

it is not^ and

what

consider

must

you

by Definitions

but

in

you

its

essence.

It

was

to

from

with
any

He

that

believed

needed

.'X.

to

essence

not

essential

him

thinker

may

By
of

to

from

express

it.

the

This

has

instruments

the

clouded

which

accoucheur.

main

enabled

wished

true

that Reason

an

his

thought,
thought
obtained
by correct

and

seem

it is

combination,
from

was

pregnant

with

An

accoucheur

sible
impos-

he

were

separate

the

myriad

the

enabled

he

he

of

any

tradiction
con-

f^om

cannot

other

point.

Truths, and

Definitions.

thing, because
the

that

be

obtained

been

Definition

into

him

entangled in any
derived
; knowledge

and

true

one

another

point,

one

contradict

with

conviction

fundamental

start

announced

By

Definition

only
self;
him-

he

particularthought he
other
thoughts which
a

to

man

admitted

contemplate

nothing

which

was

definition.

poor
it. For

method

to

the

modem

reader.

Let

the great basis on

centuries
it was
despise
than
have
We
more
once
mented
comspeculation rested.
thinkers
mistake
of
the
the
natural
to
on
early
tendency
have
in things. We
distinctions
in words
for distinctions
now
in
the
of
of
to signalize the appearance
history
speculation
a
force
this.
have
the
formula
of
henceforth,
systematic
Names,
is held to be
of things.*
Definition
A correct
true
a
tion
descripI
of the Thing per se^ and
the
valent
explanation of terms as equiand
the
the
exhibition
to
things,
of the
explanation of
nature
of any thing in a definitionas equivalent to the acfucU
the central
of
the
\ analysis of it in
errors
a
laboratory are
\ Platonic and Aristotelian philosophy. These
continue
errors
of the present day.
in all the metaphysical systems
to flourish
the
When
stated in a naked
absurdity of this method
manner,
is apparent
but it may
be so disguised as to look profoundly
i
scientific.
Hence
the
locutions
that
as
frequent use of such
in the idea
certain properties are
involved
of certain things ;
in the
if being involved
in the idea, "".,being included
as.
not

which

"

"

"

"

See

Plato's

Cratylus '/"w,rw".

PHILOSOPHY

SOCRATES.

OF

155

tence;
definition,necessarilyimplied a correspondent objectiveexisthe faithful copies of
if human
conceptions were
as
external
sequently
widely differ; conthings. The conceptions,of men

conceptions ;

is true

conception

Which

like
certitude
seek

sought.

be

must

To

definition, is to

in

circle.

different

the

answer

argue
That

in these

"

question arises,
this question by anything

true, and

be

all cannot

but

involved

*'

propertiesare

different

principleof

is still to

principle,however,

influence

The

discernible

we

as

Method

the

of

theory of definitions
It is the
proceed.

the

of

has

His

teristic
charac-

it must

In

be

of Science.

with

taunted

almost

been

tinctly
dis-

more

grand

one

originated

Socrates

sought the explanation of his views

He

will be

having promulgated

never

in the

rank

history of philosophy
system
any
has
been
questioned ; and has been
supposed only that of a
of Aristotle has been
moralist.
A passage
quoted as decisive
The
this point :
speculations of Socrates
on
were
only
in
all concerning
Nature
at
not
concerning Ethics, and
it
:
general (1^9 oXi/s^vo-ccos).But this is not cUl the passage
In these speculationshe sought the Abstract
thus :
continues
tions."
thought of giving defini(to Ka^dXov),and was the first who
his

of

own.

"

"

**

the

of

Aristotle's
hint

definitions

abstract

the

but

and

Hot

the

sought
("vXoya)s),

iv.),we
we

an

is

as

of

part

Cold.

But

Essence

of

z.

"

of

part

find this

indication
express
'^
follows :
Socrates
he

him

Before
a

another

to

tained
con-

moralist

mere

and

virtues

is

there

accordingly

find

passage

with

the

turning

these.

of

the

ethical

himself

only concerned

On

The

with

himself

concerned

more

out

believe

we

than

xiii. c.

{Met,
clearly brought

metaphysician.

the

of

of

treatise

more

portion

latter

something
metaphysician.

hint

hint

this

in

Now

first sought
Democritus

Physics

Socrates,

Things,

had

and

the

defined

looking deeper

i.^.

sought

what

exists^
in

Moreover,

another

iii. ch. ii.)he

(lib.

passage

Aristippusfor having rejected science,

solely with
Socrates
he

to

and

to be

not

was

would
Had

have

conceive

Plato

of

his

been
as

is

blamed

also

been

Socrates

aim

This

morals.

himself

concerned

surely negative evidence

for the

opinion

same

that

; otherwise

mentioned.

only
his

and

reproaches

moralist, it would

pupil.

philosophy\

and

Socrates
this

made

has

be

Ethics

given

difficult
the

rise .to

end
the

'

156

PHILOSOPHY

notion

being a
Philosophy

of

SOCRATES.

OF

his

moralist.

mere

is

his

But

in

rank

the

his

conception of
that
it be remembered
of the Sophists
science.
the work
Let
denied
had
been
the
to
destroy all belief in science.
They
validity of human
testimony. They pronounced science to be

history

of

due

to

for

him

impossible. It was imperative therefore on

this scepticism before
he could
proceed.
conception

presenting

attacks

the

of

of science

Sophists.

Instead

which

Socrates

was

remove

it

removed

He

not

occupying

of

to

open
himself

by
the

to

with

science
his attention
to
particular sciences, he directed
in general
is the measure
of all things,"
Man
to Method.
said Protagoras ;
differ,there can be no absolute
and, as men
is the measure
Man
truth."
of all things," replied Socrates
;
will
find
but descend
into
his
and
personality,
deeper
you
that underneath
of steady truth.
all varieties there is a ground
is fleeting
also agree
Men
to what
differ,but men
: they differ as
is the
is eternal.
Difference
what
to
as
agree
; they
;:egion of opinion ; Agreement is the region of Truth : let us
endeavour
to penetrate that region."
of all the pre-Socratic philosophy was
radical error
the
The
aim.
Men
of definite
want
They
speculated at random.
because
sought truth, but they only built Hypotheses,
they
the
limits
had
and
conditions
not
of
previously ascertained
inquiry. They attempted to form sciences before having settled
of Socrates
the
conditions
It was
the peculiar merit
of Science.
to have
ture
proposed as the grand question of philosophy the naany

**

"

'^

"

"

conditions

of

incomplete

; but

and
was

The

reader

in

Definitions
did

Socrates

He

himself

likened

himself

forth

children

bring
He

Socratic

the
not

believed

believed

the

to

no

ideas

to

Method

his

and

systems,

mother,

of

that question

who,
women

the

may
but

importance

understand

only
though
in

why

Method.

unable

their

of

to

labours.

of wisdom.
He
lay
germs
To
be tcmght ; only drawn
out.
to learn; to guide oneself
not
the

man

could

another

solution

appreciate

herself,assisted

science
of

His

influential.

was

invent

that in each

that

borrow

it

begin

now

may

Science.

was

The
blindfness.
Sophists,who
by
was
judgment
pretended to teach everything, could teach nothing ; and their
must
ignorance was manifest in the very pretension. Each man
truth for himself, by rigid struggle with himself.
He,
conquer
assist
in
the
when
to
willing
man
Soctates, was
pains of
any

of another

the

labour

he

could

do

no

more"

PHILOSOPHY

SOCRATES.

OP

tj;

his havifg
wonder
at
cannot
Method, we
attached
himself
to
Ethical, rather than to Physical speculations.
realisation
His
of the inscriptionat
a
philosophy was
the
that
It was
in himself
he found
Know
Delphos
Thysdf.
to protect him
cism.
ground of certitude which was
against sceptiSuch

being

the

"

It

all others.

Indeed

have

we

which

science

moral

therefore

was

great

believe

to

reason

prized

he

above
his

that

of

Physical speculations,as reported

conclusions
natural, though eacaggerated,
of the
hurried
he had
to which
been
by a consideration
manifold
absurdities into which
they drew the mind, and the
There
could
be nothing but
scepticism which
they induced.
uncertaintyon such subjects. Certitude was only to be gained

energetic denouncement
the
hy Xenophon, were

in moral

speculations.
This
is the meaning of
brought Philosophy down
earth,

or,

urbibus

Cicero

as

collocavit

viti et

et

attention

from

morals.

This
of

in

Socrates

that

suppose

whom

the

contradiction

in

Sophists,in
well

as

know

occupy
did so

the

himself

with

speculationsas

to

while

am

Know

be

be

acquainted

type of the
speculations,since we
not

trivial.
say

; and

career

him.

In
I

by Plato ;
not
yet able, according
Myself; and it appears
to

butt

the

Firstly,it

physics. Fourthly,

*^

of

type of

easilyto

Physics, early in his

things,"he is made
reason

scouted

persons

many

of
person
nians,
Socrates, of all Athe-

Secondly,
most

led

whatever

comic

their

for

select

busy with

objections.

several

Aristophanes satirised

when

concerned

available

an

Thirdly, he could
way.
far as related to physical

those

such
such

to

as

is

he

nothing

general

have
'*

and
to
to

ignorant of myself, to inquire into

he

did

probably

after life he
not

garded
re-

leisure

for

I will tell you

scriptio
the Delphic inme

what

very
I

lous,
ridicuam

not

in."*
"

"

de

tion
representa-

glaringhas

so

knew

notorious, and

most

coegit

et

the

to

There

Clouds.'

nothing.

the
turned
quaerere." He
cosmology to speculations on

The

Satirists

it upon
coelo et in

introduxit

etiam

Aristophanes

they know
was

with

in

usual

not

it,

domicile

to

devocavit

"

Socrates

malis

et

Socrates, but only took him

Sophists. To this there are
is

the clouds

from

speculations on
is in flagrant contradiction

physicalspeculations. A
to

saying,that

common

expresses
in domos

bonis

moribusque

the

Phjedrus,'p. 8,
*i:

Philosophy

t58

with

Connected

op

Socratic

the

socratms.

view

of

Science

it

curious

is

to

remark

how

considers
wise

said

man,

man

the

evil,and
is a good

he,

being only a moralist,always

Knowledge.*
Only the
Vice
of
brave, just or temperate.

identical

be

to

of

be

can

with

is

kind

every

If

he,

Virtue

is accused

who

Ignorance; and involuntary,because

ignorant.
is cowardly, it is because
he does
not
rightly appreciate
of
and
death
life
death.
He
thinks
importance
an
flees it. If he were
he
know
death
would
that
wise,

thing,or,

would
he

is unable

and

future

not

the worst,
it. If a man

at

shun

estimate

an

is

relative

the

indifferent

intemperate

value

and

one,

fore
there-

it is because

of

pleasure
present
of
It is the nature
pain. Ignorance misleads him.
seek
to seek
man
evil,
good and shun evil : he would
never
it for good ;
knowing it to be such ; if he seeks it,he mistakes
if he is intemperate, it is because
he is unwise.
It would
be superfluous to refute these positions. We
may
the
remark, however, that they are
assumption
grounded on
that
is solely guided by his intellect
The
man
passions are
completely overlooked
; yet it is their operation in the above
which

cases

We

must,

to

interferes
in

with

conclusion,

the
say

directingpower
word

or

intellect.

of the

two

on

that

vexata

He
of Socrates.
what
he
qucestio,the Daemon
taught, and
all critical occasions, especially
taught he believed, that on
whenever
him or
his friends,he was
warned
foredanger awaited
any
who
by a Daemon
always accompanied him.
ing
Respectthe
critics are, and^ probably will
of this Daemon
nature
Some
with Olympiodorus,
that it only
remain, at issue.
agree
Conscience.
But
meant
although the voice of Conscience
will often
to
seem
tally with the attributes of the Socratic
it will still oftener fail. The
Daemon
not
Daemon,
only warned
his
Socrates
affairs,but also concerning the
concerning
pwn
affairs of his friends ; as we
of Plato.
in the
see
Theages
By
held
-has been
Others the
Daemon
be
to
purely allegorical;
others
the
to be a mystical expression for
by
operations of his
'

'

90ul.
.

:;.

Th^

mdsl;

probable explanation

ra^iijeligiQiis
man,

was

This

communications.
the

and

critics,who

have

insisted

on

tolq
^povri"rtic "eTo tlvai traaaQ
vi. 13.
Plato, in the ' Meno,* makes
cannot

be

taught.

be

to

implicitlybelieved
explanation has been

Science,

take

we

But

one

more

"

this is not

maintain

Socratic.

that

Socrates

in

supernatural
too
simple for

recondite.

hptrcLQ, Aristot.
him

this

Ethic,

Virtue

Yet

the

Nicomajh^y
cannot

be

PHILOSOPHY

above
of

is

perfect accordance
Apuleius tells

in

Daemons.

**

peculiar

OP

with

to

in

Plato

every

uniformly

Plato

declared
is

who

man,

there

says
was

witness

life,who, without

being visible
is always present, and who
is an
arbitrator not only
to any
one,
This Daemon
of his deeds, but also of his thoughts."
presides

guardian

and

the

over

him,

man

all

sees

his conduct

X^f^

what

that

us

allotted

Daemon

SOCRATES,

of

inquisitively,
participatesof all
all things, and
things,understands

profound
The
explicit.

most

"that

mind.*

the

"

he

Daemon,"

believed

who

of

recesses

"

says,
know

Gods

the

that

in

dwells

is

Xenophon
signs
gave

"

all

concerns

the

equally

Socrates,

to

things, both

those

in silence ; *for
spoken and those done, as also those meditated
to men
they are present everywhere, and give signs (o^/uii/ctv)
affairs."
concerning human
Memor,, i. c i.
the
first to teach the doctrine
of
not
was
Although Socrates
the first to give it a philothe immortality of the soul, he was
sophical
basis.
Nor
admiration, the
we
can
read, without
he was
the existence
of a
to prove
wont
by which
arguments
Providence.
Listen to Xenophon
beneficent
:
"

"

"

I will

relate

now

the

in which

manner

heard

once

Socrates

the Little^concerning
discoursing with Aristodemus, surnamed
sacrificed
the
Deity ; for observing that he neither prayed nor
ridiculed
the
and
the gods, but
to
on
laughed at
contrary,

"
"

Tell

me,

Many
his

him

"

of

them,
for

Homer

any

Epic
for

Xeuxis

you.

admire

you

having

pray

his

dithyrambics, Sophocles

statuary, and

whom

man

Aristodemus

merit?

some

Aristodemus,
for

his

of
Name

"

to

Aristodemus, is there

account

on
*

did, he said

who

those

answered

admire, said

Milanippides

poetry,

tragedy, Polycletes

for

for

painting.
demus
which
But
to you
most
seems
worthy of admiration, Aristoof motion
forms images void
the artist who
ligence,
and intelwho
the
hath
skill
animals
that are
to produce
one
or
with
but
?
The
endued
not
activity
only
undeiistanding
be
there
no
doubt, replied Aristodemus,
can
latter,
provided
.

**

"

the

production

contrivance.
we

can

what
*

easily see
they
purpose

the
were

use

there

are

many

of, while

produced,

we

but

which

of

the whole

Long's
"

Apologidi'

'

De

Legibus/

x.

p. 221,

of wisdom

things,some
cannot

say

and

"

of

and
which

of

others

to

these,Aristodemus,

other
together with much
passage,
translatioii
of " Plutarch,' i. p.
truly admirable

See

Plato's

since

But

of chance,

the effect

not

was

matter, in Professor

258.
Tneages,'

Consult

pp.

also

275-8.

the

do

suppose
you
reasonable
most
it is

But

**

made
for him

'

vO

to

smelling
likewise

evidentlyapparent

that

him

with

wherewith

whatever

should

It

whose

the

seem

utility

fitness and

senses

to

was

odours

denied

Or

and

be

in
eye

most

of

eminent
is

man

so

the

distinctions

unless

bitter

of

been

had

palate

arbitrate

to

them

between

that

not

manner

in

visible ; and

was

demus,
Providence, Aristoconspicuous, which, because

Is

delicate

good

were

say, Aristodemus,
of
prepared, if the sense

unsavoury,

diflference ?

the

they

; for

why

given, conveniently placed

beginning

the

at

whatever

heard

be

who

He

because

behold

to

should

of savoury

declare

the

those

purpose
had
been

sweet,

and

it of

; eyes

hear

what

and

wisdom?

of

affirm

to

endued

man,

lars

work

SOCRATES,

evidently apparent.

so

are

fij

OP

ILOSOPHY

i6o

its contexture,

hath

therefore

tend
it,which exclose
needful,
again
these
Are
when
not
eyelids provided, 'as it
sleep approaches ?
with a fence on
the edge of them, to
keep off the wind
were,
is not
itself
the
Even
the
?
without
and
eyebrow
guaril
eye
off the sweat
its office,but, as a penthouse, is prepared to turn
the forehead, might enter
and annoy
that
which, falling from
than
Is
it
tender
of
less
not
to be
astonishing part
us.
no

eyelids like

prepared
of

''

themselves

doors, whereby

to

secure

it is

whenever

and

"

admired

yet

that

animal

ears

much

too

not

are

the

be

should

in sounds

should

take

filled

by them

formed

That

in such

of ev^ry sort, and

the fore teeth of

is

evidently
cutting of its food, as those on the side for
the
this
mouth, through which
grinding it to pieces ? That
be placed so near
the nose
and
is conveyed, should
food
eyes
the

as

for

suited

best

to

the

or

passing,unnoticed

while

nourishment;
distance,

as

nature,

concealed

the

on

from

is unfit

whatever

hath

contrary,

of chance

or

of wisdom

contrivance

and

doubt, replied Aristodemus;

'

it,the more
masterpiece

it appears

evident
of

infinite marks

of

great
love and

some

the

for
at

set

all that might disgust

the senses,
And
thou still doubt, demus,
Aristocanst

them
?
offend
way
whether
dispositionof parts like this should
a

any

and;
to

indeed,

I have
the

that

me,

be
no

more

the work

longer

any
I consider
the

be

must

man

artificer;carrying along with

favour

of

Him

who

hath

it

thus

it.

formed
"And

individual

that

manner

the

prevent
and

what
which

tenderness

thinkest
leads

and

thou, Aristodemus,
to

the

affection

continuance
in the female

of that
of

die

towards

desire

in the

species?
her

Of

young^

inconveniences

SOCRATES.

OF

PHILOSOPHY

163

which

otherwise

would

animals, indeed, they have provided with

from
remove
one
place to another ;
may
form
also given hands, with which
he can
and

use,

to

they

they have

man

things for his

many
of any
himself happier than creatures
other kind.
other
animal ; but what
bestowed
been
on
every

make
hath

tongue

which

feet, by
but

Other

him?

befall

with
of forming words
hath the power
it,
animal, except man,
make
them
intelligible
whereby to explain his thoughts, and
others

to

"

it is not

But

have

shown

themselves

what

surpasses

animal, except

they

man,
have

even

be

to

the

to

Their

man.

him,

into

found

existence

gods

that the

alone

infused

have

is elsewhere
is

body

bountiful

thus

soul

the

to

respect

giftis that

excellent
far

with

most

which

for, by

so

what

covered,
gods dissuch
regular

those

of

still uphold, in
produced and
universe?
of the
order, this beautiful and
stupendous frame
What
other
is to be found
that can
species of creature
serve,
is able, like man,
that can
What
other animal
.adore them ?
to
provide against the assaults of heat and
cold, of thirst and
for the time of sickness,and
lay up remedies
hunger ? that can
has given by a well-proportioned
improve the strength nature
who

exercise
or

that

receive

can

happily keep

so

and

learnt ?

in

it were,
a
doth he surpass,

whatsoever

if the

of

body
unable

human

form

the

the

of

in

whether

all animals

while

what

memory

instruction

or

hath

he

and

seen,

to

have

that

had

ox

been

latter would
execute

endowments

the

the

been

soul

produced

joined
have

of

to

him

stood

well-designed plan

far

body,
; for,

or

therein

the mind

of man,

in small

the

stead,

would

; nor

heard,
is,

These
things being so, who seeth not that man
god in the midst of this visible creation ? so

as

acuteness

information

like him

the
.

remained

have

been

destitute

demus, hath

been

of

of

more

understanding

joined

to

the

to

use

wonderful

brute, so long

But
soul

in
a

thee, Aristo-

body

wonderful

; and

sayest thou, after this,the gods take

for

What

wouldst

me

their

?
care

thou

then

more

to

as

it

no

convince

no

less

thought
thee

of

they should send and inform me, said Aristodemus,

thou
things ought or ought not to do, in like manner
as
do
thee.
demus?
to
^And
what
sayest they frequently
then, Aristothat
when
the gods give out
thou,
some
supposest
it
oracle
all
the
Athenians
for
If by
to
thee?
not
they mean
their prodigies they declare
all
aloud
all
Greece*"
to
to
man"

what

I would

"

PmiOSOPHY

kind

^the

"

thou

beyond

their

care

into the

mind

of

him

or

not

man

whom

person

Believest

not, that

they would

thou

their

persuasion of

as

piety and

devotion

kingdoms

the

for their wisdom

well

renowned

man

only

they dumb
they have

are

hath

himself

is

the

so

well

never

in that part of life when

is supposed
his judgment

reason

in

and

as

been

as

able

being

thee

placed
wrought

have

make

to

commonwealths

observable

most

disposed

to

the

bears

its full

it in like

manner

If thine

most

those

antiquity,are

whose

and
the

serve

that

Deity

greatest sway,

and

strength and

maturity?
in thy
resides

Consider, my Aristodemus, that the soul which

it at pleasure ; why then
not
body can govern
may
the universe, which
pervades and animates
every
govern

to

or

gross
remarkest

even

the

them,

163

or
miserable, if so be they had no such power?
have
man
himself, long ere this,
seen
through
even
is it,Aristodenius, thou rememberest
?
How
delusion

happy

would
the

And

shall befall

things which
art

alone

SOCAATM^.

OP

eye

hath

the

part

the

power
distance

of

soul

to

of

it,

take

from
it,
placed at no small
if the eye of the Ueity can
marvel
at
not
one
glance comprehend
the whole.
perceivest it not beyond thy
And, as thou
of
time, to the concerns
abilityto extend
thy care, at the same
Athens, Egypt, Sicily,why thinkest thou, my Aristodemus, that
itself through the
of God
the Providence
not
easilyextend
may

objects, and

in many

universe

whole
**

As

therefore,among

gratitudeof

and

discover
in like

our

his wisdom
manner

these

men,

we

make

best

trial of the affection

neighbour by showing

by consulting him
behave
towyds the gods

him

in his
;

kindness, and

distress,do

and, if thou

thou

wouldst

their love, render

and what
self
thyexperience what their wisdom
divine
of those
of
some
deserving the communication
and
be penetrated by man,
which
not
are
secrets
imparted
may
who
alone who
those
to
adore,
consult, who
obey the Deity.
there is a Being
shalt thou, my
Then
Aristodemus, understand
is
whose
ear
pierceth throughout all nature, and whose
eye
sound
to all places,extending through
to every
; extended
open
whose
all time ; and
bounty and care can know no other bound
fixed by his own
creation.
than those
and
of the like natuVe, Socrates
others
By this discourse,
not
taught his friends that they were
only to forbear whatever
was
impious, unjust, or unbecoming before man
even,
; but
all
have
their actions,,
when
alone, they ought to
a
regard to
their eyes continually upon
since the gods have
none
us, and
"

PHlLOSOPIty

64

of

designs

our

i.

book

concealed

be

can

socrate:s.

OF

from

them."

Memorabilia^

"

chap. iv.

this passage
attention :
To

equally deserving of

another

add

must

we

"

"

Even

deities who

on
liberallybestow
of them
himself an object of
maketh
us
good things,not one
raised
this whole
our
universe, and still
sight. And He who
upholds the mighty frame, who
perfected every part of it in
beauty and in goodness, sufFering-none of these parts to decay
through age, but renewing them
daily with unfading vigour,
with
able to
whatever
he ordains
execute
whereby they are

readiness

that

all those

among

precisionwhich

and

he, the supreme

even

still holds

himself

are

capable

the

sun

of

which

admiring

hirh.

seemeth,

as

suflfereth

yet

men,

God, who
invisible, and

punishing

those

not

with

so

imagination ;

man's

surpass

performeth

only in his
consider, my

it is
For

wonders,

all these
works

that

Euthydemus,

it were,
forth to the view of
set
be
itself to
too
curiously examined
who

blindness

we

all
\

to
so
rashly venture
do ; and
of the
ministers
those
gods, whom
they employ to
invisible ; for,though the
their bidding, remain
execute
to
us

thunderbolt

is shot

from

on

too

high, and

in

breaketh

seeth it when
in its way, yet no one
it retires ; neither are the winds
when

it findeth
it

strikes,or
our
sight,though

ever
pieces whatit

when
falls,

discoverable

the ravages
plainly behold
they everywhere
what
time
are
make, and with ease
perceive
they
rising.
Euthydemus,
And, if there be anything in man,
partaking
my
of the divine nature, it must
surely be the soul which
governs
considers this as an object of his
and directs him ; yet no
one
sight. Learn, therefore,not to despise those things which you
cannot
see
by the effects
; judge of the greatness of the power
which
the Deity." Memorabiliay
are
produced, and reverence
iv. chap. iii.
book.
And
this,together with the ideal character of his ethics,and
his great titles to
been
the heroic
character
of his life,have

to

we

"

His

fame.

which

Method,

importance,

has

Science

discarded

has

immortalizes
of

to-morrow

standing
Giant

at all.

it.

on

the

long

since

been

his

real

discarded.

philosophical
If, however,

and
it, History gratefully remembers
The
discovery of to-day will be the commonplace
but
it
is
less
not
discovery. A Dwarf
a
;
shoulders

but, if he stood
It behoves

constitutes

him

upon
to

of

his

own

remember

Giant

sees

farther

basis,he would
that the Giant

than

the

scarcely see
is a Giant*

APPENDIX.

Note

TRANSLATION

OF

A.

FIFTH

THE

ARISTOTLE'S

various

(The

disputes

hope

scarcely

relate

of

age

these

lived

them,

and

of
the

that

the

the

Pythagoreans

reader

the

have

may

intellect,

greatest
of

portions

philosophers

those

called

mathematics,

to

that

fancied

they

such

doctrines

but

fifth

of

can

benefit

this

on

chapter

we

the

subject,

Aristotle

as

Pythagoras.)

to

the

""In
before

settled

authority,

here

translate

we

the

respecting

greatest'

the

of

OF

METAPHYSICS.

have

to

CHAPTER

the

they

who

at

and,

improved

mathematics

of

principles

Atomists),

and

Pythagoreans,

science

Eleats

(the

first

and

with

penetrated
the

were

even

selves
them-

applied

it,

of

principles

all

things.
Numbers

Since

"

thought

they

which

is

justice

and

{galpo^)

and

so

of

and

all

therefore,
being

by

neaven

between

of

bodies

nine

We

the

the

whole

in
was

soul

and

opportunity

was

Number.

world

Ten

all

are

visible,

they

have

treated

of

tov

they
oipavdv)

imagined
all

in

these

system,

(troiovtn)
more

that

parts,

ten

in

tenth,
in

detidl

the

analogies
and

with

formed

to

and

number,

perfect

number

whole

endeavoured

they

the

elements
the

great

its

ai^d

them

were

the
that

the

Since,
Numbers

diaKSofifiviv), they

their

declared

things

that

heaven

to

and

and

indicated

(ri)v hXtiv

appeared

numbers,

kqtA

of

harmony.

Numbers;

to

Having

defective

of

things

of

phenomena

was

since

{to. ^tpSfitva

the

was

Numbers

that

than

Numbers

of

concluded

they

elements

the

and

contains

yiyvofiivotof

ca"

combinations

similarly

things,

to

and

anything

Thus,

it.

potendally

**

if

the

formed

are

harmony

and,

rectify

oply

seemed

anterior

phenomena

system,

Numbers

in

saw

Numbers,

of

they
and

rest.

Numbers

in

is

exists

Numbers

of

Numbers

which

combination

combination

other

in

things,
that

ot^ffc

toiq

certain

combination

other

the

things

nature

of

(jjToxiiaj

voKKA

that

certain

they

Moreover,

'*

So

all

to

with

analogies

(ofAoiwfiara
certain

prior

nature,

greater

water.

or

intelligence

the

perceived

produced

fire, earth,

by

are,

moving
;

celestial

but

because

Anticthottf,
elsewhere.

If

we

i66

APPENDIX.
_

again
the

it is for

speak of them,
of

Pnnciples

the

things,

sake

how

and

to be

they held

establishing what

of

those

with

confounded

Principles were

Causes.
'*

maintained

They

things,

of

the

different

and

is

Odd

The

these,
The

finite,and

is both

and

their

The

states.

heavens,

as

there

say

and

All

Even.

ten

finite and

The

odd

The

one

The

right

and

the

The

male

and

the

even.

the

and

female.

quiescent and
The
right line and
Light and darkness.

the

moving.

the

curve.

the

and

square

oblong.

considered

Pythagoreans

the

elements

as
material, for
things, and constitute the world.
the One, they maintained
The
to be not
**....
finite,the infinite,and
but
the
Infinite
such
"c.,
fire,
existences,
as
are
w
ater,
/^r^^ and the
separate
of
all
the
substances
the
the
One
essence"
things
materia
prima
perse are
tlvai rovirov). They
of all things {avrh rb dfretpov,Kal avrb
to
ev, ovoiav
(Qualiiy,vtpi' rov ri). 'Aristotle uses
began by attending only to the Form

All

"

"

evil.

and

The

many.
left.

The

Good

goreans
Pytha-

Other
:-*

infinite.

the

the

and

of

One,

the

from

are

The

both

partakes

is derived

number

Even.

and
of

composed of numbers.
they thus arrange
principia,which

before,

said
are

Unity,

Odd

are

One,

the

modifications

their

of

\oToyila)of Number

infinite.

Even

Beginning (Principle,"ipxj))

the

was

existence, and

material

elements

Odd

we

Number

the

that
of

cause

"

"

"

elements

the

the

in all

are

"

for

ri) tL

iorri,or
this

roSt

suited

number

the

in the

two

(We
**

them

the

even

are

of

parts, and
Causes,
as

its

**

But

raise

to

such

This

also

one

be

the

ri

rh

the

(causa

essence

maintain

because

that

double

the

double

is first found

ec^ual(in essence),or,

not

are

which

consequence

the

heaven,

if

their

revolutions

follows

if so,

their

from

(the

and

Causes
to

conception

the
cat

much

that
thus
the

which

conception
Irrl rd
better

of

Elements

do

However,

not

take

all

their

are

which

should

what

call heaven.

we

sufficient

pronounce

Intelligible things

5vrwv),
aviitrspia r"v
than
with
that of

criticism of Aristotle's

strangely

more

they

is that

alaOfiT"v),

contains

Principles
we

*jth Chapter,)

physical. They explain the

takes
place in its various
their
Principles and
they employ
is, is
Physiologists, that whatever

systems

with

is that

i^

ovk

and

which

of

cause

observe

they agreed

up

Principia and

; the

all their

and

the

passage from

things (avr"Q

physical

(ivavaPiivai

sense

many,

(aio6riT6v)iand
them

with

synonymous

to

should

thing,

double
a

Physiologists

production

material

add

sensible

frqm

researches

if

as

same

Pythagoreans employ

The

as

doctrine."

Pythagorean)

than

be

the

and

would

one

the

are

two

declared

they

defined

thing

But

two.

the

very
definition

were

formalism

causa

lUog and fxop^rf),and began to define it,but on

and
that
imperfect. They define
superficially,

even

their

of the

materialts)

then

ri, or

subject they

which

and

suhstantialiSy

forma

rh

and

"

of

would

(Uavag)

things
accord

above

with

physicalthings.''

is

perfectrefutation

cf those who

see

in

APPENDIX.

the

Pythagoras
rational

more

very remark

of

traces

the

that it was

proves

doctrine.

symbolical
have

would

doctrine

not

bf en

the

Note

being

in

verses

text

our

*Qc

yap

vooQ

Kal

vaffiv,

to

Brandis,

the

shall

**

then

sal

Bitter

B.
critical reader,

translates

is the

"

want

"

The

fulness

of all

being is thought.'*

"

**

to

have

to

us

necessary

limbs, erg-o,

introducing
preceding :

therefore,
the

rb

vXkov

uses

the

ordinary meaning
the
If

highest degree
explanation is

This

thought.

Iwi

of
consequence
sensations.
many
The

sensations.
of

puKoXtxaQ

rag

Parmenides,

vSrjfia,

fulness.*'

speak with submission, but it appears

the full
or
meaning
respecting rb vXiov
** the
The
is
more
ordinary meaning
certainly
used
occasionallyto signifyperfection,as in

as

lori

"

thought

For

trXkov

rb yap

travri'

We

seems

of
give the original

we

'* the
of rb
most," and
to that of
vXsov,
HegePs version
is
the
the
But
Ritter
full."
meaning
mightier,'*
we
says
is
of
the
?
He
fall." "Wliat
it
elsewhere
an
interpretation
the phrase thus :
"

When

symbolical|but hjs

**

slightlyalters

Kal

much

"

"

Objecting

it been

had

how

sees

KicaffrogIxet Kp"^iv fifksiovfroXvca/iirrciiv,

Ti yap
airb
avOpwiroiffi irapsorijKEV.

Twg

last sentence

The

for the

intended

Aristotle

so.

Note
This

167

the

passage

is

in

itoXv
he
of
in

had

to

that

us

the

**

"

Theocritus

"

rb

Kafinroi.
more

limbs

speaks
has
he

with

what

with

the

hence

20.

vofijia^he
of

vXkov

rb

many-jointed

would

organization gives the

conformity
conformity

i.

wXiovitrri

; he
Man

in view

and

"

fidKraQ. Idy.

phrase

assertion

is unwarrantable.

the most,"

"

or

ikco

Ritter*s
"

fulness

have

more

highest degree

Aristotle
line

says

on

immediately

"

ionv

'Swip ^povittfitXiatv^votg AvOpiawoiffi

;

explanation of the scholiast Asclepias, rb wkov

wpoffyiyvtraiIk rrje vXkovoe aioOriffitaeKai aKptpktrrfpag; and,
in
Parmenides
to
finally,is
conformity with the opinion attributed
by
choses
lui paraissaient
sentir
et
ne
Plutarch, that
distinctes, ni
penser
elles ni de Torganisation."*
entre
this
It is on
account
reject the reading of voXvnXdyKrtav, '^ farwe
of
in
place
voXvKdfifrrtov,"many-jointed," suggested by
wandering,"
The
is arbitrary,and
for
Karsten.
the
change
TroXvnXdyKnav
worse,
whereas
reference
the simile in Parmenides
is
having
only to the feet,
is in conformity

with

the

iixrl voiifia,

"

apply to the whole man.

is
is,therefore, that the intelligence of man
meaning of the verses
according to his many-jointed frame, i,e.,dependent on his zation.
organi-

to

meant

The
formed

'

Ch.

Qpin,

des

RenouvieTj

'

Manuel

PhiloSf,*iv, 5,

de

la

Philos*

A?"cienne,'i. p. X5a| whp

cit9" 1'Plutvdiy

APPENDIX.

i68

Note
The

this

of

original

disputed

C.
is

passage

Pierron
is rendered
by MM.
tCetait
d'Empedocle,
pas
M6taphysique d* Aristotle, i.

which

and

Z^vott

arrivi

This

with

agrees

text

our

prevent

closer.
**

MM.

les mots

Mais

and

faitt

Anaxagoras

in

this

dans

une

the

in

that

chez

revera,

of

chapter

Thus

Sophocles

"

"

Inferior
for

"

meaning

This

the

by

the

on

here

alleged
renaark

passage,

et, chez

understood

has

une

nous,

en

If

us.

only

can

Aristotle, and,
translation, which

their

of Anaxagoras

ry
in

look

must

we

ordinairement

ont

Latins,

contradict

fir-t

antithesis

not

was

so

plausible

of ^^rtpog, which
meaning
certainly
the
In
posterior in point of time.
fifth book, he treats
of all the
significations
of
these
significations is superiority and
the

is often

superiority^ertpog

used

by

the

poets.

i^aphv ffiog, ftal yvvauchg (;"rrcpoy.

O

shameful

is the
inferior

**

that
the

"

*0

none

of

sense

of

mean

One

liortpog.
the

In

inferiority.

"*

on

to

Aristotle's

of

and

irporf poc

lez

Cousin

M.

Z^vort

be

eleventh

"

the

of

sense

and

be
laid
weight must
exclusively taken

More
cannot

on

opposition,

point of fact, the system

Empedocles.

of

force

their note

that, in

says

Clazom6ne,
plausible y

de

aussi

strike
not
objection does
reality, posterior to Empedocles, we

in

fact,

Pierron

MM.

moreover,

in

re,
force

The

was

understand

as

comme

reality**

en

the

preserves

Z"vort,

Ipyoi^
ipytfit

significationvague,

systhme

the reasons
ipyoig ^"mpog. But
in
his interpretation,and

concurrence

Pierron

Anaxagore

*'

un

confess, however,

We

better

"

^1

p. 233.

version.

our

version
glance M. Cousin's
li\v r/XiKl^frp^rcpoc
roif

'AyaCayopflc

"

roig S*ipyoic ^ffvtpoc-^

tovtov,

Tain^
La

this:

VLXaXofJiiviOQ rii fikv tiXiKi^ vft6TipoQ iSv

of

below

character,

primitive meaning
to

woman

"

thus, also, we

"*

say,

second

to

none."

^artpog, namelv,

commentators

on

the

of

is the one
inferiority,
in question ;

always

stood
under-

of

none

passage

them

indicates
chronological ptosteriority. vp6rtgoQ
prioiity in
Thus
point of time ; ^vri^cg inferiority in point of merit.
Fhilopon :
secundum
opinionem,"
priorquidem tempore, sed posterior et manens
understood

*"

fol.

2a

oXX'

^iTTtpog

XPovtfi,
time, but second
Tip

scholiast

tlie anonjonous

and

of

iWiitruv

Kal

the

Vatican

Kara

MS.

Ttjy So^av

:
:

irporcpo;

first indeed

"

yovv
in

and
inferiorin point of doctrme."
remains
answered
in order
to be
now
only question which
to estab*
lish
the
of
the
proof
foregoing interpretation of ^vrtpog, is this : Did
Aristotle
of
regard the system
pedocles
as
Anaxagoras
inferior to that of EmThe

?
This
will

question

remember
for

Kai

his

can

(see
causes

page

of

9'

more

B^irc^oicX^ciTrtvXiov

iKuvdg.^M^,

i, 4t

distinctlyin

answer

citation

employing

never

emergencies

employs

we

our

the

passage

the

in which

affirmative.
Aristotle

The

blames

reader
goras
Anaxa-

his
First
Cause
(Intelligence) except upon
continues
thus :
). Aristotle
Empedocles
indeed
abundantly, though not
sufficiently."
"

^y

jovTif

XP^Tai roig alrio^g,

oi

^j} o$rc

THE

170

exhibited

He

SCHOOL

and

this Method

Method;

him

Around

applied.

MEGARJC

were

of

men

his bearers

various

severally

various

ages,

peraments,
tem-

various

discoursed
with
each
opinions. He
his own
subject. With
Xenophon
Politics; with
on
upon
science; with Antisthenes on morals;
on
Theages or Theaetetus
and

with

Ion

poetry ; and

on

; others
Of
is great.

those

Socratic

more

But

opinions
These

are

Euclid

of

formed

two

the

so-

stubborn
the

Amongst

others.

on

latter

was

Megara.
who

Euclid,
a

great

be

not

must

born

was

of

love

; date

Megara

at

with

confounded

the

He

unknown.

philosophy, and

matician,
great Mathehad

early

diligentlystudied

had

and
the
Eleatics.
other
From
writings of Parmenides
in dialectics ; and this continued
he acquired great facility

the
Zeno
to

some

imperfect Socratists.

the

by

the

only refuted, became

were
naturally only
willing to adopt his

were

that is, were

convinced;
some
subjects, but remained

on

between

were

less

or

imbibed

who
; those
of the former

convinced

were

convinced

were

Schools

enemies.

his

who

Some

difference

merely refuted. The

him

called

forth.

so

his

be

chief

excellence,

reproved him

Socrates, who

for it

delight in listeningto

His

his

after

even

acquaintance

with

sophistical.

as

Socrates

was

so

that

great

he

A decree
was
frequently exposed his life to do so.
passed, in
of
the
Athens
and
enmity existing between
consequence
in Athens
of Megara found
should
Megara, that any inhabitant
the
braved
He
forfeit his life; Euclid, however,
penalty.
Athens
at
to
night, disguised as a female.
frequently came
At the end
of his journey he
distance
The
was
twenty miles.
of Socrates ;
recompensed
by the fascinating conversation
was
he

and

returned

Brucker's
them

to

meditate

supposition

that

rupture

of their arguments.
caused
between
was

of Socrates

in consequence

tendency,
contradicted
by the
Socrates, Plato

the results

on

putatious
having reproved Euclid's disis wholly without
foundation, and seems

the

and

fact

notorious

majority

that,

of

the

the

on

death

disciples retired

of
to

of the Athenians,
popular outbreak
of
in a
state
who
against all the philosopher's
were
rage
received
Euclid
them
ties
well.
Bound
friends.
by the same
the illustrious martyr, and sharing some
of friendshiptowards

Megara, in

of

his

fear

of

some

opinions, the

Differences, however,
of the kind.

Socratists

made

arose

they will amongst

; as

Plato, and

some

some

stay

others returned

in

Megara.

all
to

nities
commu-

Athens

EUCLID.

as

soon

with

safety. The

"The

rest

defective

fix it in the

brieflygiven
conviction

of

so

it is sible
posbe
information, may

our

far

so

as

laws

the

Socratic

the

enlarged by

obligation^and

moral

the

view

Eleatic

the

as

of

state

doing

Euclid.

with

Megaric doctrine,

of the

character

to

remained

their

admitted

public mind

state of the

the

as

171

of scientific

thought:"^
confess

We

have

of

hint

no

"

of the

unaware

Ritter

Euclid

that Euclid

means

adopted

in

Ethical
is

correct

mean

understand

agreed with

Euclid
but

was

does

he

what

are

by

the

latter he
Induction

of

if he
are

ing
mean-

does

at

not

loss to

mean.

Eleatics

the

in

maintaining

Being, which

unalterable

One

we

we

Socratic

and

"

"

Euclid

If, by the former,

Definitions,he is hopelesslyrwrong
; and,
laws of scientific thought
that by
we

and

In

Socrates

; if
Method

Socratic

the

this.

thought."

an

gave

doctrine, he

Eleatic

the

of scientific

laws

that

means

to

inabilityto comprehend
"moral
obligation";

our

be

can

that there

known

by

not
simply The One;
Being was
The
This
Good,
it simply Intelligence;it was
neither
was
various
One
names
according to its various
Being received
sometimes
Wisdom
it was
times
{"f"p6vq"ris)
; someaspects : thus
Reason
God
(vovs); and so forth. This
(dios)
; at others
Good
One
{tv to dyaObv) is the only Being that really exists/

This

only.

Reason

everything opposed

one

it has

to

nothing but

phenomenal,

sitory
tran-

existence.

Laertius.
the

God

as

denial

it the

In

both

Eleatic

of

that
God

declares

of such

as

are

will

Socratic

and

existence

of any

Socrates

reader

dya^oK" the

TO

explanation
only

outline of his doctrine,as

is the

Such

the
and
purely Socratic:
is an
things opposed to the Good
in
Plato's
'Republic,' where

Good
to

passage
not

presented by Diogenes
in detecting
have no
difficulty
The
elements.
conception of

to

is

"

be

the

an

virtue

was

not

constitutes

the

indeed

the

with
*

of

Wisdom
*

any

of

all

things,but

good.t

Megaric doctrine is therefore

from
Ethical
tendency borrowed

The

author

Eleatic

doctrine, with
Socrates, who
taught that
partialcultivation of the hurusn mind, but

true

and

entire

essence

universe.

whole

The

the

of the

rational

identification

man,

of

Virtue

is also Socratic.

Bitter.'

t f*4 vdvTuv

aiTtov

Tov

9(ov, dXX")

rwv

dyaBwv.

"

and

^Lib. ii. p. lOO.

THE

17*

With

MEGARIC

Euclid's

to

respect

SCHOOL

EUCLID.

dialectics

is

there

point,

one

often
,

alluded

to,

sition
he

variously interpreted,

did

attack

not

the

certainly the

reverse

managed

draw

who,

to

we

originally
be

in

Euclid

that

in

dialectics, therefore,

Eleatic

tendency,

Zeno.

It

was

Socratic

The

out

the

doctrine

was

the

out

speculations
his

that

of

immediate

undertook

further

was

the

order.

Alexinus,

and

element

that
there

into

which

following

forward

his

of

Diodorus

Eubulides,

followers,
carry

portion

pared
com-

unlike,

of

to

strikes

highest

Euclid

see

we

the

not

carrying

and

this

of

things

are

precept

induction

of

reasoning

analogical

of

This

pletely,
com-

mode

attention

the

things compared

method

Socrates*

of

he,

confine

and

known

more

the

is

*always

generally

analogical

the

If, said

conclusion.

the

the

distinction

rejected

to

the
; if

question

error

weakness

In

from
this

mark

to

alike, it is better

are

species

if

As

This

premisses,

old

from

proceeded

says,

adversaries

Socrates, who

of

manner

(8ta 7ra/oa)8oXi}sXoyov).

reasoning

must

the

oppo-

conclusion.*

the

conclusions

new

told

are

but

direct

his

refuting

In

premisses,

known.

less

Socrates.

of

Xenophon

as

the

to

of

Method

the

to

is in

which

and

to

developed

by

Stilpo.
"

majority

The

doctrines,
;

or

for

the

which

on

that

than

to

were

with

Laert.,'

Ltradictory

consists

in

of Phil,
adopted by the
Hist,

ii.

of

\,y p.
best

199.

is
**

"

conclusions

The

system

translation

that

judged
lirom
in

did

they

not

but

delusion,

it is

events

forms

of
the
tain
cer-

of

thought,
particular rules

or

method.*'

of

into
lowing
the folby Enfield
legitimate argumenta-

text

is the

lacies
fal-

Eristici

called

acknowledged
the

certain

of

exemplifying

the

paraphrased

He

opposite

all

At

discovery

scientific

fair

writers.

the

to

This

107.

statement

deducing

and

with

occupied

view

of

purposes

opinion.

mainly

school,"

of

that

presumed

thinkers,

common

Megaric

refutation

occasionally

were

the

hasty

of

foundation

the

Diog.
c

tion

they

perhaps,

more

may

the

application

and

be

for

and

of
the

for

they
it

fallacies

superficial vanity

members

either

account

rash

instructing

later

invention

Still

these

employ*

the

famous

Dialectici.

and

of

are

"

Ritter,

says

premisses."

right

one,

"

and

Tas

SCHOOL

CYRENAIC

CHAPTER
THE

Among

ijj

II.

SCHOOL

ARISTIPPUS.

rank Aristippus,
must
we
imperfect Socratists
the Cyrenaic School, which borrowed
its name
from
the birtli-place
of its founder
Africa.
: Cyrene iQ
descended
from
Aristippuswas
wealthy and distinguished
the

the

CVRENAIC

ARISTIPPUS.

founder

"

"

of

parents, and

consequently thrown

was

debauchery

Minyae.

He

which

came

Socrates

well with

agree

offensive

was

an

is

assertion.

He

Aristippusamong

with

remained

simply
between
that

was

the

Athens

he

by

have

to

his political
of
exaggerated extension

an

his views to

Island

the

be

But

absurd.

have

must

as

It

this is
existed

merely shows

of Rhodes.

On

strangers,and

to
He

was
'Aristippus

will

On

to
see

to

the

he

Asia

he

he discovered

sea-coast
"

Take

arrivingat

himself

for

procure
used

you

whom

exclaimed

and

with Lai's,
met
accompanied to
was
shipwrecked

he

^gioa, where

from

footsteps of men."

managed
reception.

and

courage,

the

friends

"Send
two
say:
the advantage of the

a
see

principaltown
a
hospitable
men

amongst

philosopher."

of those

one

"Cbildrenofthe
to

to

courtezan,
Corinth

his way

On

he

but

side

an

of

execution

they disagreed. The

discussion reported

as

opinion, such

went

geometricaldiagram,
here

the

either

on

soon

s^uch

authorityfor

no

of his followers.
many
for himself.

and

his

Aristippus expresses

to prove

Socrates

is

bond

no

Socrates

world-renowned

Corinth.
on

wherein

of

of

the

originatedin the

have

difference

diat

Aristippusthought

From

the

to

accept money;

the number

Socrates, until

preventedtheir separation as
impression seems
by Xenophon,*
indifference,and
logic endeavours

Socrates,

pupil did not

that his fondness
for pleasure

asserted

; and
There

Socrates.

there

did not

great Talker

commonly

latter; and

the

The

his master
to

of

tlie wisdom

of

Olympic

He
sharing his enchanting discourse.
offer of a large sum
of money
; which, as

admitted
willingly

disciples. It

much

so

of

colony

the

attend

to

of luxurious

the

on

declined.

usiial,was
but he

heard

into the vortex

characterized

Greece

to

over

he
There
games.
that he determined

made

then

strong sensual
"

Son

whose

passions he

blood

united

ii. c
'Kemorabilia,'

t.

fiie ; "
a

calm

regulative

CYRENAid

tHE

I^4

SCHOOL

luxury, he avoided
excess.
Easy and
in ordinary affairs,he had
his
careless
over
great dominion
his
desires.
in
life
Pleasure
but
he
knew
was
grand object
;
In dispositionhe
how
to temper
enjoyment with moderation.
fellow
of infinite mirth
was
yielding; a
sopher
easy and
; a philosicklied o'er with the pale cast
whose
brow
never
was
had
is but too
He
often
of thought."
dignity ; which
no
a
virtue.
stiff-necked
had
He
sternness.
no
Gay, brilliant,
intellect.

Prone

to

'*

*'

"

enjoying,he

careless, and

Court
of Dionysius
splendid genius of Plato
The
deportment
grave
the

had

Diogenes

that

"

and

very

test.

On

already illustrious by the

of Diogenes.

and

Plato

to

put

the

presented to him for

Ithree, observing that
\ choice.
who

On

Tyrant than
elegant. His

were

make

to

it had

occasion

one

fatal

been

occasion,
a
violent, he said

to

"

were

them

took

Paris

dispute

was

hetaira

he

even

ready wit

three

choice

in

another

becoming

was

him

of
virtue
savage
the easy gaiety of

the

IAristippus,
often

delightof

rigidabstinence

for the
vices

and

ornament

Court
the

of

less charm

whose

the

became

to

all

make

iEschines,
give over
: we
senior, have a right

Let

us

quarrelled,it is true; but I, as your

claim \ht precedency in the reconciliation J^*

have
to

In

his old

there

opened

he

age

returned

have

to

appears

his school.

philosophy, as Hegel remarks, takes its

personality. So individual is it,that we should
it

entirely,had

over

Its relation

been

not

to

his

from

have

passed it

Epicureanism.

of

precursor

colour

is also

important.
Aristotle f
In
the
believe, in which
only passage,
we
he
of
him
a
Sophist. What
as
speaks
Aristippus,
Was
of the professed Sophists?
No.
this mean
?
he one
Socrates

tions
men-

does
It

"

"

Several

of them

immense

"

of his

Scinus,
wealth, once
in

spat

Aristippus,

"*

One

ncy."

dec

repartees
the

expatiating on

the
his

by Laertius.
of
Dionysius, a man
his house.
Aristippus over
of

showed

splendour
face.

there

in

every

Scinus
other

no

was

day,

of

We

recorded

are

treasurer

was

part,

place

to

even

furious'.
where

*^

low

While

could
for

the

he

best
but
was

floors,the philosopher
me," exclaimed

the

Pardon

interceding with the Tyrant

Being reproached for such

add

character

have
a

spat

with

friend, he threw

of dignity, he
want
One
Dionysius has his ears in his feet ?
day
him
that a philohe asked
own
sopher
Dionysius made
money.
need
lad
of money.
"Give,
give," replied Aristippus, "and
no
^*
will settle the question at once."
said the
Now^*
Dionysius gayCr
we
philosopher,*"I have no need of money.''

himself

"

his

on

answered

knees.

fault
Is it my
the Tyrant for some
;

Met.'

Cyrene, and

to

His

with

"

iii. c. ii.

if

'*

AlilSTlPPuS.

means,

believe,that he shared

we

reasons

such

as

different

on

these

objects

In

he

far he

so

He

sought

of

far

so

main

the

on

his

he

direction

turned

him

shunned.

researches

was

the

upon

His

Socratist.

not

th^

express

constitution

moral

not

was

his

abstract

speculations.

views

Pleasure.

Ethical

system,
the

"

inflict it ;

He
one,

tendency
Socrates

he

the

it

to

averse

; and
of

and

the
The

resolved
Socrates'

desire

erred

only

men

was

kernel
aim

the

was

suited

master,
was

directlytowards
preaching about

and

pith

He

of all

because

of

constituted

the
Happiness. Thus
injuiywas better than
immoderate
of
gratification

endure

that to
knew

alone

was

have

tion,
Logical deduc-

that

an

by misery, did not constitute Happiness,

the contrary.
Aristippus thought this too vague.
this general idea
to
more
a
specific
only reduced

senses,
but
not

to
was

of what

knew

was

specifywhat

of all action

notions
alone

man

would

his

of

process

His

Happiness

that

motor

erroneous

the

It

individuality
quickly
master

disposition.

while

his

his

his

Aristippuswished

Good,

wise

nor

Hence,

it into

men

took

own

scientific intellect.

rigorous

the

neither

concrete.

which

by-paths

was

But, although he

Socrates, yet his

from
into

which

its

do

sions
impres-

impose on'

we

man.

In

to

his

none

there.

and^ concentrated

this

details

judges accordingly
judge correctly.
the discipleof Socrates,
a Sophist ; but, as
criterium
of truth must
be
sought within.
He
dismissed
with
all physical
contempt
human
subjects beyond
comprehension,

no

speculations,as

Sophists
share

of truth ; each

criterium

was

that

learned

sensations,but

our

who

which

names

the
did

different

make

objects
The

senses.

impressions;

his

external

express

is

things; there
to

that

he

That

Empiricus,*

Sextus

from

of

opinion

the

Science.

respectingthe uncertaintyof
opinion is evident

1,^5

followed

being

viz. Pleasure;

in

only criterium

Of

that

which

we

only

know

endeavoured

he

the

is without

to

sensation
us

we

of
c^n

show

how

truth

had

pleasure or of pain.
know
nothing truly;^
'

us

with

through our
respect to objects.

us

with

respect

things truly;

but

to

true

that

respecting external
sensations.

We'

sensations.

our

it is

and
our
senses,
But
our
senses

we

objects; we
sensations
those
Amongst
cannot

Adv.

Math.'

vii. p.

doubt
we

173.

do

not

We

deceive

perceive

not

may

perceive.

deceive

senses

may

doubt

respecting our
naturally seek the

\
\

j
\

"T^

SCHOOL

CYRENAlC

THE

176

repetition of
painful.

such

as

Pleasure, then,

form

was
as

the

of

those

that

ard

only positive good, and as the only

the end of
be
to
good, he declared
for constant
pleasure the soul must
this
desires,
over
pleasure was
only

its dominion

preserve
another

shun

the

as

but, inasmuch

life ;

pleasurable,and

are

what

of

positivetest

ARISTJPPUS.

Socratic

It is

temperance.

Socratic

distinguished

Pleasure, however, in being

conception
In the
positive,and not merely the gratificationof a want.
Phaedo,' Socrates, on
being released from his chains, reflects
connexion
the intimate
of pleasure and
pain ; and calls
upon
the
of pain, pleasure. Aristippus, on
the absence
contrary
of pain : they are
removal
taught that pleasure is not the mere
and
both
not
non-pain are
positive emotions; non-pleasure
soul.*
the
but
it
of
the
emotions,
as
were
sleep
the
In
to
ethics, Aristippus
application of this doctrine
With
the
betrays both his Sophistic and Socratic education.
Sophists he regarded pleasure and pain as the proper criteria
action being in itself either good or bad, but
of actions ; no
With
Socrates, however,
only such according to convention.
the
he regarded
advantages acquired by injusticeto be trifling;
the

from

of

evils

the

whereas

; and

we

of the

the

was

welfare

fail to

be

Socrates, although his method

Ethical

tendency
idea

abstract

grounded
Cyrenaic
Pleasure
morals

the

on

the

still further

The

only

was

of

The

reduced

of

Aristippus

influence
We

see

One.
to

In

of
the
the
was

the

the concrete,

only ground of certitude, and

In the Cynic school
we'Shall
see
a
in this direction,

development

perity
pros-

the

the

science.

In

conception

conception

this became

followed.

not

siderable
con-

State.

it was,
manifest

as

are

individual

Megaric School
(to ayaOov) of Socrates,

Good

Eleatic

of

whole

the

was

predominating.

abstract

; and

the

of

of the

with

struck

punishment

ol

result, not

philosophy, such

the

reviewing

cannot

apprehensions

pleasure

but

alone,
In

and

Diog. Laert.,*ii. 89.

ANTISTHENBS

17"

Virtue;

worshipped

He

DIOGENES

AND

it

but

and

Virtue, ferocious

was

unbending.
ordinary

to

"

^J
'

his

in

appear

in

pride

his

displayed

he

differing from
cloak, with an

threadbare

other

different

How

himself

inured

to

was

Socrates

heat

to

and

to

wallet

His

gestures.
in

expressed

your

too, had
that

he

virtue
he

of

could
no

wore

his beard
to grow,a
coarse
; allowed
and
renounced
all diet but
the
a
staff; and

simplest. His manners

reproachful,and bitter
in his

see

cloak

except

carried

in

cold, in order

of fortune
he
made
might bear the chances
no
; but
Antisthenes
being ragged, hungry and cold.
thought
his
virtue
He
only preserve
by becoming a savage.

garment

**

He,

!
"

poverty,

men.

ostentatious

saw

this from

of

contempt

through it all,and exclaimed

vanity, Antisthenes, peering through the holes
Socrates

poverty.
your
cloak."

Socrates

and

usages

used

He

with

whilst

Even

his

corresponded
in

his

his appearance.

to

language; careless
of

contempt

all

saying,

"I

would

Socrates

he

formed

and

sensual

Stera^
indecent

enjo3axientwas

rather

be

mad

thaa

sensual."*
of

death

the

On

school, and chose for

called
the
Cynosarges
a

his

place of meeting a public place

it is said the sect
of
Dog), from which
(Temple of the White
derive
it from
the
its name
Cynics derives
snarling
; others
who
of
The
called
the
founder^
was
frequently
propensities
As he grew
moroseness
old, his gloomy temper became
Dog."
:
he
became
so
insupportable that all his scholars left him,
him
with
his death.
at
was
Diogenes of Sinope, who
except
asked
his
whether
last agony
In
he
him,
needed
Diogenes
"

"Will

friend.

replied.

Diogenes

wish

"I

be

to

friend

release

him
gave
freed from

this

from

me

pain?"

he

will."
dagger, saying, "This
from
the'
life," was
pain, not
a

"reply.
The

in two

read

of his

advantage
"

to

It enables

that he

uniformly expressed for mankind

sayings. Being asked, what was

he

contempt

be

derived

from

philosophy,
with
myself."

me
keep company
Have
: :
greatly praised by many
then, that I am
praised? he asked.f

to

"

answered

Being told,
done
anything

was

he

be
may
the peculiar

"

wrongs
"

It is thus

we

ijffBilriv,Ritter

pleasure," which
t

Dr.

would

interpret Diog. Laert.,* vi.

*

gives this version

is

an

Enfield, who

outrageous

:":"

I hadrather

3
go

fiayiirjvfiaXKov ij

mad

than experience

sentiment.

generally manages

to

introduce

some

blunder

into

THE

Sinope is generally remembered

Cynicism ; probably, because
more

of
his life have

which

179

of

Diogenes

Sinope,

CYNICS.

descended

who

to

convicted

was

He

us.

the

was

the

as

of

banker

at

of

son

debasing the coin

supposed to have been
of

sentative
repre-

anecdotes
a

affair in

an

implicated.
the heights of splendour and
From
Diogenes fled to Athens.
himself
reduced
he
found
to
squalid poverty.
extravagance
of
which
Antisthenes
The
proclaimed,*"
magnificence
poverty,
embrace
the
attracted
him.
to
Poor, he was
philosophy
ready
he
isolate
himself
of poverty : an
to
fron"
ready
was
outcast,
with
self
disgrace, he was
society ; branded
ready to shelter himbranded
all society.
under
a
philosophy which
Having
wealth
and
in his own
little
how
experienced
luxury
person
of
he
for
the
the
do
inclined
to
more
happiness
was
can
man,
wealth
to
having experienced how
prompts
try the converse;
vice, and how desires generate desires, he was
willing to try
the efficacyof poverty
and
virtue.
He
went
to
Antisthenes;
continued
He
himself
the
refused.
oflfer
to
to
was
C)aiic as a
his knotty staff,and
threatened
scholar ; the Cynic raised
to
strike him
if he did not
Strike ! replied Diogenes ;
depart.
"
will not
find a stick hard
enough to conquer
you
my
verance."
persehim
Antisthenes, overcome,
as
a
accepted
pupil.
the

son

also

was

"

"

live

To

virtue

life of virtue

Cynicism.

was

of all luxury

carried

war

was

with

the

Ascetics
be

thought
one
approached
to

of virtue.

by

on

of

later

to

such

the

of

desires.

sensual

of

the
a

he

nearer

It

Body.

was

nearer

to

A^

life

pure

; the

Body

That

tion
renuncia-

complete

basis

the

day,

sole aim.

against

suicide,the

all

Mind

the

annihilation

the

in the

subjugation of

the

"

consisted

It

his

henceforward

was

wa?

any*

the ideal

vile,filthy,degraded
degrading j
the
free
the
was
curse
man
clog upon
ment
developit
of Mind
This
was
with,
hated, despised.
;
beautiful Body, so richly endowed
for enjoyment, was
regarded
sink
of
all
the
iniquity."
as
limited
his desires
to
Accordingly, Diogenes
necessities.
it

Body

The

the

and

was

; it was
wrestled

of

"

He

little ; and

ate

t6 live upon
raw
dress
consisted
has
every
page,
of a bad
man.
iroXXot
"

See

"

what

he

solely of

cloak

of

the

when

he

the language

of

'

Diogenes

it

He

tried

failed.

His

coarsest.

vegetables;

spoiled this repartee, by giving

Yet

liravoviTifvi. 8.
of Xenophon,
the
Banquet
*

was

unboiled

and

meat

ate

but

asked
as

Laerlius

Antisthenes

reply
is very

to

the

praise

explicit;

"

ANTISTHENES

80

for

shirt he

and

wallet

told

was

fold his cloak

to

stick

huge

DIOGENES

AND

in

his

completed

did

; he

two

so.

Seeing

accoutrements.

his

threw
out
drinking water
scooped hand,
his cup, declaring it superfluous.
He
the
slept under
away
marble
Tub,
porticoes of the buildings, or in his celebrated
residence.
which
his
his
in
He
meals
of
took
was
place
public.
actions
In public he
all
those
which
the
connate
performed
has condemned
of every
to privacy. Decency
decency of man
kind he studiouslyoutraged. It was
to do so.
a part of his system
Everything, not in itself improper, ought, he said, to be performed
publicly ^a sophism which could not have deluded
any
a

little boy

of

he

"

Besides

one.

he

gestures ; had

he

wont

was

to

people with

annoy

philosophicalreason

for that

indecent

also ?

expressed respecting his Tub, which it \%

residence, and used by him *as
thought was
only an occasional
for luxury.
We
incline,however, to
expressiveof his contempt
have

Doubts

the

tradition.

and

is in

It

confirmed

seems

with

keeping

by a passage
imagine the

all

know

we

the

of

man

Aristophanes.*

in

by the Cynics
in the gay luxurious
the climate, no
less
There
cityof Athens.
incited
than
the prevailing manners,
to
enjoyment.
everyone
of
the
that
The
told
enjoyment
was
unworthy
Cynics
them,
It is not

been

difficult

; that

men

To

the

there

to

higher and

were

things for

purer

Athenian

of

polished elegance

eflfect created

to

man

the

manners,

seek.

Cynics

brutal
To
assume.
coarseness
they could
opposed the most
the bitterest
the friendly flatteries of conversation, they opposed
frankness*
pungencies of malevolent
They despised ali

told

; and

men

them

although

Now,

morals, and

prepared

admit

to

upholders.

These

power.

"

as

feeble

regard Cynicism
solution

very amiable
that it required
a

required a great

It

of mind
a

not

but

cannot

we

doctrine

preposterous
of

so.

power

over

qualities

feebleness

rude

not

are

very

problem
quite
are

qualitiesin
fanatical

; a

energy

self,diseased

we

"

great

some

as

of the great

it may

be, but

its

cality
logistill

qualities; and

common

from
the
they command
Any deviation
respect.
beaten
tent
path implies a certain resolution ; a steady and consisall men
deviation
is what
force
Now
implies force.
of subjugating ordinary desires
The
to
one
respect.
power
with a sense
but calculated
end, always impresses men
I emote

therefore

forced

Knights/
to

791.

The-

live in wine-casks

soldiers
and

are

cellars

there

Huring

spoken
the

war.

of

as

having beea

CYNICS.

THE

of

Few

unusual

power.
difficult than

more

knows

that

aware

are

regulate desires

to

subjugate them
^requiresgreater
Yet
will;
greater constancy.
every
greater

mind:

of

I8i

to

"

is easier

that abstinence

principle,it

is easier

be

to

than

temperance

Cynic

than

wise

power
one

the

on

is

same

virtuous

and

Epicurean.
which

That
which

ancients

the

portions

prevents

of

the

feel, is the

decency
the

All

was

anecdotes

wealth

and

against
into

the

doctrine

and

that

otherwise

would
for

uncalled

which

outrages

down

come

to

us

us

to

common

to

reveal

spirit,
worshipping Virtue
vices

of

and

vices

on

seem

contemporaries
those
simplicityonly because
be well to raise an
luxury. It may
the

to

induce

Diogenes, especially,
perpetrated.

have

malevolent

opposed

pover^

in

Cynical

humanity

and

snarlingand
it

to

seem

studious

feeling the respect for the Cynics

have
felt,and which, indeed, some

our

of one's

age

discredit

only because
taking a pride
around
sought

earnest

protest

it is not
well to bring virtue
; but
the
Doubtless
of the protest.

by the manner
Athenians
needed
reproof and reformation, and some
tion
exaggerahave
side
been
allowed
the rethe
to
opposite
on
might
formers.
in
feeble
brutal
in
But
doctrine,
Diogenes was
so
so
that we
should
prefer the debauchery of the first promanner,
fligate
with in that profligate
met
we
city,to the debauchery of
character
of the
pride which disgraced the Cynic. The whole
Plato
in one
had given a splendid
is exhibited
anecdote.
man
friends.
entertainment
to ^some
Diogenes entered, unbidden,
I trample on
and
stamping on the rich carpets, said, Thus
Plato
the pride of Plato;" whereupon
admirably replied, With
greater pride, O Diogenes."
He
made
Diogenes, doubtless, practised great abstinence.
virtue of his necessity ; and, being poor, resolved
tatiously
to be ostena
mistaken
The
ostentation, being novel, was
poor.
it was
for something greater than
to
; being in contradiction
the universal
supposed
tendency of his contemporaries, it was
"

"

to

spring

mask

from

by
poverty meekly
envy,
men

worn

certain
whose

motives.

higher
a

mountebank.

; there

are

that wealth

souls

To

are

so

it

us

There
who

men

does

fixed

not
on

content

tp

act

wealth

upon

bear

without

give happiness ; there are

higher things as utterly to

of the world
and shows
disregard the pomps
it
of
despise wealth, they disregard
; none

feelings,
tbey are

who

men

are

look

miserable

seems

upon

; but

none

these

them,

The

of these

display their
virtue that

182

IS

looks
$elf-affirmative,

loud, noisy, ostentatious,and

obtrusive

an

Pretending

And

egotism.

pretending

this

to

the

of

like

very

Cynics.

nity;
began by blaspheming humaeffeminacies

the

correct

the virtue

was

it

mankind,

to reform

DIOGENES:

AND

ANTISTHENES

studiously outraged all the decencies

difficultyof the problem, it pretended

of

life.

of
to

the

Eluding
it

solve

it
age,
the reaH

by unabashed

insolence.
his

In

carried

being

old

him
asked

Diogenes

age

to

captive by pirates,who

taken

was

exposed him for sale, as a

Govern
he could do, he replied :

Crete, and

slave.

On

"

what

men

sell

who
master."
wants
a
Xeniades, a
therefore, to one
wealthy Corinthian, struck with this reply, purchased him, and,
on
returning to Corintli,gave him his libertyand consigned his
children
The
children
his education.
to
taught to be
were
It was
their own
satisfaction.
to
Cynics, much
during 'this
with Alexander
interview
took
period that his world-renowned
place. The
prince, surprised at not seeing Diogenes joining
found
the crowd
of his flatterers,
He
him.
the
went
to see
I am
Alexander
Cynic sittingin his tub, basking in the sun.
the
I am
the Great," said he.
Diogenes the Cynic," was
asked
then
him, if there was
reply. Alexander
anything he
me,

"

"

could

for him.

do

the

sun."

an

indifference

could

"

Yes

Surprised

hitherto

at

aside
from
; stand
indifference
such
to

strikinglycontrasted

so

witnessed

have

"

he

between

and

me

princely favour
with
everything he
"

exclaimed:

**Were

not

"

One
day, being brought
Diogenes !
he
whom
before
the
king, and
being asked
Diogenes
was,
A
cupidity ;
language, the boldness
replied :
your
spy on
have
of which
must
gained him universal admiration, as implying

Alexander,

I would

be

"

"

well
singularity
as
Singularityand ^Insolence

great

as

force

of character.

regarded as" his grand

characteristics.
of these
Both
are
exemplified in the anepdote
in the daytime, and
of his lighting a lamp
peering about the
what
he
istreets as if earnestly seeking something : being asked
The
A Man."
point of this story is lost
sought, he replied :
makes
him
seek
honest
in the usual version, which
man.'*
an
in Laertius
The
words
are
simply : otv^ponrov ^yjfrSi I seek a
man."
seek
to find a
Diogenes did not
honesty ; he wanted
in whom
be
with
included
other
honesty would
man,
many
reproach to his contemporaries,
qualities. It was his constant
He
manhood.
that they had
said,he had never
no
seen
men;
may

be

"

"

"

"

at

Sparta, he

had

"^en

children;

^t

Atheps,

women.

One

CYNICS.

THE

day, he called
he
for

men

Thus

back

quartets, of
him.
to
see

club, sa3ring:

proached,
apI called

caressing manners),
as
cur
a
growls over

yet
his

snarling and snapping without

sion.
occaattention; and, from
object of universal
many
One
day his friends went
unfeigned admiration.

bone
An

some
"

brutal, ostentatious
year, bitter,
title of The
Dog (fora dog has

disgracingthe
affection, gratitude, sympathy, and
virtue
his unenvied
growling over
meatless

When

excrements."

are

abstemious

and

! **

men

his

with

lived tillhis ninetieth

he

all

Approach,

them

beat

; ye

**

out

183

for

ever

the

arriving at

On

-which

under

still lying on

him

found

Portico

he

was

ground wrapped
seemed
He
in his cloak.
to
sleep. They pushed aside the
It was
dead.
folds of his cloak : he was
thought that he had
suicide by holding his breath,
committed
z. physicalimpossibility.
wont

sleep, they

to

the

"

versions

Other
in

antiquity;

it makes

of them

one

him

of

the

of his

cause

consistent

seems

in consequence

die

of

death

current

were

his character

with

devouring

neat's

foot

raw.

Doctrine

of

be
Cynics may
brieflydispatched.
the discipleof Gorgias, .was
embued
with the
as
Anti^thenes,
his
sophisticalprinciplesrespecting Science, principles which
did not
alter.
He
maintained, that
acquaintance with Socrates
The

Science

impossible.

was

As

to

utterlyrejected it.

he

but

nothing

the

of

series

which
; for

the

He

Socratic

said,

that

notion

of

tions,
Defini-

Definition

was

course")
(XoyoK /lOKpSvy "a long discalls him an ignoramus (airaScvros

words

Aristotle

Socratic

notion

Definition, as
of a
thing, he opposed the Sophistic
including the essence
notion
tion.
of a Definition, as
expressing a purely subjective relaYou
qualities,not
essences
can
can
only express
; you
it
consists.
Your
call a thing silver,but
cannot
say in what
the
is only verbal : hence
first step in education
definition
words.*
should
be the study of
Met,

"

viii.

What

was

c.

someone

respecting the
walked.
but

the

of

of this scepticism?
The
consequence
that
the Cynics answered
by
arguments

the

was,

When

iii.).To

facts.

arguing in support of Zeno of EIea*s notion

was
and
impossibilityof movement,
Diogenes rose

Definitions

definitions

quence
conse-

were

that
there
might prove
could
only verbal, and

was

be

motion;
answered
by
no

facts.
*

Ardan,

Piss.
*Epictet.,'

i. 17,

quoted

in 'Ritter

and

Preller,*p. 174.

This

had

the

enabled
certain

some

speculating

endeavoured

to

dispositions
that

of

gave

Aristippus

the

they

the

had

it

into

daily

done

for

the

Cyrenaic.

to

Their

their

;
of

virtuous.

be

clouds

practice.

colouring

peculiar

Instead
to

the

from

facts

by

precepts.

endeavoured

which

morals

arguments
of

place

philosophy

bring

of

o(

assaults

the

doctrine

answered

they

take

brought

shape

As

virtue,

against

sense

to

basis.

about
had

Socrates

common

Cynics

actions

made

they

in

found

refuge

logic,

so

CYNICS,

THE

184

the

Cynics
personal

doctrinei

as

LIFE

i86

OF

PLATO.

the ne plus ultra

of logical
having any romantic
tinge,were
and
above
severity : hard, uncompromising
humanity. In a
the
in Plato
almost
absorbed
man
word, Platp
was
completely
learned
human
the Dialectician
to look
passion
upon
; he had
and
human
the
disease,
as
a
pleasure as a frivolity
:
only thing
Dialectics
for
the
noblest
worth
truth.
exercise
living
was
was
of humanity.
the notions
Even
It is
respecting his style are erroneous.
*"
It
the
not
poetical" metaphorical style usually asserted.
has unmistakeable
other writing we
beauties, but resembles
no
Its immense
is dramatic
are
acquainted with.
power
power.
The
of
best dialogues are inimitable
scenes
Character,
comedy.
and
animation
but
banter, irony,
are
there;
scarcely any
beautiful.*
His
seldom
that
and
to refute,
imagery,
object was
from

"

convince

to

or

familiar.

illustrations

; his

fit occasion

When

be eloquent
arrive, he can
myths in language of splendid

poetical. He clothes the

the
descriptions of
beauty; and
'Phaedrus'
are
perfectlyravishing.
in the arid

In

truth,

somewhat

matter,

being

seldom

so

read

; for

such

But

this

in

the

are

as

passages

be

mentioned

far

as

is the

not

must

we

is often

He

loveliness

difficult,and,

very

repulsive writer

editions.

many

is

scenic

of dialectics.

desert

Plato

and

does

and

oases

homely

therefore

are

regards

as

his

of

reason

deceived

by the
often quoted, at

and

is

Scholars
and
critics
rarely read.
of curiosity. Their
dialogue out
curiosity
usually attack one
further
The
seldom
to
inspiritsthem
difficultyof
progress.
their
and
when
unsatisfactory nature
mastering the ideas,
barriers
with
Plato.
to any
general acquaintance
mastered, are

second

But

those

has

been

who

believe themselves

persevere

but
difficult,
performed

it

We

courage

"

to

of Plato

those
and

was

that

have

"

repaid ; the journey

worth
performing.
journey, and
can
honestly cry

lag behind.
his writings may
be

Perhaps

who

brief

our

inducement

some

count
ac-

and

preparation.

some
"

**

Even
the

upon

sweetness,
EniUldf ii. p.

Whenever
never

middle
than

you

read

meet

Plato.

species of
imageiy.

subjects,whether

abstract

language

and
-^Dr,

it

he

; but

hand

of Plato
vies with

is clear

as

the humble

the

matical,
moral, metaphysical, or matheplicity
running stream, and, in sim-

violet which

perfumes

the

vale."

221.

with

such

Aristotle

diction

trash

as

this

be

certain

capitally describes
and
between
verse
prose."

that

Plato's
It has

the writer

style
rhythm

as

of
"a

rather

OF

LIFE

PLATO.

187

Plato
Aristocles, surnamed
(the broad-browed),* the son
of Ariston
born
and Perictione, was
at Athens
or
^gina, Olym.
middle
the
of May).
the 7th Thargelion (about
87. 3, on
His youth consequently falls about
the time
of the Peloponbrilliant period of Grecian
nesian
active
and
the
most
war,
illustrious:
His
and
action.
the
thought
lineage was
on
side

maternal
So

great

nucleus

name

of

Solon.

Plato's

as

could

and

fables;

many

historians

with

connected

mother

him.

He

delayed his marriage because

told him that she
a dream, and
We

have

given

leave

games.

Greek,

true

contend

to

gymnastics, as doing
Greek,
; and, like a true
rhetoric

and

nected
con-

Apollo, his
Perictione,
in

him

to

forth
hence-

may

did
and

gymnastics

Pythian

attention

did

these

for the

corporeal
music,

poetry,

assiduously cultivated,

were

was

importance

dialects
suffer

not

he

Isthmian

and

extreme

what

body
he

time

all his

absorb

to

in

attached

he

mind

exercises

fables, and

the

at

for the

to

of

child.

excellent; and

was

sufficientlyskilled
Like

the

of

later

in peace.

them

education

Plato's

child

the

with

was

specimen

one

be

to

the

the

events

to
though betrothed
Apollo had appeared

Ariston,

virgin.

miraculous

of

sorts

said

was

becoming

escape

find, acconiingly,

we

gravely repeating all

with

not

and

with

some

besides
some
epic poem,
tragedies,
The
epic he is said to
dithyrambics, lyrics, and
epigrams.burned
in a fit of despair, on
have
comparing it with Homer.
The
burned
tragedies he
becoming
acquainted with
on
Socrates.
The
partiallypreserved. One
epigrams have been
He

success.

of them

wrote

is very

an

beautiful

"

inrrtip ifi6Q*
dvripaQ tiffaBptic,
Sft/iaaiviiQ
oipavbUi iitQvoWoXq
Thou

""

Yob

gazest

Some

of

article

the
*

the

to

be

in
**

with

this

the

from

thousand

his
*

! ah

eyes,

opinion

broad-shouldered

idle, as
of

the

to

of
the

Athenians

endowed
name

of

breadth

I*lato

explanations
among

others

Life

stars, my

incline

writers

broad-browed

the

the

on

starry skies, with

gladly would

that
;

of

was

of Plato

name

time."
Plato

relation, he miist

have

above

translation is

by

Mr.

on

the

is absurd.

The

pronounces

all

was

of

common

But

surely

without

derived

cause

it from

causes.

t The

gaze
*

Plato

Swynfen Jervis,

"

I be

others, again, that

style. This last

Cyclopaedia

that

surname

at

that I might

Penny
the

ytvoifiriv
pXsjrw.

itOe

thee

epithet
it

was

of

pressive
ex-

author

the

of

above

occurrence

Aristocles

was

he

Unless
one

!"" f

of

the

not

derived

abovo

OF

LIFE

i88

studies

His

he

which

he

that

Early

when

had

he

of poetry were
mingled with those of philosophy,
know
have cultivated
that he was
early,for we

must

only twenty

had

found

that, without
remained

He
from

them

escape

him

seized

in

nature

of

Plato,

on

This

all the rest.

on

imperious craving for belief

scepticism,both found
breathing

Socrates

impugning
by seeking Truth

the

with

as

that

the

doctrines

room

question

to

sombre

with

scepticism, together
which
struggled with

could

Socrates.

philosophy of Heraclitus
melancholy youth. Scepticism, which was

his

in

him

spiritled

The

the fever of that age,

the

know

that disturbed

presence
elevated

meditative

well with

suited

also

felt

haunts.

secret

to

him
with the joy
sublime
thoughts ; a sense
Of something far more
deeply interfused.
Whose
is
the
lightof settingsuns.
dwelling
and
the livingair.
And
the roimd
ocean,
mind
and
-of man
in
the
blue
the
And
sky,
;
A
motion
and a spiritthat impels
All thinking things, all objects of all thought,
rolls through all things/' *
And

deep and

her

first went

Socrates, and we
taught by Cratylus before he knew

have

must

Of

he

been

'"

PLATO.

Socrates

only by death.

and

young

scholar

justice of lus doubts, he

elsewhere.

'

; and

ten

He

the

years
attended

was

separated

beloved

his

master

his

to
cause
plead
during the trial ; undertook
; indeed, began
the
would
the
of
which
violence
allow
not
judges
a
speech
to
him
of
to continue
sum
pressed his master
a
accept
; and
sufficient to purchase his life.
money
of Socrates, he went
the death
to Megara
On
to visit Euclid,
From
before.
thence he proceeded to Cyrene,
mentioned
we
as
in mathematics
instructed
where
he was
by Theodoras, whom
in Athens, if we
credit the
he had
known
Theaetetus,"
may
is represented
with
where
Theodorus
Socrates.
discoursing
it is said, with
From
to
Cyrene he went
Egypt, in company,
Euripides. There is very little authorityfor this visit,and that
'

littlequestionable. Certain

greatly exaggerated.

he

There

is

his

stay there

trace

no

in

his

has

works

been
of

indicates
at
Egypt
a very
scanty acquaintance with the subject, and, although
of their
praises the industry of the Priests, his estimate

Egyptian
most

it is that

"All

research.

is far from

scientific attainments
"

Wordsworth,

he

Tintem

tells

us

of

'*t

favourable.

Abbey.'

"

Ritter,'ii. 147,

Life

In these

travels,the

enlarged the Socratic

nistic^

elements.

Method.

meditative

broad-browed

he

But

crowding

were

\v^

strictly preserved

studious

youth,"
from

Athens

to

Maximus,

in

quarter

every

antagoSocratic

the

Valerius

says

of

search

wandering along
plains of a barbarous

that philosopher
for their master,
winding banks of the Nile or the vast

Plato
the

greatly

man

doctrine, and, indeed, introduced

"Whilst

"

Plato.

of

was

of Egypt."
himself, a disciple to the old men
him.
He
returned
around
flocked
scholars
at last; and
eager
With
tation,
media mind
richlystored in foreign travel and constant
he began to emulate
his beloved
devoted
and
master,
himself to teaching. Like Socrates, he taught gratuitously. In

country

the

world-renowned
This

Academy.

with

adorned

and

temples

statues;

founded

the

loftyplane trees, and

rolled
gentle stream

planted with

was

grove

he

Hecademus

of

grove

through it^with
*'

sound

Which

was

delicious

longing thoughts

quiet tune."

contemplation framed.**

"for

retreat,

posterityhave often
it the centre
of myriad associations.
Philosophers have sighed for it.

made

it.

of

there

See

"

Plato's

the

such

**

would

one

coupling this

Of

bees'

studious

with

"

the

notes

long.'^

sommer

industrious

none

the

oft invites

murmur

musing,"
but

the

Graces

poeticalbeauties

of

could
Plato's

enter;
'

have

Nothing
hard

exercises

power
adorned

but

can

be

farther

of

the

of continued
Plato's

dialectical

from

the

The

thinking faculty,and

abstraction.

Whatever

compositions, his

exercises.

truth.

Over

the

door

lectdres

demanded
graces

lectures

were

of

his

and,

Dialogues,'

supposed that the lessons in the Academy

of eloquence and
magnificent outbursts
imagery upon
subjects.

people

of

sung

the sound

To

imagine

have

the Attic"bird

where

thick-warbled

spot, where

"

Poets

The

it,and

round

hovered

of Academd,"

olive grove

retirement,

Trills her

In

of

June,
all night
sleeping woods

the

to

t"rook

hidden

leafy month

Singeth
It

of

as

the

In

were

sophical
philowere

great

might have
not
literary,
Academy

he

OP

LIFE

190

wrote

"

IM

Geometricians

but

none

PLATO.

enter

here^^

z.

"

of his

of the

sufficiently

lectures.

nature
explanatory programme
His school
He
thinks
Ritter
less a
differently.
was
says :
for
all
of
deeds
than
fSr
of hardy
the
school
polished culture
had
other
than
who
enhance
the
to
object
no
higher classes,
their
and
wealth."
This
of
is
privileges
enjoyment
passage
of
its
author.
of the loose
It
is
characteristic
writing
composed
"

of three

school*of

teach

Dialectics

? if so,

it is

truism

with

Plato's

this

deeds,''does

hardy

stoicism

absurd.

all three

statements,

"

school

that

mean

\ if not
deeds

"

less

was

Plato

did

falsism since

not

what

"

?
We
then
formed
inhardy
are
it
the
school
of
culture
that
for
polished
was
a
higher
absurd
and
A
The
classes."
an
assertion,
mere
higher
one.
the
Sophists ; besides, Plato's
classes," principally frequented
and
free citizen might attend
lectures
were
gratuitous,
every

has

to

do

"

"

them

exclusives

told

are

their

There

in Athens.

that

their

object

at

aristocratical

no

polished circles,"with
citizens.
Thirdly, we
enhance
the
enjoyment of
do
this by
to
they were
and
archetypal Ideas, we

no

"

to

was

How
essences

loss to conceive
views

Plato's

were
*'

of the

wealth."

privilegesand

listening to speculationson
are

There
were

that

differingfrom

culture

conditions.

certain

on

; the more
of justice and
honour

other

so

as

Ritter

himself

tells

us

were"

wholly impracticable
all
constitution; and
corrupt state
is indispensable to a politician,
as
empirical knowledge, such
in his view contemptible."*
was
Plato
made
his first visit to Sicily. It
In his fortieth
year
he became
then
acquainted with Dionysius I.,the tyrant of
was
Dionysius II. With
Syracuse, Dion, his brother-in-law, and
to a rupture,
came
Dionysius I. he soon
owing to his political
the
Tyrant, that his life was
opinions, and he so offended
threatened.
for him ; and the Tyrant
Dion, however, interceded
sador,
spared his life,but commissioned
Pollis, the Spartan Ambasin whose
slave.
to return, to sell him
ship Plato was
as
a
He
Anniceris
sold accordingly.
of Cyrene
was
bought him,
in

of

,the

Some

Lectures

countenance

by
this

confess

the

statement

given

seems

tradition

that

is to

the

us

even

Athenian

to
some

the
women

ordinary no'tion
attended

suspicious,especiallyas

of

Plato's

them.

it is also

said

We
that

clothes
disguised herself in man's
sary
neces; disguise, then, was
if
The
would
?
fact, however,
only show the high cultivation
correct,
of the hetaircs
have
think
must
(for such the women
we
been) ; and, when
for supposing they could
of such
as
no
reason
see
Aspasia, we
not
women
one

woman

follow

the abstrusest

lectures.

IIFB

OF

PLATO.

immediately set him free.

hoping that he
Dionysius wrote
Plato
contemptuously replied that

his

On

and

of

19

would

return

Athens,

to

him.

ill of

speak

not

he

had

leisure to think

"

not

DioBjrsius."
visit to

after the
of
death
Syracuse was
with the hope of obtaining from
Dionysius
Dionysius I., and
of a colony according to the laws
framed
II. the establishment
The
promised; but never
granted.
by himself.
colony was
been
of
Plato
the
incurred
having
cerned
conTyrant's suspicions
second

Plato's

Dion's

in

conspiracy ;

he

but

allowed

was

return

to

in peace.
He
to
paid a third visit ; and this time solely to endeavour
reconcile
Dionysius with his uncle Dion.
Finding his efforts
home

and perhaps dangerous,

fruitless,
retirement

calm

the

In

of

his

age

of

remainder

of

he

returned.

Academy

the

Plato

the

passed

his chief
Lecturing and writing were
occupations. The composition of those dialogues which have
of posterity,was
of
the admiration
the chewing
been
solace
his life,especially of his declining years.
died
the
He
at
advanced
Plato
which

him

his surname,

shoulders

brawny
thinkers

lips\ he

smile

phrase with the comic

scarcely any friends.
the

Plato

thinker

his

constant

that his
insincere

really loved

fixed itself upon

it had
scarcely any

poetry

them

resemblance

some

poetry

and
Plato

versified
the

became

admii:ers

many

the

over

"

That

man.

the

absorbing
left

sympathy

too

to

well
was

to

to

condemn

deep and

contempt
the

for the

preference
ever
praises is the

people
Many
Republic
was

Poets.

banishing the poets from his

extension
of his logicalprinciples,and

unallied

truth

had

of

played

ever

Plato

as

feeling not
to

He

reprobation of

opposition to poets

Plato's

sad

those

matters.

Hence

he

As

Those

only

as

that

utmost

brow

sombre.

and

so

questions of philosophy that

suppose
but an

"

predominated

great expansive intellect had

for other

the

was

broad

great

thought,

dramatists.

In

with

laughed.

never

That

wrinkled

was

bent

were

bent.

are

his

over

83.
intensely melancholy.

was

gave

days.

for

it,
"

arts

moral

of

he

philosophy. His soul panted for Truth.

unconscious
besty were
only inspiredmadmen,

in

saw

indifference

expression.

poetry, which

had

He

because

Sophists, viz., an

that

mistake.

constant.

them,

'

The

is in

only
truth

Poets,
of what

at

fell

PLATO'S

I9i

their

from

WRITINGS.

reader

lips. Let the

by Shelley); he

the

open

'

Ion

'

(it has

b6en

perceive the real cause

of
from
He
the
had a repugPoets
Republic*
being banished
nance
it was
the dangerous rival of
for poetry, partly because
had
he
for pleasure.*
a
philosophy, partly because
contempt
It is true that he
the
and, towards
frequently quotes Homer,
close of the
'Republic,' some
misgivings of having harshly,
him ; but
treated the favourite of his youth, escape
he quickly
alone
should
withdraws
that Truth
be man*s
them, and owns
object.
There
is something unpleasant in Plato's
character, whicli
translated

will then
*

its echo

finds

in his works.

man

; his works

His

ethics

suited

only

to

shock

doubtless

romantic,

is

The

is the

writers

was

from
in
of

the

are

not

of the

one

deepest melancholy

writers

constant

and
men.

melancholy,

character,

their

so

on

whose

the
The

humour

most

neous,
sponta-

often

rebound.

springs
Besides^

undercurrent

IL

CHAPTER
writings

not

dialogues.

always some
comedy
bitterness ; it is Irony, rather than Joyousness.

Plato's

men.

; it is the only
transmit.
Let no

Moliere,
apparently
Comedy

if in the

; as

if

drawn,

in his

is almost

there

Plato's

shall

we

usually drawn

men.

of

austerest

character

have

displayed

the gayest

genial, overflowing,

most

amiable

an

tiltagainst eminent

we

that

of his

object to our assertion

talent
ground of the comic
one

comic

Plato's

the ancient

what

not

humanity.

of
of

Plato

figure than

with

consonant

one

this view

it.

truer

great, but

prejudices, and

many

help

cannot

of

impossible state

an

bringing forward

In

We

ethics

the

was

lamentably deficient in humanity.

of a man;
logician, not
they are.

great, but

are

are

He

object,

and

authenticity.

Before
be

useful
of

attempting an exposition of Plato's doctrines, it may

and authenticity
to say something respecting the character
his

nothing, has

not

Dialogues.*
left them
*

Comp.

Modern

untouched.
'Philebus/

criticism, which

Dialogues,
p. 131.

spares
the authen*

PLATO'S

194

WRITINGS.

fallacious assumptions the authenticity

reject on the most
of works
quoted by Aristotle as the works of his master,
that Aristotle could be mistaken
Now
Plato.
reallyto suppose
of the conjectural privilege;
such a matter is a great extension
on
better
this supposition on
no
ground than that
but, to make
from
of execution, or
ot internal
inferiority
evidence, derived
in opinion in the
variation
works
themselves, seems
truly:

macher,

preposterous.
ancients

The
'

admitted

themselves
'

Eryxias,' the

Axiochus

'

the

and

the
'

Epinomis,'

Alcibiades

Second

the
'

to

also now
The
Epistles' are
spurious.
pretty generally,
With
these
exceptions,we really see na
regarded as forgeries.
the
of
for
and
Theages
reason
dialogues. The
rejectingany
in Plato's
the 'Hippias Major' are
certainlyas much
manner
in
is
Measure'
'Measure
for
Shakspeare's ; inde"?d, thei^
as
to
us
Hippias
seems
a
remarkably happy specimen of hi%
*

bje

'

'

dramatic
But

talent

whether

not, they equally

or

denies

pne

them

question,and
the

Do

dialogues were

all the

the

serve

be

to

purpose
We

platonic.

proceed

productions

of this
may

of

Plato,

history, since

therefore

leave

no

this

others.

to

Dialogues'

the

contain

the

real

opinions

of

Plato?"

himself
motives,
Plato
question has three
ist.
never
in
Athenian
the
indeed
in
unless
the
speaks
proprid persondf
Laws
be accepted as
representing Plato; a supposition in

ih\%

which

we

are

inclined

to

2ndly. From

concur.

certain

passages

that
Epistles,'it would
appear
had
for written
Plato
a
opinions as inefficient for
contempt
instruction.
the testimony of a phrase in Aristotle
3dly. On
that
it is supposed
exoteric and
Plato, like Pythagoras, had

of the

*Phaedrus'

and

esoteric
his

'

We

opinions,the
Dialogues.'
will endeavour

the

former

to

answer

being

of

these

those

course

doubts.

The

set

forth in

first is of

little importance ; the second

of greater ; the last of very
That
Plato
great importance.
adopts the dramatic
form, and
rery

it,is true ; but this form, which quite baffles us with

It is easy to divine
else.
Shakspeare, baffles us with no one
the opinions of Aristophanes, Molibre, or
Schiller.
It is still
the opinions of Plato, because, unlike
to divine
the
more
easy
preserves

works
have

have
been

fluctuated

examined,

complicated."

"

the

Ritter,

so

that
more

we

has

might

safelysay,

the

the decision of their

more

his

writing^

become
authenticity
"

PLATO'S

that

with

Socrates.

Dialogues,'but

'

find

be

may

in
Method
points, we find but one
conception of science, in a word,

one

unmistakeable

an

tlie variations

whatever

And,

subordinate

to

respect

all the
we

of

of

his

selects

Socrates

manner

195

dialogue solely with a view to the

his opinions. Besides, it is reasonable
to suppose
Plato's
opinions seen
through the
represents

dramatists, he
illustration

WRITINGS.

tendency

which

be

to

pronounce

we

J'latonic.
his

Respecting

instruction,.we

convey

subject in the
"

Writing

latter art

is

the

insufficiencyof
what

first quote

he

books

says

to

the

on

:'
"

painting :

like

something
like

the

on

may

Phaedrus

look very

question,they
do

opinion

the

living beings; but,

silence.

solemn

preserve
would
you

of

creatures

if you
Written

ask

the.

them

a,

discourses

fancy, by what
they say, that, they
had some
wish
in them
thereto learn, and
sense
; but, if you
Ifore interrogatethem, they have
to return
only their first answer
And
the discourse is once
to all questions.
when
written,
same

it passes
who
can

firom

hand

to

of persons,
those
It is not
able

all sorts
among
those
who
cannot.

hand,

it,and
it is suitable;and, when
to tell its story to those
only to whom
it is unjustly criticised,
it always needs
its author
to assist it,
understand

for it cannot

defend

which

which

That

the
do

one

that

valued,
the

who

person

you

this.

than

potent

more

and

fit.

You

the

mean

understands

wished

not

would

to

the

art

think

that

but, when
of

of

subject; of which discourse the

picture? Precisely. Now, think

produce
begun, scatter

rather

amusement;

employ

is it ?

livingdiscourse

real and

it in the

might

gardens

his

indeed

purpose

was

agriculture,and, sowing

which

he

after
seriously,

harvest, would

he

seed

take

pleasure of seeingit spring up and look green

you

What

the

be called the
may
sensible
husbandman

had

summer

and

of discourse,,

sort

This
written in the learner's mind.
scientifically
it can
of defending itself,
be
and
or
speak itself,

capable
silent,as it sees

written

and

is another

There

is

is

the

itself.

is far better

Adonis, for

of

in

week

Or,

this for sport

serious, would

do

the

seed
in the

at

the

eighth
gather in his harvest
think
?
that he
The
And
do you
last,undoubtedly.
who
is just,and
the knowledge pf what
noble, and
possesses
good, will deal less prudently with his seeds than the husband;
about
with his ?
will not, then, set
He
man
Certainlynot.
sowing them with a pen and a black liquid; or, (to drop the metaproper
month

time, be

content

to

PLATO'S

iq6

truths

phor,) scatteringthese

by

discourses

of

means

whkh

against attack, and which are incapable

No
he
of adequately expounding the truth.
doubt,
will,for
of
in this
the
seeds
sake of sporty occasionallyscatter
some

the

themselves

defend

cannot

who

others

sees

this

remarkable

Now,
be

growing

is

rigorouslyapplied

too

age,

he

will be

and

for all

pleased

green/*
clearly biographical. It is

up

passage

; and

old

philosophicalcareer.
Socrate^'

of
justification

not

track

same

in

of
forgetfulness

the

the

the blade

he

when

in

follow

for himself

up memoranda

treasure

fall into

should

he

case

will thus

and

manner,

the

WRITINGS.

Plato, whose

to

it must

But

voluminous

must
writings contradict it ; nor
we, in consequence,
suppose
for
that those
writings were
designed only
or
amusement,
as
main
idea of this passage
for his pupils. The
memoranda
is
feel disposed to question. We
that few persons would
one
are

all

they

books

that

aware

replace

cannot

of

labour
oral

author's

an

deficiencies ;.
very serious
llie frequent misapprehensions

under

instruction,

meaning

would

in

great

be

measure

And
by oiir side to interrogatehim.
has the further advantage of not allowing the
oral instruction
reader's mind
to be so passive "s it is with a book
; the teacher
by his Questions excites the activityof the pupil. All this may
Plato's
all
opinion without
at
as
reasonably be conceded
of his writings. Plato
affectingthe seriousness
thought that
if

obviated

conversation

was

much

obviate

as

written

discourse

illustrations

of

fatigued by them

as

he

all

threw

the

his

in them

works

into

and
repetitions,

endless

positions almost
;

reading ;

but

he

knew

self-evident.

but, like Addison's

the

to

of

form

of

divisions,and
The

is

reader

tediousness, they have

design is,by imitatingconversation,

to leave no
rogated,
be intercannot
positionunexplained. As a book
Plato makes
the book
anticipateinterrogations. The
of his
pains he takes to be tedious, the very minuteness
very
his works
from
the imputation of
details,is sufficient to rescue
divertissements.
He
too
was
being mere
great an artist to have
sacrificed his art to anything but his convictions.
That
he did
**

design

"

than

he therefore
instructive,and
wrote
inconveniences
possible the necessary

was

Hence

dialogue.

instructive

more

reading

also that

him

had

we

sacrifice the

that

general effect

to

his

scrupulous dialectics

no

one

believe
that
he did
for the
sake
we
of
so
doubt, and
the rekl force of his
deeply impressmg^ on the reader's mind
can

method

'PLATO'S

critics

Had

Plato's

seen

of their censure^

much

WRITINGS.

and

division of

third

with

Connected

upon.

Plato

supposed
do

words

indicate

to

Aristotle
and

same.*

space and
From
such

conclude

to

us

that

ioyfiara probably

above

works

passage
had an
his

meant

"

which

If Aristotle's

opinion consistent
the ** dialogues

"

examine

in Aristotle

opinions

doctrine.

and
*'

as

"

it.

'

place {rbv rivov

Plato

can

Timasus,' maintained
space
called
but
the
are
that, in what
) he
Acyo/Lickoisdypa0ois ^oyfivur

same,

part, we

own

unwritten

is the

Plato, in the

opinions (cv rots

unwritten

the

esoteric

an

Let

says that
the
to be

matter

considered

or

that meanmg,
then
regards the exoteric

divertissements.

mere

*'

bear

valid which

our

works, there is the passage

referring to the ayftojpa

^/jLora
is

spared

pronouncing against

For

with

have

explanation ;
vexatiz
questionesdisappear*
be entered
investigationmay now
our
Plato's
expressions respecting the

written

of

imperfection

before

dialogues.

only reconcile the style of

that once
adopted, all the
The

drift,they would

real

hesitated

the genuineness of certain

197

it is

kox

x^O

niv

surely somewhat

esoteric

doctrine

lectuires,or

^^^

gratuitous
3.ypaffM

The

Ritter

as

^^

suggests,

taken

notes

is

there

ground

no

opinions ;

the

for

more

We

opinions
We

individual
in

Method,
better

to

opinions

as

Plato

ventured
it is pretty
of so
much

because
not

were

tendencies

be

real
them.

express

generally known

importance

as

'

'

it is that

Certain

tendencies.

Method

the

only rightlybe appreciated after a survey

Dialogues.' The ancients,we are told by Sextus
can

Phys.,' hr. c. 2, p. 53. Ritter, who

that, in
gives us to understand
passage,
was
explained difierently,
or, at least,more
no

to

the

Socratic

and

and

"

esoterical

contain

Method

rate

any

philosophy. It would
perhaps be
'say,therefore,that the
Dialogues exhibit Plato's
the

real

all the

far

this reservation

make

that

as

At

been

have

to

published works.
the
'Dialogues'

that

of Plato, in

them

scholars.

illustrious pupil,
Aristotle,his most
distinct doctrine, but draws
his statements

from

convinced

are

as

his

by

supposing

such

views

of Plato's

lectures

so

speaks of any

never

of

the

from

But

no

conclusion

such

can

be

refers
these

'

'

does

be
from
'

that

passage

may
written

the

allowed
the

Timaeus

in

Aristotle.

from

If

not

'

cite,the

opinions, **

than
definitively
drawn

greater difference alluded to in the above

found
between
one
dialogue and another.

opinions differ,
surely those unwritten
may
If the
written ?
differs
the
Republic
** unwritten
opinion " may differ from the

to, but

unwritten

also

to

the

much
*

logues.'
Dia-

There

(published)
differ from

Timseus,* surely
'

is

frequently

the

WRITINGS.

PLATO'S

198

Empiricus,*
Plato

was

scepticor

for,

divided

were

as

and

dogmatical,

of

others

method-^^-mere
one

would

think

which

he

of those

nature

admirer, says:

arguments,

leaves

it undetermined."

scepticor
had

is

settled
definitively
'

these

Dialogues*

dogmatist, according

read.

Thus

is true

This

dialectical

the

of

Cicero,

affirms

and

many

are

class of

one

tional
dispute irraexpository and

nothing; but,
examining a question

Plato

*'

only

the

'

exercises

nothing

whether

to

as

was

Dialogues

in which

either

Nor

mere

are

contests

Plato

'

the

having studied

"^any

the

dogmatist.

some

themselves

amongst

of

'Theaetetus,' or the ^Hippias Major;'

of the
Phaedo,' *Timaeus,' Leges/ "c

ardent

an

producing
side,
every

after
on

dialogues as

such
but

to

extremely

the

untrue

'

This

leads

to

us

consideration

of

That

dialogues.
adopted is admitted

classifyingthe

various

the

sort

some

at

attempts

classification

of

should

be

to

agree

can

be

precise arrangement.
Any attempt
Certain
must
fail.
inevitably
dialogues
arrangement
shown
have
been
written
to
satisfactorily
subsequently

to

ingenuity.
latest.
the
But
is
to

We

earliest

the

be
of

one

be
may
because

Laws,*

the

when

sure

the

pretty

that

sure

earliest, and

that

the
is

latter
*

on

subject which

opinions
ideas

difference
*

'

the

of

Laws

But

of

the

politics.
conjecture. It

written, baflies

The

was
'

Laws

view

our
'

earlier than

was

maturer

'

the

Republic'

beyond

Phaedrus

'

'

is

that

demur

we

style and

to

of ideas

rable
Republic and the Laws
imply considedistance
the periods of composition. Besides,
between
not
writing for his bread does not so soon
resume
a
in

observable

man

accounts.

is

the

the

several

seem

persons

regular succession

any

was
Republic
Timseus
with
the
and
usually placed
say with the last products of its author.

this

but
may

or

We

two

no

nological
at chro-

others;

some

by

; but

the

to

as

all

in

were

the

already exhausted.

has

he

'Republic'
developed before
the

write; for,
dogmatical : they

both

observe

'

express

He

must

he

could

these
Plato's

Plato
have
be

dialogues
opinions

had

uttered

waited

till

new

again

tempted
are

his

expository

they

are

not

to

and

merely

dialectical exercises.
It strikes

applied
exhibit

to

us

the

variations

also

that

testing of
of

"

there
such

opinion, we
"

is but

points.
should

Pyrrho. Hypot.,*

safe

one

principleto

Whenever

examine

i. p. 44.

two

the

be

woiks

nature

of

PLATO'S

the variations

WRITINGS,

ask, which

and

of the

199

opinions is the

two

later in

which

development"
Let

take

us

to

attempts
comic

prove

cannot

Amatores,*

mentioned

289,

p.

the

are

which

same

and

own

opinion

of

it

that

that

Agathon,
Now,

the

it is

not

in

the

only
Plato's
he

passage,

tragic

comic

and

difficult to
*

the

decide
'

Republic

the

is

No

will

one

imply

to

deny that

like

and

for the

nature

former

the

tragedy

between

distinct

looks

and

uncommon,

distinction

seems

'

tion
retracta-

opinion

comedy

is

cultivation

Shakspeare, Racine, Cervantes, Calderon, and

this notion
by their works.
others, confute

But

each.

very

for, in alcelebrated

same

In

success.

idea, though
however,

same

the

corrected

side.

superficial.The

such

reverse

not

was

Plato's

on

is

the

'Symposium,'

opinion :
of his premisses ;

opinion

Socrates

former

with

he

123,

; that

but that in the

sium
Sympoby experience; for,in the poets
and
both
day he found
comedy
tragedy united j
that the
to convince
being made
Agathon proves

is the

his

iii.p.
arts

there

that

logical consequence
of

the

In

two

tragic,that

comedy

the

person.

earlier

is the

has

convince

Socrates

poet

he

in

the

as

same

tragedy and

Republic/

excel

can

one

the

briefly.*
directlythe

opinion is
makes

in

act

no

be

cannot

poet

actor

that

earlier ?

the

the

In

example.

an

been

have

must

many

Perhaps,

conclusive

still more

example

is that

"

of the

tion
crea-

*'

Ideas

of

eternityand

"

the

uncreated

Timaeus.*

radical

So

philosophy

which

the

dialogues

added

the difference
the

and

Timgeus.'

Timseus
Ritter

'

and

has

well

at

once

According

when

than
a

the

the

has

latter

**

the excellence

another,
Yet, on tiiis principlethe
as

the doctrine

the latter.

the

principle,this
been

developed
subsequent in

Phsedo

of reminiscence

is

the

be

Republic'
has

rare

with

acuteness

would

of the

imitative

the
prove
with

maintains, and

He

is

much
The

have
that

observed

'Amatores.'

subjectwhich

in

the

vigour of the early dialogues.

scarcely a trace of art.

Laws

to Hitter's

this may

to

between

former, although expository,

dialogues,as pieces
in the dialogue,and
exhibited
*

And

composed.

were

of art, is twofold

later

"

difference

would

dramatic

the

Republic,' and the

as
expressly stated in
in the most
important
the
epochs at
separate

in artistic treatment
The

vivacity and

of the
*

the

of Ideas

nature

position of his
two

in

expressly stated

so

'

in

one

dialogue

which

Platonic
powers

piloso-

Republic

'

to

be

that,
plausibility,
is

brieflyassumed

vol. ii. p. 183.

Phaedrus,' inasmuch

composition.See
"

is earlier tnan

developed

in the

the

"

fonner

and

aUaded

to in

PLA^rO^S

zoo

No
will deny that
one
dialecticallytreated.
sequently
two
connexion, and conqualitieshave only an outward
With
the
that they cannot
advance
equally.
sopher
philowhereas
the
the latter is manifestly the more
important,
is of secondary importance.
The
degree of perfection

phical matters
these

former

are

in any

therefore

dialogue,as such,

greatest weight ought

proportion

proportion as

Plato

of poetry
his first work

love

So

; but
was

; his

exposition.

clear

this he
^

the

Phsedrus,'

last

the

'

the

least

In

In

lor.

he became
life with

began
for

philosophy.
in poetical

luxuriant

most

Timseus

He

abandoned

soon

the
were
images
exclusivelydogmatical, and

most

skilL"

cared

less

the

it is natural

mature,
was

tain
uncer-

very

whereas

settled in his convictions

became

solely for their

anxious

imitation

dialectical

the

on

most

date;

skill became

the dramatic

that

suppose

at

its

of

laid

be

to

dialectical

the

as

affords

determination

the

for

means

to

WRITINGS,

and

the

'

Laws,' the

ornate.

Until
idle ; but it is not
inquiry may seem
so.
of his works can
be made,
something like a positivearrangement
there
will be no end
to the misconceptions of his opinions ; for
The

whole

it is preposterous
to cite passages
the date
of
having ascertained

in support of a doctrine before

the work
whence
the passages
critics and
historians draw
drawn.
Yet this is the way
up
outline
of
Plato's
and
imaginary
philosophy,
squabble

are
an

each

amongst
Plato

held

such

understood
a

with

so

be

idea

Socratic

this idea
in the

Virtue

of

he

"

Laws,' book

it is said

When

distinctly

be
it ;

held

that

because, in

changes of opinion, it is
our
own
can
scarcely
part we
Even
the
throughout his works.

being

learned

he

career

many

identical

being Ignorance

Vice
even

of his

precise. For
opinion held by him

an

right.

opinion, it should

an

period
and

career,
to

necessary
name

such

is

who

to

as

or

what

at

long

so

other

and

in his

old

with

sequently,
knowledge, contherefore
involuntary",
to repudiate,as
we
age

385, where he calls incontinence^

less than
3i' oiiaBiav ^ hi oKparBiay),
the
no
ignorance (^ yap
of vice.
ix. p. 138, after,
In
the
book
causes
same
sense,
of error, he says :
and pleasure as
causes
speaking of anger
There
is a third cause
of our
faults,and that is ignorance
5ee

v.

p.

"

'*

rSn^
(rpirovfjirp^ ayvoiav
places ignorance only

destroys

the

of Virtue

and

The

Meno

whole

cdridv). So

afJMprrffJMTiav
as

Socratic

third

cause;

argument

and

that

here

by

doing
identity

so

respecting the

he

knowledge.*
'

is

farther

confirmation.

In it virtue

is shown

to

be

un*

WRITINGS.

PLATO'S

aoj

True

III., those

first are

those

second

those

it relates to

wherein

practical. Of the

the

Of the
Love, Beauty, and the Soul.
concerning Dialectics,Ideas, Method, in which

concerning

attainingit are sought. Of the third,

those concerning justice,
and politics. These
Le, morals
three
classes represent
the three phases of the philosophicalmind
:
the desire for Truth, the appreciationof Truth, and the realization
of it,in an
life.
applicationto human
is one
There
viz.,the
great objection to this classification,
the
impossibilityof properly arranging the Dialogues under
Truth

the

and

of

means

'

separate

heads.

devoted

to

dialogue

under

the

he

became
It may

acquainted with

the

be

may

it

he

Heusde

been

up in
is also

only

imbued

became

in his

was

mixes

Plato

having

Plato's

maturer

with

age

that

Pythagorean philosophy.
suggest

temptation. If
reasonably be divided

Empiricus:

Van

the

Sextus

by

to

presumptuous
resist

rest

Megara, where

to

that

"Dialogues*
named

went

of

doctrines, and

cannot

we

conviction

erroneous

Eleatic

of the

So

opposite subjects.

very

Socratist,tillhe
the

and

to Dialectics.

shown, devoted
one

believes
Van
Heusde
Phaedrus,* which
has
Beauty, is clearly,as Schleiermacher
*

The

Love

to

seems

Dogmatic

"

but
classification,

new

into

the

and

that

us

the

classes

two

Agonistic,

or

advantage of this division is

its clearness
will always be someand
thing
practicability.There
to
classify the dialogues
arbitrary in the endeavour
all
they are almost
according to their subject-matter,because
than
one
subject. Thus, the Republic,'
Occupied with more
of Ethics ; yet it
the head
under
would
certainlybe classed
the nature
of human
contains
on
very important discussions
knowledge and on the theory of Ideas ; and these discussions
of Metaphysics.
under
the head
ought properly to be classed

Expository

and

Polemical.

The

Again,

the

Phaedrus

about

'

is

more

but

Love;

Dialectics.
In the

the

occupied

than

half

real

subject of

the

with
work

courses
disis

""

division

we

propose,

such

inconveniences

are

avoided.

dialogues are polemical, and which are

'Hippias Major' and the ^Timseus'
expository. The
may
of
In
the
each
class.
stand
no
former,
representatives
as
Socrates
to settle the question raised.
contents
attempt is made
himself
with refutingevery
position of his antagonist. In the
It is easy

"Timaeus'

see

which

there

is

to

expository.

no

polemic

of

any

sort:

all

is

calmly

METHOD,

PLATO'S

further sub-division

into

such

times

other

to

opens
We

all

through

varieties
which

of form

will

opinion ;

of

or

rightlybe called

may

Socratic

doctrines
and

epoch

is

Plato

of

purpose

their

be

may

III.

Plato's

some,

distinct

fruitful purpose,
of Plato, and which

philosophy

the

Theaetetus.*

great and

one

CHAPTER

By

is the

as

exhibit.

to

attempt

now

of this kind

firmly persuaded that one

the
'Dialogues/ whatever

however,

are,

runs

we

vista of the truth

such

by means
Plato
Sometimes
only destroys \ at
of the ground which
is a clearance

destruction

the

us

purely polemical, and

ideas.

enforce

polemics

of

logues,
agonisticdia-

of the

also be made

might

are

as

403

method.

of the
regarded as a mere
literaryexponent
the
of a new
real
founder
; by others, as

philosophy.

new

Both

of

views

these

appear

the

subject of Plato errors

are
;
said so
had
almost
and
inevitable,that no
so
we
numerous,
who
one
rightlyappreciates the difficultyof ascertainingthe
truth, will be disposed to dogmatise. Although we claim the
with no
^a rightpurchased
right of enforcing our opinions
temptible
conto

but, really on

erroneous

us

"

of

amount

in the

labour

inquiry
"

would

we

be

tinctly
dis-

in their
place no
great confidence
very
validity. After this preface, we
speak openly,
trust, we
may
We
without
not
incurring the charge of dogmatism.
are
truths : we
enunciating ascertained
are
simply recording the
results of study.*
neither
Plato
be
hold
to
the
a
we
simple Socratist, nor
understood

of

creator

has

It

been

quoted

endless.
iis

to

state

with
two

of the

The

He

philosophy.

new

references
have

to

principle with
; and

shall

we

chapter

and

absence

of

verse

such

througliout to

us

follow
for

every

that, previous to writing

Plato, by carefullyreading
ones.

This

it in

references
this

minor

section

inheritor

the

was

aU

this

from
of

result

of that

the

cessary
unne-

To
been

needful

more

renewed
with

all
PJato.
have

would

it the

section, we
his works^

is the

abstain
account

statement

renders

of all the

our

for

tance
acquain-

exception
study.

of

METHOD.

PLATO'S

204

fully seized the importance "tf the

Socratic- Method
: he
adopted it,enlarged it. But he also saw
which
his predecessors had
ideas
the importance of those
sa
laboriouslyexcogitated ; he adopted and enlarged the leading
features
of the Pythagoreans, and
Eleatics,of Anaxagoras, andWith
Heraclitus.
vast
puissant method, he
a
learning and
his
But
created
influence which
is not
an
yet totallyextinct.
liorated,
critical,not
dogmatical. He enlarged, amephilosophy was
wisdom

his age.

of

the

into

views

He

of

others

philosophy of
philosophy.

the

of Greek

his age.
He
In his works

preceding

of

tendencies

introduced

; but

the

was

no

culminating point
various

all the

and

were

the

Method

flicting
con-

under

collected

eras

element

new

one

Method.
Method

That

doubtless

was

of

Socrates, with

modifications, or rather with some

enlargement. Schleierof
luminous
the 'Worth
on
macher, in a profound and
essay
Socrates
to
the service rendered
as
a Philosopher,'* looks
upon

some

Philosophy by
in

at, than

Socrates

in

mode

the

consistingless

as

which

in the

truth

the

truths

should

arrived

sought.

be

This appears
to us
view, John Mill has said :
Plato.
to be, with
to
modifications, applicable likewise
some
No doubt
the disciplepushed his mere
inquiriesand speculations
much
extended
to
a
over
more
surface, and
a
greater depth

Alluding

below

to

the

this

"

is any

there

surface, than

the

believe

to

reason

original
But, though he continually starts most
valuable
and
that these, when
ideas, it is seldom
they relate to
air of conviction, as if
stated
with an
the results of inquiry are
the topic under
But
when
fixed opinions.
to
they amounted

master

did.

consideration
moral

is the proper
spiritin which truth

and methods
processes
the subject-matter is

knowledge in the
and ignorance, and
the

and

same,

belief.

matured

when

put

are

the

should

"

be
it is

by which

sought,
to

be

or

attained

not

between
are

definite
with

forth

Even

knowledge

in

opinions advanced

and

the

real

other

the

the

; or, when

principle,but
knowledge

opinion
of

then

"

always the

consistent,are

appearance

treatingof
have

and

either

intellectual

the

scientific
any particular
between
abstract, the differences

inculcated

views

philosophising

of

mode

and

earnest

subjects,and

least semblance

of

even

being

seriouslyentertained, the discourse itself has generally a

strong tendency to illustrate the conception which does seem
*

Translated

reprinted in

by Bishop Thirlwall,in the PhilologicalMuseum

Englishversion of Dr. Wiggcr^s Life of Socrates.'
'

the

very
to
'

and

PLATO'S

METHOD.

205

of some
of the nature
reallyentertained
part or other of the
inference
would
is
draw
of philosophising. The
we
process
of the Investigationof Science, the theory
that on
the science
of the pursuit of truth,Plato had not
only satisfied himself that
be

his

in error,

and

how^ but

had

also

adopted
all or most
other subjects,he
definite views of his own
; while, on
of others,pointhimself with confutingthe absurdities
contented
ing
predecessors

were

spiritin which it
be conducted, and
should
throwing out a varietyof ideas of his
of which
he was
of the value
not
quite certain, and which
own,
he left to the appreciation of any subsequent inquirer competent
the

put

proper

sit in

to

judgment

here

have

We

for

course

the

them.**

upon

examine

to

inquiry,and

what

Method

that

whith

was

Plato

Socrates, as we have shown, relied upon

constantly pursued.
tions,
Definithe Inductive, or, rather. Analogical Reasoning, and on
the

as

of

these

himself

Plato

principlesof investigation. The incompleteness

have
principles we
already pointed out; and

two

Definitions

it necessary
the base of

found
form

enlarge them.

to

all science.

it is not

To

know

thing

ascertaining the real

his
accoucheur's
art
employed
(rcxny
Definition, Socrates
and
proceeded inductively. Plato also used these
fjLaievTtKrj)
you

must

arts

; but

also

know

he

added

what

them

to

of
Analysis
processes
classification.*

Analysis, which
;

Synthesis,

of

generalization and

by Plato

on

efficient

as

scientific

its separate
the idea
those parts attentively,
Platonic
ascertained.
To
guage,
lanuse

decomposition
whereby after examining
whole

scientific and

more

first insisted

was

is the

process,

parts

and

the

In

is

of

the

whole

into

correctly
if the
Thus
Analysis is seeing the One in the Many.
Virtue must
decomfirst be posed
subject be Virtue, the general term
from
into all its parts, t\e,,into all the Virtues ; and
a

of

the

thorough examination

of the Virtues

clear idea

of Virtue

may

attained.!

be

Definitions

were

to

Plato

what

general

or

abstract

ideas

were

be
held
to
metaphysicians. The individual thing was
eternal.
transitory and phenomenal, the abstract idea was
Only
crates,
Soitself. But
concerning the latter could philosophy occupy
Definitions,had no
conalthough insistingon proper

later

to

"

Consult

the

good

passage

Van

Heasde,

example
translated

of his

from

Init
mode
the

Platon.*

ii.

pars; ii. p. 97, 98.

conducting an inquiry may

'Grorgias.'"See 'Appendix A.*
of

be

seen

in

PLATO*S

ao6

METHOD.

Definitions

classification of those

ception of

the

constitute

science.

this process,
shifted
I that of Dialectics.

What

was

the

from

philosophy

of

ground

Dialectics?

must

introduction

the

Plato, therefore, by

which

It

Ethics
the

was

of
to

of

art

the
uses
discoursing^i.e.,the art of thinking, i.e,,logic. Plato
with
course
word
him
silent disa
Thinking was
Dialectics,because
differed from
of the soul, and
speech only in being
silent.
In

this

of

conception

Philosophy

the conversational
direction

science

to

speculations

to

method

Dialectics,

as

of Socrates,
instead

accordingly,
Ethics, he allowed
;

them

but

of

Plato
a

gave

sorbed
abnew

confining

to

his
all

embrace

nature.

How
merit

that

erroneous

notion

is which

exclusivelyliterary,
may

was

brief outline

of his method.

Dialecticians

He

This

record.

that Plato's
supposes
gathered from the above

be
was

one

of the

most

severe

is his

leading peculiarity;but
his Method
he has clothed
in such
fascinatinglanguage, that
mistaken
have
been
for
the means
His great printhe end.
ciple,
of
must
the
we
tiring
constantly repeat, was
necessity an uninto
schoolmen
the
investigation
general terms
(or,as
did
life or on
He
abstract
look
the world
not
ideas).
on
say,
with
the temporary
interest of
of the
a
passing inhabitant
soul longing to
world.
He
with an immortal
looked
them
on
released

on

its

earthly sojourn, and striving to catch by

faint glimpses of that region of eternal
Truth
anticipation some
The
it would
where
of
fleetingphenomena
some
day rest.
world
he
knew
But
he
this
wise
too
nothing more.
were
was
them.
and
to overlook
imperfect as they were, they
Fleeting
be

were

the

footmarks

Long

from

indications
on

before

the
him

of that eternal

perilousjourney, and
had

wise

and

for which

Truth

guides

meditative

men

he

longed

the

goal.
perceived that
of phenomena;
perpetual flux
a
unto

only be knowledge
sense-knowledge would
that everything men
but a
call existence
was
that
the reports
something which, always hecoming never
w(is;
which
made
of these things partook of the same
our
senses
and
uncertain
character.
could not, therefore,put
He
fleeting
his trust in them
could
not
was
anything
; he
say that Time
the
than
of
wavering image
more
Eternity.
he
But
These
not
Sceptic.
transitoryphenomena
was
a
"

were

not

true

existences

; but

Interrogatethem;

they

were

classifythem;

images
discover

of

true

what

tences.
exis-

quali-

PLATO'S

ties

in

they have
in

One

common

amidst

necessary,

The

METHOD.

is

and

Many

discover

all that

207

which

that

is

invariable,

variable,contingent ; discover

penetrated

have

you

the

The
of

secret

Existence.*
modem
in reducing this Platonic
to
language
Now,
a
The
thought is simply this:
formula, what is the thought?
Things exist as classes as well as individuals; these classes
viduals
indiagain a^e but species of higher,classes ; j?^., men
are
is a species of the class
Man
of. the class Man, and
Animal.
is Deductive, has nothing to
But science, which
do
with individuals
General
solely with classes.
; it is occupied
the
Abstract
materials
with
ideas, are, therefore,
Terms, or
which

science

These

works.

General

how

with

mistake

we

curious

utterance,
the

to

We

would

But

the

far

as

in

be

to

as

pression
ex-

perfect
cautious

be

must

we

only real

dences
expression for coinciinarticulate
an
philosophy was

Plato's
to

And,

seem

coincidences

these

_for the

science.

thinkers.

modern

doctrine.

of

he

concerned,

accordance

said, stood

only objects of

existences, the
is

Plato

Terms,

of

historian,but valueless

as

solution

problem.
here

are

Realism

led to the

originof

Nominalism.

dispute of

world-famOus

the

This

summed
dispute maybe
up
in a
Realists
General
The
sentence.
maintain, that every
Term
(or abstract idea),such as Man, Virtue, "c., has a real
and
independent existence, quite irrespectiveof any concrete
individual
Smith, Benevolence, "c,
determination, such
as
The
Nominalists, on the contrary, maintain, that all General

Terms

and

but

are

distinct

no

caused

Plato
the

the

It is

small

of

used

merely
very

degree

first Realist

pretty
of

M.

ingenuity,designating

human
as

marks

quarrel

bickering
Pierre

as

and

Leroux

of
it

aggregate

stands," and

heart-burning.
believe,
is,we

last. t
In

Realism

Socrates.

"

no

was

creations

entities,but

conceptions.
has

the

To

On

refer

the

Plato
this

separated

point

reader

to

we

have

himself
the

from

his

master

indubitable, but hitherto

wherein

passages
particular

this- doctrine

is

.through all his works,

and
is the
found
doctrine
to be
there.
Perhaps the easiest
'
is
it
where
read
be
Philebus,'
passage
may
pp. 233-6.
"De
rHumanit".f
Without
t In his work
avowing Realism^'
explicitly
bis conception Qf Hmnanity, 9^ distinct from
human
individuals, implies it,.
expressed,

implied,
only constant
or

wou]a

be

endless

it

runs

testimony

little noticed,

Method

Socratic

the

Socrates

and

General

to

This

existence."*

distinct

Aristotle,who, aftei: speaking

of

Induction

of

neither

gave

THEORY.

WEAL

PLATO'S

2o8

is

Terms

General
gave to these
Ideas'*
called them
Thus

are

Terms

introduced

we

*'

Those

who

But
a

con-

succeeded

existence, and

famous

Plato's

to

Aristotle,in

separate

of

Definitions

to

nor

plain enough.

jtinuation,obviously speaks of Plato

him

Definition, says

Ideal

theory;

and

contradictory enough in detail,

with all his specialopinions, is clear enough as a
is the case
as
have
a chapter to itself.
general tendency. It must
confused

although

which,

IV.

CHAPTER
Plato's

in

word

any

undergone more
philosophy ; and nothing

the modem

to

has

Idea

word

The

theory.

ideal

of the word

sense

than

changes
well

can

than

the

be

almost

opposed

more

affixed

sense

it by

to

Plato.
If

were

we

stantial

say, ihat the Ideas

the schoolmen,

to

Forms

endeavouring

enlighten

to

If

to

were
we
great
the
same
Universalsy

that

to
we

say,
should

was

an

would

every
Idealist:" with

be

afterwards.

Mk

distinct existence

Met.,' xiii. iv. dXX*

The
ro^c 6piff^o^c*"

given

universals
to

to

Definitions

difficultyvanishes,
nniversals

this

were

the

and

asserted, that

"

supposed
be

Nominalist

better, however,
Plato, according

Realist; and
*

were

into

obscurity
If

belief

exception, the

to
were

we

Abstract

or

the

as

tantamount

raised.

Terms

of

risk

Ideas^

that

Plato

illustration

last

pertinent.

be

It will

General

the

an

were

be

the Sub-

to

run

with

Ideas

the

objection might

Ideas

mislead

'^

Terms

the

should

we

obscurity

an

that

say,

tantamount

were

of

if

first and

describe

to

Aristotle, gave

to

called
there

r^

filv SwKpariic

iht

was

He

became
Mtm

Abstract

KaQiikoVy

define

General

to

Ideas.

them

to

no

xwpiffrd iwoUi^

oh

of this may
Many have
straoge.
appear
could
existence
exist separately,bat how
a
separate

wording

may
we

puzsle
remember

the

stoutest
that

the

We

Realist.

telieye

DefinidonK

Platonic

the
and

same

things; though

Aristotle's

phrase

is

ambiguous.

WEAL

PLATO'S

310

whetheci/^

individual

the

mean

the

means

universal^
^is

"

Plato

usually designates an

be

doubt

no

; there

THEORY.

only thus
Idea, a

be

can

General

that

also

of

which

is

'

all

Men
where

must

by Ideas
To

formed.

were

There

thing,

from

Table

in

as

tion
contradic-

no

is

for
for Tables
as
as
general form
necessary
this Idea, therefore, equally partakes of generalityeven
exemplified by particularthings.

We

Tables

other

can

sometimes

he

of some
designates an Idea the essence
the
Republic/ where he speaks of the Idea

That

there

Term,

individual

in this.

also

not

reconciled.

be

to

doubt

no

it does

whether

or

endeavour

now

in the

Platonic
Plato

Socrates

indicate

to

position occupied

the

cosmology.
indebted

was

for

his

Method

; yet

not

conception trans*
wholly indebted, seeing that he enlarged
he
indebted
for his fheory
mitted
him.
To
to
was
Pythagoras
it
of Ideas ; yet not wholly indebted, seeing that he modified
the

and

it

rendered

have

seen

let

us

now

how

see

did

he

What

plausible.

more

transformed

he

Method

for

the

we

Pythagorean

doctrine.

Aristotle, in

memorable

''Plato
says:
passage,
definitions,but accustomed
as

respecting
inquiries into universals
Socrates

that

supposed

(8ta to

definitions

noumena),
impossible to give
rather

l^iffTrj(rai
wcpi
be

should

he

to

was

he
KofioKovjy

twk

of

intdligibles{i.e.
phenomena)
{i.e.
; for it is

of sensibles

than

those

followed

general definition to sensible objects,which

he
called
Those
IntelligibleEssences
are
always changing.
from
different
Ideas:
adding that sensible objects were
Ideas,
and

received

oi ihevc
the

Things
potion.^
Aristotle

are

the

He

due

And

the

names

same

name

participation. The

submission

in the

last sentence.

conception
on

the
He

conception

ventured

Ideas

of

on

of
an

the

say

the

'

says,

question

Plato

alone

Pythagoreans

He
that

partici*

to

venture

we

Ideas.

the

as

Plato

copies of Numbers.'

only changes the name."

great advance
not
stop here.
and

word

the

The

name.

receive

genus

introduced

With

; for it is in consequence
in Ideas, that all objects of
fii6"$Lv)

their

them

from

participation {Kara

same

did

the

more

as

assertion

than

change

genericaltypes

Numbers.

But

explanation

of

of

Plato
the

is

"Met,,*i.c6.

did

nature

degree of that participationof sensible objects in Ideas.

Aristotle himself^ in another
place, points out a funda*
"

"

PLATO'S

distinction.

mental

their

than

Plato

{uelIdeas), and

JNumbers

Surely, this is something

gives a

It

clear, and

more

; but

Things

the

to

the

Things

the

causes

are

Sensible

theory

less

no

Intelligible

are

Numbers

invention

the

than

more

character

new

211

thought that sensible

Numbers

were

causes

THEORY.

IDEAL

of

; it renders

s'

"

name

it at

once

applicable.

more

difficultyfelt in the Ideal theory is that of

,^JIaWy and in how far, does this participation
participation.
take
place ? A question which Plato did not, and could not,
All
solve.
that he could
that human
knowledge
answer
was,
The

is

greatest

necessarilyimperfect,that
and

eye,

only when

the

soul

sensation

troubles

the

intellectual

from*the hindrances

is free

of

the

be able to discern
body shall we
things in all the ineffable
But, although our knowledge is imperfect,
splendour of truth.
it is not

false.

Reason

enables

catch

to

us

glimpses

some

of

the

is
Whatever
endeavour
to gain more.
truth,and we must
the object of the soul's thought^ purely as' such, was
real and
The
to separate these glimpses of the truth
true.
problem was
from

the

of mere
prejudicesand errors
opinion.
In this doctrine, opinion is concerned
only with Appearances
Our
sensation, judg(phenomena) ; science with Existence.
ments,

to
opinions, have
our
only reference
ra
yiyvofieva;
scientific conceptions have
The
reference
whole
to rh 3i^a.
is comprised in Plato's answer
matter
to Diogenes, who
thought
he
demolished
the theory of Ideas
by exclaiming: "I see

indeed
"

table ; but I
with
you see

Because

Hence,
that

the

at

those

themselves
The
world

close

only
the

to

are

see

Idea

no

of

and
your eyes,
of
of the 5th Book
to

be

called

contemplation

with

not

his

'

of the

ro

ov,

in the

Forms

of

nature

which

of

Ideas.

In

other

your

replied:
reason."

Republic,' he

Philosophers

which
what
constitute
phenomena
we
the
but
of sense) are
(/". the world

matter

Plato

table."

who

says
devote

i.e. existence.

perceive of the
participationsof

words

Ideas

are

the

material

of
Things are copies ; the noumena^
whidi
all that we
perceive are the Appearances (phenomena).
these copies to be exact
But we
must
not
:
they do not
suppose
of their models
do
not
at all participatein the
nature
; they
in a superficial
than
even
manner.
represent them, otherwise

Or, perhaps, it would

resemble

Things

'Met.,' i. 7*

; as

"iXXd

be
the

more
man

correct

does

to
not

r"dc V^v voriro^s a(rcovc"

say

that

resemble

ro^rovc

Ideas
his

do

not

portrait,

dh alaOtiTo-vs,

PSYCHOLOGY.

PLATO'S

2i"

although the portraitmay

a

be

tolerable

resemblaQce

of his aspect, not of his nature.

resemblance
they exist realized
If, then, the Ideas
as

accurately resemble
not
are
phenomena
attain

the Ideas

they exist,per

as

copies

exact

the

of

noumena

PLATO*S

is

refreshment

some

explain the

to

real

the

exhibit

show
it,he can
demonstration, he can

paints as

follows

we

?
his

of

are

psychology,

conceptionof

the

preceding chapters,it

two

to

this

open

chapter

fascinating of

most

all

with

Plato's

his inability
very justlydeclares
the soul.
But, though he cannot

of

nature

the

able

Phaedrus,' Socrates

the

of

be

that, perhaps,

myth, and
myths.
In

to

how

not

if the

Le.

PSYCHOLOOT.

dreary dialectics

the

"

do

V.

CHAPTER

After

se
"

of Truth

knowledge of Ideas and

into the midst
This question plunges us
which
first explain before the whole
must
we
consistent.
Ideal theory can
be made
to

ever

Nature

in

him

of

it resembles.

what

paint

Unable

picture ; and

that

to

give

picture be

"

chariot, with a pair of winged

In the souls of the gods, the horses
and
horses
and
a driver.
in
other souls, only partisdlyso,
the drivers are
entirelygood ;
The
of the horses
excellent, the other vicious.
one
business,
therefore, of the driver is extremely difficult and troublesome.
''

We

''

to

Let

be

are

us

attempt

now

spoken of

employed

and

travel

when

the

helps

to

loses

its

it to

compare

may

in

about
soul

is

as

to

mortal, and

taking
the

care

whole

administer

wings, drops

the

down

others

of the

has

entire

livingbeings

some
as

immortal.

things which

heaven

of

perfect,and

how

show

in various

wings, it is

the

hold

souls

inanimate

forms.

carried

universe; but

until it catches

are

All

came

Now,
aloft,and

soul

which

of

something
having a dwelling

solid,in which it takes up its residence ; and

of clay, which
be self-moving on
of the soul
to
account
seems
is in it,the two
which
Mortal.
together are called an animal, and
animal'
arises
The
from
not
phrase 'immortal
any

PLATO'S

PSYCHOLOGY.

understanding, but from

ti6r beitirg
able
to
comprehend,
imniortal being, having a body
cOnect

together for all eternity.

God

let

; but

having

never

well

as

be

soul

cause

it

as

an

united

soul,

as

things then,
what

seen

conceived

deity, men

from

state

next

us

fiction ;

these

Let

213

pleases

becomes

unfledged.
'*

habitation

the
the

divine

The

nourished

travel

the

in

the

will,and

their
vault

lift up

by the

contraries

certain

into

gods, divided

other

these, they

of

their

things,each

who

the

increased

and

about

all

take

that

that nature.

and

destroyed.
''
Jupiter

all

are

of

includes

everything of

to

the

of

bodyi wings

heavy bodies towards

of all things which
belong to
which
most
partakes of the divine.
beautiful, the wise, the
good, and
By these the wings of the soul are

wings to
gods ; and

It is the nature

winged chariots,ordering
according to his appointed

who

can,

follow

When

them.

are

bands,

attending

and

function

they

; and
go

to

of
the summit
repasts, they journey up hell, towards
of heaven.
The
cluuiots of the gods, being in exact

equilibrium,and therefore easily guided, perform this journey

of the two
horses,
easily,but all others with difii9ulty
; for one
he
has
been
not
exceedingly
being of inferior nature, when
pels
imwell trained
the
vehicle, and
by the driver, weighs down
it towards
^

The

they reach
convex

the

the

outside

poet

has

are

ever

the

through, and

go

heaven,

see

the gods), when

(viz.^

called immortal

summit,
of

revolution,and
No

earth.

which

souls

are

carried

things which

celebrated

standing

round
lie

and

beyond

upon
round

the

the

by its

heavens.

supercelestialthings,nor

these

This
region is the
they deserve.
of Existence
seat
itself;Real Existence, colourless, figureless,
the
is visible only to Mind,
and
intangible Existence, which
which
of the soul, and
charioteer
forms
the subject of Real
The
fed by pure
minds
of the gods, which
are
Knowledge.
minds, contemplate
knowledge, and all other thoroughly well ordered
ever

will

celebrate

them

as

Being perse^ and are

delighted and nourished
by the contemplation, until the revolu"
tion of the heavens
back
the same
to
point. In
bring them
this circumvolution* they contemplate Justice itself,
Temperance
and
itself,
Knowledge, not that knowledge, which has a
exists in a subject
generation or a beginning, not that which
which
is any
of what
term
beings, but that Knowledge
we
for

time

this

universe

of

'

'

PLATO'S

214

PSYCHOLOGY.

exists in

Being in general ; in that which

really Is.
thus contemplating all real existences,and
being nourished
sink
interior
these
into
souls
the
of
the
again
thereby,

which
After

heavens, and

repose.
is the life of the

''Such
best
in

follow

the

liftingthe

gods, and

head

Of

gods.

resemble

most

the charioteer

of

souls, those which

them, barely succeed

other

into the

the

parts beyond

being carried round

by the circumvolution, are
enabled
with
of selfto
contemplate this universe
difficulty
Existences.
times
Others, being encumbered
by their horses, someto
risingand sometimes
see
some
sinking,are enabled
heavens,

and

Existences

remainder
The
only.
only struggle to elevate
of their drivers,coming
themselves, and
by the unskilfulness
continuallyinto collision,are lamed, or break their wings, and
after much
labour, go away without accomplishing their purpose,
and

return
'*

feed

to

motive

The

plain of

this

of

is that

truth

opinion.
great anxiety to
mere

upon

the

proper

food

view

the

of the

supercelestial

soul

is derived

the wings, by which

the soul is
thence, and in particular,
it.
made
Now
it
light and ouried
aloft,are nourished
upon
is an inviolable
law that
any soul which, placing itself in the
train of the gods, and
journeying along with them, obtains a
sight of any of these self-existent Redities, remains
exempt
if
it can
all harm
from
until the next
circumvolution, and
trive
consafe and
to effect this every
time, it is for ever
uninjured.
But
if,being unable
to elevate itself to the necessary
height, it
being weighed
altogether fails of seeing these realities,and
its
loses
vice
and
falls to the
and
down
oblivion,
wings
by
It never
enters
some
Body.
earth, it enters into and animates
animal
into
of
the
the
first
brute
at
a
body
generation,
; but
that which
has seen
who
most
enters, into the body of a person
from

will

become

that of
man

to

to

monarch

of

of

lover

addicted

person

talents

wisdom,

music,

who

or

to

or

lover

of

love ; the next

reigns according

to

law, or

beauty,
in
a

rank

or

into

warrior, or

third,into a person qualified

; the
his
the state, and
or
family affairs,
manage
into
the
fond
fourth,
a
occupation ;
person

for command

administer

a gainful
carry on
of hard labour and

bodily exercises,or skilled in the prevention

and
curing of bodily diseases ; the fifth,into a prdphidt,or a
teacher
of religiousceremonies; the sixth, into a poet, or a
other of the imitative arti^ ; the seventh,
to any
person addicted
into

husbandman

or

an

artificer ; the

eighth,into

sophist.

PLATO'S

or

courtier

And

usurper.

in all these

returns

the

time

next

themselves
its

to

215

ninth, into a despot and

different fortunes, they who
conduct

people

conduct

who

never

the

justly will obtain

themselves

they

of

PSYCHOLOGY.

unjustly,

pristine

in

state

eligiblelot

more

worse.

than

less

The

thousand

ten

in a shorter time, except

grow
years, for its wings do not
the soul of one
who
philosophises with sincerity,or who
with

philosophy.

Such

souls, after

if

thousand

in

thrice

choose

periods

three

soul

succession

only
loves

of

one

this

kind

they
years,
their wings in the
three thousandth
life,recover
year, and
of their first life,
other souls, at the termination
depart. The
their sentence,
either sent
are
are
judged, and having received
the earth, or
under
for punishment into the places of execution
elevated
to a
are
they are rewarded
place in heaven, in which
In either case
according to the life which they led while here.
draw
or
they are called back on the thousandth
year, to choose
of

lots for

new

life.

Then

human

often

soul

that of a
beast, if it has
body of a beast, and
human, passes again into the body of a man
; for
has

seen

never

form, it being

the

Truth

at

all

that

necessary

things according

cannot

kinds^ which
perceptions combined
by reason

many

many
mode

of

kinds

to

apprehending

is neither

able

be

are

into

more

the

human

apprehend
of
composed

to

this

Now,

one.

less

nor

which

soul

the
been

ever

into

enter

should

man

into

passes

than

the

lecting
recol-

the soul formerly saw

it
when
^things which
journeyed along with the gods, and, disregarding what we now
of Real
call beings,applied itself to the apprehension
Being.
It is for this reason
of
is
that the soul
the philosopher
refledged
in a shorter period than
it
for
others
constantly, to the best
;
of iU power,
occupies itself in tr3nng to recollect those things
which
the gods contemplated, and
by the contemplation of
which
being lifted out of, and
they are gods ; by which means
and
above, human
sidered
interests,he is,by the vulgar, concares
is
in
he
while
inspired."
as
reality
mad,
it is
This
is unquestionably the poetry of philosophy, and
from
that the popular opinion respecting Plato
such
passages
has been
formed; but they represent only a small portion of the
of

real

thinker.

Towards

been

the

doctrine

famous
be

those

close

the

of reminiscence

fully developed

seen
a

fundamental

one.

will

reader

in

the
The

is

have

remarked

implied.
*

Phajdo

This
'

difficulties

it
of

that the

doctrine

may

to

have

seems

conceiving

the

2i6

PLATO'S

PSYCHOLOGY.

knowledge other than the sense-knowledge,

which
the Sophists had
successfullyproved to lead to scepticism,
Plato's
mind.
If we
know
must
troubled
early have
then
teach
is all knowledge
our
nothing but what
senses
us,
of
possibility

any

trivial.

Those

fall back

upon

is

is

subject

not

whjch

the

world

of

imperfection of
question. How

the

Reason, beg the

Reason

that

admit

who

to

can

be

we

inevitable

such

some

Senses

How

correct

the

and

senses

do

assured

know

we

Reason

that

imperfection as

that

to

subject.
the
of
Here
human
ever-recurring problem
knowledge
the
that beyond
was
taught by Socrates
presents itself. Plato
there

sense,

respecting universals
from

which

was

Agreeing

with

we

his

who

have

was

inquiry

that

master

be

things did

there

satisfied.

be

to

certain

were

wished

dispute,he

no

of Truth

this,though

But
not

was

principles
know

to

examined

the

of

nature

knowledge, are
impressions received
our

partly made
up of direct
by the senses, and partly of ideas which never
were,
their ideM
It is this
state, perceived by the senses.
which
has agitated the schools.
the
On
one
side,
declared
it to be wholly independent of the senses
action

may

be

of

the
the

called

doctrine

simplest form,

its

In

soul.

of Innate

latter

part
have

men

be

to

this
the

On

Ideas.

least in

at

"

pure

how

principles.

it is

that

aware

men

differ

not

fund

common

; that

truth

their share.

Plato's

there could

by those

All

there

souls drew

vague.

which

came

; that

all human

dogmatic,
about

of eternal

world

the

was

greatly respecting individual

differed

who

are

doctrine

other

side,

ideas
vigorously argued that, although our
in
direct
from
derived
the senses
a
not
absolutely
manner,
derived
indirect
in
also
manner
:
an
thus, we
they were
have

men

never

mind

mermaid

seen

and

woman,

were

as

combine

to

This

do.

can

; but

philosophy, which

we

these

doctrine

says

have

is

yet
have

fish and

is all that

the

impressions
that of the eighteenth-century

two

c'est sentir

fenser^

both

seen

the

thought is

formed
trans-

sensation.

Plato, in adopting the

than
to

say

any
:

saying we

of his
We
are

But
whence
pure

bom

are

came

bom
to

with
with

into

ideas

petUio prindpii.

such

certain

be driven

those

is it

; for

successors

What

to

it

view, rendered

former

and

somewhat

not

ideas ?

such

faculties

cogent

more

gratuitous
It is not

that would

be

like
ligible.
intel-

being asked
They are innate, is a
answer,
that they are
proof have
you
a

corner,

and

on

JiS

PSYCHOLOGY.

PLATO'S

innate ideas, he
Senses

did

We

the

not

in

now

are

consistently said

furnish
a

was

condition

last

chapter was
if
Truth,
phenomena

everything,which

that

reminiscence
to

dosed,

of the world

answer

How

"

of Ideas.

question with

the
are

which

ascertain

to

we

the

the

?
copies of noumena
sensation
The
awakens
recollection,and the recollection is of
with
the Many
of
Truth; the soul is confronted
by means
of Reason
it detects the One
in the Many,
Sense, and by means

particularthings perceived by

the

ue.

Universals

of

Absolute
some

share
that

; and

divine

is

The

resembling
into

parts

two

it

already

by

No

imperfect.
is without

man

alone

have

large

any

method.

proper
distinct

two

of Parmenides.

celestial

less

or

What

seen.

has

Plato

those
the

alone.

increase

of

philosophy

the recollection

awaken

more

Philosophers

spark.
have

we

Gods

the

they might

Method

is always

of Truth

is for

Truth

of the

Sense

Ideas.

or

this recollection

But

exact

not

are

of Ideas, and

what
some-

is divided

universe

The

region

branches,
the

mundane

These
region of material phenomena.
answer
very well to the
modern
and
Earth.
the phenomena
As
conception of Heaven
their
of matter
but
are
copies of Ideas (not as some
suppose
ideas
do
bodily realization)^there arises a question : How
become
In other words
How
do things participate
matter?"
:
in Ideas?
former
the question in the
We
have
mooted

chapter, where

said

we

it ; and
we
times
different
does

explanations

two

curious

Republic,' he says, that

individual
things created
this type
made

God

penter
as

way

the

artist may

an

created, but
as

here
'"

may

not

; nor

the

class

create

an

illustration

we

proceed according

of

thing.

are

Thus,

this type, any

he likes,in the
to

anything

Plato's

each

made.

beds
as
many
imitate in his paintingsthe

himself

the

perpetually creating

(Idea) for

according

as

In

same

types already
The

new.

Method,

car*

be

may

ment,
argu-

given

"

Shall

Method

as

you

know

is the

to

our

embracing

of things which
multiplicity
You
same
comprehend
name.
"Perfectly.

the

of

distinct type

bed

fashion

now

may

of

instead

things of

all other
Idea

overlooked.

be

to

God,

From

solution

no

surprised to find Plato giving at

different
two
explanations. These

very
too

are

of

be

not

must

it admitted

that

exists
?

usual
under

Method
one

That

general Idea

separately,but

have

the.

PLATOS

''Let

take

us

like.
you
tables ?

and

il9

instance, there

For

anything

multiplicityof beds

is

Certainly.

"

these

"But
a

PSYCHOLOGY.

bed

the

and

"Without

comprised

are

under

other

Idea

the

of

under

one

of

Idea

the

table ?

doubt.

"And

we

For

he

carpenter who

or

the

table

does

not

make

bed

the

of each.

the

that

say

articles,makes
has

kinds

two

makes

according

he

Idea

itself.

Idea

the

the

to

these

of

one

is

That

impossible?
Truly, that is impossible.
what
shall
name
"Well, now,

"

whom

"

What

"

Him

"

You

"

has

now

going

workman

am

who

Patience

of

everything
**

You

"

You

He

makes

of

seem

workman

could

do

"

In

"

It is not

Take

what

will have

But, tell

certain

way

do

that

Gods

one

think

you

in

one

could

there

sense

any

Could

you

the

sun

all

in

short

time.

instant

an

earth, yourself,the

stars^ the

and

in

and

all sides

you

mals,
ani-

mentioned.

we

well j you
comprehend my
of this class, is he not?

"Very

me

done

Yes, the images, the appearances,

workman

in

Sophist^ truly !
?

plants, works, and

and
"

or

Earth,

the

also

way

made

workman

Hell.

think
you
in another
no

the

Heaven,

difficult j it is often
mirror, and turn it round on

This

still more.

or, do

in

yourselfsucceed

not

the

me

this,but

all

him

Earth,

rately.
sepa-

man

wonderful

doubt

to

make

making all the works of art, but

plants, animals, everything else;

in Heaven,

speak

such

of

nature

himself.*

no

powerful

workmen

other

all the

will admire

; you

works

word,

one

only the talent

not

all the

is

of

the workman

on

name

what

makes

speak

to

bestow

we

but

not

the

opinion.

The

things.
painter is a

real

"Certainly.
"

makes
*

will tell

You
a

r^

re

corrupt,
least

not

bed
aXKa

the

in

me

that

he

certain

We

countenanced
no

comment

are

of God

by

any

scholiast makes

nothing real,although

he

way.

kavrhv.

Kai

self-creation

makes

on

inclined

to

being certainly
other

it.

passage

in

regard
no

any

this pa^^age

Platonic

other

notion
work.

at

; at

The

PLATO'S

ft20

did

carpenter,
but

only

certain

said

**I

you

only

appearance,
that the bed

an

not

allow

we

call the

which

Idea

the

not

it is

but

"Yes:

PSYCHOLOOY.

bed

image.

an

which

of the

essence

he

the

And
made

was

the real

bed,

bedy

so, indeed.

the Idea of the bed, he makes

make
If,then, he does not
that which
nothing real, but only something which
represents
maintain
tiiat the carpenter's
really exists.
And, if any one
"

has

work
In

the

existence

real

Timaeus,' perhaps

his works,

and

view

made

to

types

from

all

the

create

in the

of

of

nature

(Ideas); but these types having

in fashioning Chaos
fashioned

existed

different
of

Ideas, but

the

there

only a
adopted, and

rather

or

is

participation

no

of

of

did

Plato
and

Heaven

conception

two

souls

one

form.
much

not

Earth

the

after

\X

of

the

as

two

double

Rational

and

sensitive.

other

The^
Ideas

soul

world.

participationin theit

he

the

of the

this view

In

hypothesis
either,this conception
regions is completed by

for

nature

one

is not

Whichever
care

purely expository of all

takes a
of the latest,Plato
God

Ideas,

these

most

creation

of the

eternity,God

model

the

unquestionably

totally different

in error."

will be

he

two

ahd

souls

are

closely connected,

Phenomena

the

two

of

Neither

connected.

are

as

regions
them

of

are

superfluous ; neither of them, in a human

sense, sufficient ; they
cences
sensitive soul awakens
the reminisThe
complete each other.
of the
the

One

in

Rational

soul

the

Many,
inevitably resulting from

; and

Man

preserves
mere

Rational

the

soul, by detecting

from

the

scepticism

sense-knowledge.

in himself

cies
conflictingtendenof his age ; thus did
he accept each portion of the truth
supposed to be discovered
by his predecessors,and reconcile
these
In that vast
portions in one
general doctrine.
system
all scepticism and
all faith found
the
scepticism
acceptance ;
solid
the
faith
was
corrected,
was
propped up by more
ments.
arguof
all
He
admits
with
tiie
the
sceptics
imperfection
Thus

did

Plato

resume

all the

imperfect, it is not worthless ; it

is no
like the truth than
like Ideas ; but,
more
phenomena
are
in some
modelled
afler Ideas, and do,
sort
as
phenomena
are
dim
therefore, in some
Ideas, so does senserepresent
way,
lead
the
to
something like the
knowledge
patient thinker
sense-knowledge

but, though

"

'Repub.,'

X.

pp.

467-8.

SUMMARY

it awakens

Truth;
Ritter

PLATO'S

OF

him

in

DIALECTICS.

reminiscence

221

the

of

Truth.

A"

shows, in detail,that in the world of sense

there
is no
at one
perfect likeness, but that an
object which
time
like, is at another
thought to be unlike, and is,
appears
therefore,defective in completeness of resemblance, and has at
is the case
but a tendency thereto.
The
with
the
most
same
Beautiful, the Good, the Just, the Holy, and with all that really
there is nothing exactly resembling
is; m the sensible world
them, neither similar nor dissimilar ; all,however, that possesses
degree of correspondence with these true species of being
any
is perceived by us through the
and
thereby reminds
us
senses,
this it is clear, that he had previously
of what
From
truly is.
it somewhere, or
conscious
this could
been
of it,and" as
seen
"

in the present, it must

in
have been
existence.
In this respect there is a close

have

not

He

says,

been

of

state

this doctrine

between

them

represents

as

and

view

the

of

sensible

earlier

some

connection

objects,which

of the
copies or resemblances
in perception, a feeling*
arises

mere

truth; for, even

the mind, that all we
see

is very

hear

sensible
superupon

far from

reaching to a
likeness to that which
is the true
being and the absolutely like ;
but that, strivingto attain,it falls short of perfect resemblance,
and consequently the impressions of the sense
tokens
are
mere
ideas whose
of the eternal
of which
similitude they bear and

they

or

copies.**

are

CHAPTER

exhibited

of

and

the

Soul,

of them

review

It is often

doctrine

that

"

Dialectics
other
of

to

said

it will
exhibit
that
truth

DIALECTICS.

conceptions

Plato*s

be

now

their

Plato
were

remarks, labours

being unintelligible.We

of

Method,

convenient

was

the

believed

synonymous.
under
the very

well

remember

no

brief

of

the

other

Platonic

Science;

This, like
the

many

disadvantage

great

thought
galimatias ; and, indeed, if you
ordinary critics and historians,it will be strange
it pure

Ideas,

general doctrine.

base

in

of

take

to

position in the

Dialectics

Philosophy

and

current

in

PLATO'S

OF

SUMMARY

Having

VI.

time
look
if

when

into

we

the

they manage

SUMMARY

ztt

to

render
in

to
phrase intelligible

the

condition

abused

Dialectics

theory of Ideas

the

be

to

reading the preceding

synonymous

Dialectics

necessary.

was

ever,
not, how-

are

patience.

your

(or Logic)

If you

you.

it after

to understand

have

chapters, we
For

DIALECTICS.

PLATO'S

OF

with

Science,

is the

science

general propositions,of general terms, of universals.

it must
the science
become
necessarilybe occupied with
at once
were
so
important things. Ideas, were
; for Ideas

To

of

only real Existences

General

about

that

than

science

opinions can
determine

his

real
*

the

to

; and

deeper

Plato, whose

penetrate.

is yet both explicitand

the Science.
of Dialectics
Tp
as
relied

be

of

nature

Existence

about

the

discoursed

Whoso

Terms.

hope

conception

the

dialogue

could

scarcely ever

in

constant

discoursed

Terms

no

General

and

more

on,

Science

devotes

remarkable

That

Thesetetus.*

he

entire

an

is

work

purely

adversaries,in such a way as

stitute
opinion. All attempts to conscience either upon
or
perception (aur^iTo-is)
opinion
upon
Perception can
(8o^a) he crushes in an irresistible manner.
which
have no
have
real
no
stability,
only be of objects which
is
unable
to constitute
existence. Opinion though it be correct
science : for tiiere are two sorts of opinion false and true, and
from
the false would
require a science
to distinguishthe true
critical ; it refutes the opinions of
to Plato's own
as
to leave no doubt

"

which

knew

that

Ideas

must

be

which
known

seeking

the

the

are

order

^ necessary
consequence
immutable
elements
of science

It follows

the Truth.

real

in

themselves,

of

development

as

science

that

and

of these

in

consists

Ideas, that is

to

say,

in Dialectics.

Owing

to

Science, that

is,the Science

his Dialectics
While

he
of

did

not

genera

In

Logic

the

the

"

it to

confine

that

Dialectics
science

and

was

be

to

the

between

is very marked.
of methodical
classification

successors

art

speaking

of

only

the

reflex of

ideas

therefore

of immutable

knowledge

as

distinction

general notions-^he
upon
jective
subjectivetruth ; for he believed this sub-

art

abstract

the two-fold

of his

necessarilythe

was

The

Being.

of

spoke of Dialectics

truth

believed

theory Dialectics

Ideal

the

not

were

objective reality;he

images

only the

'^

art

of

of

real

existences.

but
thinking,"

being.

aspect of Creation

there

this division

was

Perception.

Matter, phenomena,

the

rot

yiyvo/i"vas=

Sensation

"

Opinion.

of

PLATO'S

THEOLOGY

AND

COSMOLOGY

a"3

Dialectics.

Existence^ Ideas,
In

of

ideas=Science.

ovTa=Abstract

tA

the

everchanging flux of Becoming, which

of the immutable
traces
Perception, there were
the

was

object

Plato's

of science.

manifold

own

This

works.

distinction
We

object

Being, which

may

be

applied

of

them

that

say

may

the

was

the

opinions on psychology, physics, ethics,and politics are

But
amidst
changing, uncertain, and of no value.
these various
Method.
opinions there reigns one constant
never

wavers

therefore

as

The

Dialectics.

fully understand

; and

his

to

we

also
with

Dialectics.

Platonic

doctine

therefore

consists

of

may

of the

the

importance
clearly see what

Philosophy

basis

subject-matter of Dialectics
consists of

is the Science.

That

Analysis^
Definitions^

theology

bestowed
is

Idec^;

by

He

fying
identi-

is Dialectics
and

all

may
Dialectics

on

meant

stantly
con-

the

the Method

Induction,

CHAPTER
Plato's

We

to

VII.

cosmology.

and

occupied solely with the general

have
to particulars.
to descend
Doctrine ; we
now
have
scarcely
But, as so often remarked, particulardoctrines
is
advanced
in
Platonic
what
writings;
to-day
stability the
any
historians
critics
and
have
is refuted
to-morrow
; accordingly,
squabbled about these wavering opinions, as if agreement were
possible. One declares Plato held one opinion ; and cites his
Hitherto

we

have

been

thinks
his predecessor a
Another
in proof.
passages
and cites other passages
wholly destructive of the
maintained.
third comes,
A
and
Plato is said to have
passages

from

one

dialogue

to

passages

from

head,
block-

opinion
ing
string-

another,

in his

own
interprets the whole
way.
will not
therefore
be
consistent
Theological doctrine
Any
of the tonic
Plaonly reproduce some
expected from us : we can
influenced
later
have
notions, those
especially which

thinkers.
In

the

same

way

as

Plato

sought

to

tletect

the

One

amidst

THEOLOGY

834

PLATO'S

the

Multiplicityof
it to

it,declared
seek

detect

to

God

God

it to be

What

God.

Ide^: the last result

One
Being comprising

Ideas

the

xal

tv

iroXXa, the

Cause

Whatever

view

were

tion.
generaliza-

of

wilhin
of

himself

all

things,

terrestrial.

is the

Platonic

Multiplicity of Ideas, and,

the

to

was

thus

was

celestial and
God

essence

amidst

Beings, the

other

all

real

One

and, having detected

of matter, so ^so did he

phenomena,

it,declared

Phenomena,

to

the

the

detected

having

material

be

COSMOLOGY.

AND

Idea.

supreme

cosmology

whether

"

God

take

we

Ideas,

created

of

the

whether

or

of Ideas
unformed
after the model
matter
only fashioned
represented the
equally led to the conviction, that God
are

he

"

we

of

of all Existence

Idea

supreme

source
great Intelligence,

Sun

Intelligences: the

other

all

the

light illumined

whose

creation.

perfect,ever the
good ; for, although a

God
but

is

without

same,

envy,
knowledge of

clear

wishing nothing
is imposGod
sible

that
is
to
approximation
knowledge
know
he is, we
what
what
possible; we cannot
can
only know
he is like.
be good, because
He
the
must
self-sufficing
; and
it. Why
is good, because
world
he made
did he make
it ?

mortals,

to

God

made

the

wished

that

an

because

world

he

free

was

from

and

envy,

him
resemble
much
things should
as
as
sible.
postherefore
He
stable,
persuaded Necessity to become
harmonious, and fashioned
Yes, per*
according to Beauty.
all

is Plato's

suaded

word

eternal

two

were

mixture

the

from

Principles,
of

these

the

made

was

for there

Necessity and

Intelligenceand
world

Intelligencepersuaded

but

according to Beauty.*
into Beauty.
arranged chaos

Necessity

be

to

fashioned
He

beautiful
without

Soul, he

made

and

Intelligence,and

but

the

placed

World

the

proof

of

specimen

of his

analogical or

also

in

the

world

composed

of various

fUfUffUvri

9V9Taciiai

ydp

rd
yiyyofiivuty

oi^v 17 rouSi

vXiiffra

human

called

tov

being

being

elements, and

lyy kwijOri, vov

of

animal, is
reasoning

an

Inductive

human

is therefore

and

being

in the

; the

elements,

world

is warmth

There

Intelligence
the World,

no

body

nothing

animal.

an

Plato's

over.

into the

is

there

as

is

there

as

Soul

But,

Kovfiov

to

; there

curious
be

passed

is warmth

is

composed
^i various
is also
a
body ; the world
is therefore
a
body; and,
ytviffii i^

dk avdyKtic

iiri rb

too

dpxdvroc
^iKrittTov dytiv,
"

ti^

avaymiQ
irtiOtiv

Ttmaus,

p.

re

Kal

avrijv

56.

vov

rwy

PLATO'S

226

something of the divine

participationin it ; but more
is

there
some

therefore, who

Those,

in

inherent
express

of

and

image of the Idea,

the primeval chaos.

expressing

Evil

"

thought that

Plato

whole

the

on

an

that

say

though

matter,"

themselves

COSMOLOGY.

AND

THEOLOGY

themselves

correctly.

was

loosely,

Matter

the

was

Being Necessity
Intelligence fashioned.
for
it
Evil,
was
Intelligence alone can be
unintelligent

great Necessity which

and

good.*
Now,

dwells,

must

we

how

the

gods

consists

on

as

From

quantity of Evil
that

we

for

man

fdrced

the

contradiction

no

Evil

where

this

to

life of

the

gods

Dialectics

encounter

of Evil, it will be

nature

in Plato's

life exceeded

it.

from

escape

leading

that

proportion that phenomena

saying,that
of

the

the
; it

Good

exceed

noumena,

ideas.

exceeds

matter

side,are

in

it in the

exceeds

to

By

No.

explanation of

is

there

that

seen

every

above

the

region

endeavours

utmost

By suicide?

sole salvation

the

is the

phenomena

Platonist
that the life of the
knows
every
eternal contemplation of truth, of Ideas.

; and

in the

Thus,

of
our

use

escape?

And

as

this world

as

although Evil be a necessary

part of the world, it is in
is this but the struggle of
What
constant
struggle with Good.
gence:
Intelliwith Free Will and
is endowed
Man
And
Becoming^
Evil: t^s
between
Good
and
he may,
therefore,choose
Se
doirJKe
rais
rivos
iroiov
^ovXi;(r"(rcv Ixcurrcov "^fiSiV
yercicrca)? ro
And
according to his choice will
aiWas.
Z^es, x. p. 217.
ras
his future
life be regulated.
Metempsychosis
was
a doctrine
from
Plato
readily borrowed
Pythagoras ; and in that doctrine
But

"

could

he

virtuous

details
that

to

seldom
*

nothing

of

existence

many

from

said

God

but

we

the

In
the

'Laws/

tf/vxi)in

have

x.

pp.

this

principle; but, iuasmnch

good {Tbiv Tt "yaO"v
to

He
soul
and

have

therefore
fwhether
avola

some

makes
the

as

vovg

(ignorance
"

often

had
201-2,

so

he
The

chapter

Plato
to

proves

pass

without

over

ing
allud-

times, and
is
God
upholder,

an

"

t"v

should

to

bad

xaK"v),
determine

which
principle

well

as

it

was

its

to

as

sary
neces-

direction.

determines

of man,
it is the same] to
or
it to evil.
of nous) which
determines
world

and

modern

moved

^l^vx^v i^o^

(mtelligence),the
^want

sage

curiously distinguished the vovg

if/vx*}(^^^1)^ ^^^ self-moving

principlewhich

of the

epoch.

forced

in

ancient

it is sometimes

tlvai

been

used

of

whereby

this

close

manner.

alriav

other

soul

so

have

we

cannot

to

that

at

of the arguments

; for

argument

suspected

afforded

other

no

enforcement

the

for

arguments

life,which

have

We

the

find

the

good

PLATO'S

proved
which

OP

VmjV

exist

to

Such

by
reader

those

as

Plato,

againstsupposing

They

from

taken

are

considerable
works

there

viz. that

of

sport
9"ov

Tt

man's

but

have

to

written

been

wide

at

GOOD.

227

his nature

pressed
certainlyexthe
again warn

were
we

his constant

views.

intervals,and

of

in

and

ing
bear-

is but

the

opinion;
very
oif
glimpses
an
appalling doctrine, a
plaything of God, who
alternately \

forsakes

the

world.

occasional

man

from

down

set

times

them

works

difference

are

and

governs

above

different

at

AND

feeling of affinityto

very
souls.

our

opinions

BBAUTIPVL

the

by

stirs within

THE

ilvai

iraiyviov

first notion

The

Heraclitus, who
said, that
Plato's
words
Demiourgos.
The

these

are

this

and

the

was

avOpmirov Be

is said

notion

second

rived
de-

seems

worlds

making

fi"firf)(avTjfi"vov :

excellence.*

those

be

to

is

formally
he
Politicus,'pp. 273-80.
expressed in the
"God,"
says,
and
forsakes
the world; when
he governs
alternatelygoverns
he forsakes
it,things go on well : it is the age of gold ; when
in a contrary
round
orbit
it, the world
suddenly turns
a
greatest

"

"

fearful

crisis takes

place, all things are disordered, mundane

time do
totally disarranged,and only after some
of order, though of a very
to a sort
things settle down
fect
imperexistence

is

kind."

CHAPTER
Plato's

of

view

KoXov

TO

the

and

beautiful

the

THE

VIII.

oyaOov,

TO

KOI

good:

So
TO

has

much

KoXbvt

persons
devote
who

"

few

consult

read

never

our

pages,

times

of

the

conceived

by Plato, and this by

of his works, that we
must

line

it ; certain

to

sentences

in modern

talked

and

Beautiful," as

the

who
a

written

been

two-thirds

as

we

would

are,

that of
the

deem

those

omission

unpardonable.
The
And

bond
what

which

is Love

unites
The

inextinguishable desire
divinity within
Beauty.

us

the

longing
which

feels for

"

*De

human
of

like
the

Legibus,*

to

the

the Soul
feels

for

divine

Beauty
like, which

divinityrevealed
vii. p. 32.

is Love.

for

to

the
the

us

in

is the

This

Platonic

celebrated

-meant
originally

communion

rigidlydialectical sense,
of hypocritical sentiment
sympathy
"gentleman for a
meant

But
It

does

colours

It is the

world
*

"

come

them

to

into
call

seen

have

the

Real

humaii

region

which

we

what
for

marry.

description of

it in

the

human
already said, every
not
Existences, or it would
it is

shape. But
they then
short

young

flatteryof the senses.

and
outlines
resplendent
of it.
Beauty is Truth.
most
splendid in the
was

Plato's

to

as

mind

to

that

saw

that

not

love

mere

indications

the

Listen

For,

or

sentimental

will

harmonious

image of

actually

have

which

"

has

but

are

Ideas.
'

Phsedrus

soul

these

in

having

that

Platonic

sexes.

of

love

the

Not

from

in a
souls,
degraded to the expression
the

cannot

Beauty

radiant

of

he

consist

not

been

"

and

two

between
the

which

Love,
of

has

means

woman

is

what

it

OP

VIEW

PLATO'S

38

not

easy

for all of

those, especially,
only, and those which,
saw

time

unfortunate
to be turned
having fallen to the earth, were
so
as
oblivion of the sacred thingswhich'
and consequent
to injustice,
in their prior state.
were
seen
Few, therefore,remain
by them
who
of those
are
adequate to the recollection
things. These
of the
here
few, when
image or resemblance
they see
any

things which
are

of

in

are

there, receive
taken

manner

comprehension, they

them.

out

know

shock

like

of themselves
not

which

what

exist

thunderbolt, and

but, from

it is which

so

affects

Justice and
Temperance, and the other things which the soul honours, do
not
splendour ; and a few persons
only, with great
any
possess
material
aid
of dull, blunt,
difficulty,
by the
perceive
organs,
likenesses
terrestial
the
of those qualities,
and
recognise them.
when
it was
But
not
splendid
Beauty was
only most
seen
by
of
the heavenly possession or
forming part
us
choir, but here
also the likeness of it comes
to us
and
acute
through the most
clear of our
and
that
of
with
which
sight,
a
splendour
senses,
other
of
of
the
terrestrial
no
images
super-celestialexistences
They, then, who are not fresh from
heaven, or who
possess.
have
been
not
corrupted, are
vehemently impelled towards
that Beauty which
is aloft when
earth which
they see that upon
is called by its name
and
not, therefore, venerate
; they do
to physical pleasure after
worship it,but give themselves
up
But
of a
the
fresh from
quadruped.
are
manner
they who
divine objects of contemplation, and who
have /ormerly
those
much, when
they see a Godlike
counten*
contemplated them
Now,

the

likenesses

there

deficiency

of

THE

BEAUTIFUL

form, in which
imitated, are first struck
ance

not

erect

AND

THE

GOOD.

229

celestial

beauty is imaged and well

with a holy awe, and
then, approaching,
if
beautiful
this
venerate
they were
object as a god, and,
the
afraid of
reputation of too raving a madness, wquld
altars,and perform sacrifices to it.
or

**And

the

which
atmosphere
through the eyes,
which

and

warmth

beauty
softens

and

coats

inveterate

liquefiesthe

and
up
from

parts in the

the

them
wings, and
prevents
the wings begin to germinate
growing of the teeth, produces

from

the

itself,entering

around

generates

covers

derived

influence

genial

tion,
indura-

vicinityof

the

this

being melted,
and
increase, and this,like the
an
itching and irritation which
disturbs the whole
frame
of the soul.
When, therefore,by the
the
of
beautiful
is softened,
object, the induration
contemplation
is
relieved
and
the
soul
from
the wings begin to shoot,
is
that object
Its
pain and
rejoices; but when
absent, the
hardens
liquefied substance
again, and closes up the young
shoots of the wings, which
consequently boil up and throb, and
the

throw
neither

it to

allow

beautiful

the

see

into

soul

sleep

and

parents,

brothers, and

despises

and

will

and

rage,

again
rest, until it can
relieved.
For
this reason
it

be

at

object ;
friends,and

established

all

and

but

for

sake

deserts

neglects its patrimony,

it valued

which

on

usages

its

itself

this aff^ection is Love.

And

before.

that

turbulence

remain

nor

object, and

willinglyleaves

never

of

state

growing

by this time familiar enough with the

will see
Platonic
He
philosophy to appreciate this passage.
will comHe
the dialectical
prehend,
meaning of this poetical myth.
is naturally more
Love
also, that the Platonic
priate
approThe

is doubtless

reader

between
two

sexes

two

men

because

"

and

master

pupil

than

"

it is purer,

and

vivid

of Truth

less

the

between

disturbed

by

other

feelings.
Beauty

is the

most

image

what
But
is the
perceptibleform.
The
Good, to dya^ov, is God, but God
Truth, Beauty, Justice,are all aspects of
most

is his nature.
it

;
manner

The

as

only

can

the

Good

sun

be

is the

is therefore
in

known
cause

of

it is

divinityin

its

Good?
in his abstract

state.

the

Deity ; Goodness
incapable of being perceived

reflection.

sight,and

also

In

the

the
cause

same

of

objects of sight growing and being produced, so also the

of science, and the cause
is the cause
of being to whatever
Good
is the objectof science : and, as the sun
itself is not sight.
the

PLATO'S

J30

ETHICS.

both ; so also the

object of sight,but presides oyer
is not
Good
science, nor the object of science,but is superior
the Good, but goodly,
not
to both, for they are
the

nor

CHAPTER

IX.

Plato's
Plato

was

Socratist.

following his
did
his

have

we

him

seen

speculationson
things
God, "c., were
The

Metempsychosis,
Socrates, although

from

learn

not

Hitherto, however,

only in his Method.

master

Ideas, Reminiscence,
he

ethics.

Socratic

the

Method

that
have
before seen
We
powerful instrument.
Socrates
occupied himself almost exclusivelywith Ethics ; and
it is in Ethics, therefore, that we
shall expect to find Plato

was

most

him.

resembling

rapidly over
otherwise
justify.

the

more

pass
would

in them

even

they

logical rather

are

deductions

human

contradiction
In

it will
the

of

it

mostly Socratic,

are

that

to

us

importance

Dialectician

ethical

enable

dominant

was

is to

logicalpremisses, not

they

say,

are

tions
investiga-

from

There

considerable
is, moreover,
works
on
this,as on other points.
he
advocates
Free
'),
Will; in another

nature.

in his various

place ('Timaeus

one

opinions

the

than

certain

from

into

how

see

we

fact ; and
subject than

ethical

Plato's

But, although
yet

is the

Such

(*Hippias Minor'),

Fatalism.

Sometimes

Sometimes

vice

is

involuntary,

^indeed,generally vice
nothing
ignorance ; elsewhere, as we have shown, vice
is said to be partly ignorance and partly incontinence.
Virtue
is said to be Science ; yet Knowledge
alone does not constitute
Happiness, nor can Virtue be taught.
Although, therefore,many
splendid passages may be quoted,
which
in
morals
but regard
are
worthily spoken of, we cannot
at other

times

is

as

chimerical

such,
Dialectics.
found

for
As

his ethics

duty, but
In

any
that

All

system.

of

voluntary.

"

"

but

Plato's

on

attempt

to

deduce

from

them

an

ethical

cies:
safely be relied on, is general tendenof Ethics
to
instance, as his subordination
can

M.

de

Gerando

well

principle of obligation, on
the tendency to perfection."
on

Ethics,the passions are

"

observes,

he

the

set
entirely

did

not

definition

aside \ they

PLATO'S

regarded

are

purely a

ETHICS.

disturbances

as

moral

Intelligence. And

of

matter

in the

231

economy.
the Intellect

Virtue
has

is

fore
there-

direction
of
regulativeoffice,but the supreme
sopher
all action.*
Now, as Chamfort
admirably said, the Philowho
Chemist
would
set aside the passions,resembles
a
all aware
who
would
that it is
are
extinguish his fire." We
the right,and
to know
pursue";
yet the wrong
very common
that the
of
passions not
only disturb the regulative action
it ; and
that morals
Reason, but positivelytriumph over
are

only

not

"

"

"

our

Ethics

The
world

quite useless

are

same

much

too

inhabitants

inhabitants

the

the

But

errors.

had

beliefs.

our

suit the

to

his Ethics

are

Republic,' has
ITie

than

might

Plato

of

Politics
the

under
*

they

His

habitSyrather

our

mores^

another

of this.

applied to
lus Utopian

State

celebrity for

to

is

of

; and

labour

Government,

us

the

neglect it.

of the

interesting
most
Republic'
unquestionably one
of his works, and
slow
the progress
of social
has been
so
with
other
of the
science, compared
science, that many
every
still
ideas Plato
has
there
entertained
by very
put forth,are
*

serious

thinkers

morals, would

or

The

he

As

barely find
of

weakness

society

should
him

be

image

physics,metaphysics,

on

defender.

himself,

to

an

ideas

is the

Man

suffice

cannot

his

; whereas

of

that

cause

he

States

live in

must

himself.

The

are

formed.

Society.
faculties

This
which

activityin Society ;
and this vast union
but one
intelligence.
virtues are, I. ^powyo-is, wisdom;
Thus
man's
II. avSpeCa,
lY. Sucaio"rvyrj,
fortitude;III. auMppotrvvrit temperance;
justice.
its
The
the
have
State, therefore, must
Rulers,
philosophers,
will represent
who
its
will
who
soldiers,
wisdom;
represent
fortitude ; its craftsmen
will
and
who
perance.
temburghers,
represent
is
which
be
shared
must
Justice
a
quality
by all
classes,as lying at the root of all virtuous action.
wisdom
In
the
have
and
of
alpha and omega
justice we
belong

to

doctrine

Plato's
the

Rulers

We

to

is therefore

interrupt our

But

prove

ordain

to

cannot

misery

See*

justice is wisdom

injusticein the

nnmerous.

the

field of
proper
form
of intellects should
a

all

prevent
*

must

find

of the

that he

Note

B,'

we

have

added

unjust man,
who

does

in

such

The

act

laws

as

will

office

of

effectually

State.

exjpositionwith any examples ; they are too

'
in the
a
Appendix
respecting
passage
from
the
Gorgias.' In it Plato endeavours
'

'

injurysuffers

more

than

he

who

endures

itt-*^

PLATCyS

232

Their

hrst

All those

respecting the deity.

deity the passions and
imperfections

the

banished

hence

has

much
This

Law,

fanaticism.

Socrates

But

there

the vices

other

were

Musicians

music

could

other

of

respectingReligion,

Strange that

pupil of

which

of

for the banishment

desires

men

of the

Poets

can

admitted;

limits of that

the

balance

soul.

the

those

Only
the

the
They enervate
imitations
of
they give

they overstep

banished

partly

is

and

impetuous

one,

Even

least

at

Dorian

the

who

the
were

Phrygian
warlike, the

the

and

denounced.

Thus

As

the State

must

be

begotten.

avaricious

for their

Women

But

; the

are

The

chosen.

mild

to

To

Thus

her^
ideal
it was

also

be

of

chosen

wives,

assorted

to

of

interdicts

and

be

violent

as

mares

to the

But

men.

tage.
paren-

brood

assorted

good

mild

the chil*

therefore,to be consigned
to the State
Nurses, who will superintend their early education.
children
different capacities,
manifest
As
and, as Plato thought
with St. Simon, each citizen should
be ranked
according to his
dren

belong

capacity,the
the

young

man

to

the State.

to

Husbands

marriage

for

women

them.

disturbances

for

these

prevent

violent
be

with

interfered

ambitious

community
to

which

music.

and

children

ordains

Plato

Plato, and

conjugal
subsist without
not
children, children
foolishlyfond ; they are
parents are

could

foolishlyfond.

also

anything

poetry

love.

in

that germ
equabilityof mind was the

measured

happiness, and

of human

order,

Stoicism

of

germ

its fruit.

bears

men

be

calm.

There

are

must

men,

respecting the gods.

harmonious.
be

to

law, the operation

causes

alone

were

plaintiveand

State.

immoderate

which

moderation

of

follies of

and

the

condemnation

by picturesof

soul

believed

advocated

their fictions

besides

attribute

rigorous conclusions,is the Law

the Rulers

have

his master's

caused

its

to

Religion

should

who

of

said.

pushed

the

citizens,

of the

of the poets, of which

banishment

the famous

been

Whatever

be

to

was

are

instil into the minds

to

notions

just

so

will be

care

ETHICS.

State

would

should

But, if domestic

They

are,

undertake

to

decide

to

which

class

belong.

life is thus

blow

sacrificed

the

public
not
women
imagine
occupations.
good,
with
toils
and
the
of
share
No
must
war
women
men
ture.
agricul:
well
the
The
male
female dog guards sheep as
as
; why
shoulcl pot tJie ^omea
guar^ th? State ? And, a" spmq fw
do

that

at

will lose

their

to

^cbtnt]^
PHILOSOPHY

AGAIN

THE

OF

"poci^.

REDUCED

SOCRATIC

TO

LIFE

Plato

which

have

we

ARISTOTLE.

more,

restless

of

thirst

city

that
its

so

had

thinkers

99

and

crowded

the

(b.c. 384).

His

hereditary.

in

died,

During
idle.

there
studied

all

no

the

intelligence

his

in

made
round

halo

tidings
him,

three

to

of

the

though

of

desire

which

be

to

those
in

of

his

the
own

of

worthy

costly
those

early

age,

and

structed
in-

Proxenus
Athens.
not

was

His

wealth

Books
in

them

zeal

^for
"

he

"

thinkers,
bear

signed
con-

him

seeing

luxuries,

called

was

had

pupil.

days

writings

he

Aristotle

absence
a

natural
be

may

time.

the

cian,
physi-

and

Who

Proxenus,

Plato's

Olympiad

eminent

an

early

an

his

Literature

Thrace,

subjects

of

of

purchase

speculations

at

fulfilled

years

on

knowledge

himself

cheap

in

medicine

such

of

certain

then

prepared

was

ledge,
know-

who

lured

was

works

parents

physical

the

him

enabled

of

care

the

He

sheds

had

colony

love

his

Aristotle

and

several

Losing
the

to

and

land;

schools

in

insatiable

still

or

active,

an

men

of

years

then

money

and

Nicomachus

father

Aristotle^s

that

so

city,

native

Sicily^

three

wondrous

fame
his

in

Stagira,

at

written

had
;

the

of

whose

reached

bom

history

Tidings

him

in

both

truth-loving,

him

was

who

active

that

into

journey

Athens.

to

young,

Aristotle

the

occupied

rich

illustrious, and

ruins,

great

seventeen

philosophy.

for

in

impetuous,

eager,

for

which

appeared

youth

ARISTOTLE.

Athens
and

spoken,

Aristotle

CLOSE

I.

OF

leaving

was

SYSTEM:

MOVEMENT.

CHAPTER

When

with

ample

and

evidence.

LIFE

There

also

were

some

Plater still at Athens

conversation

who

the

from

and

of his future

lessons

of his

the crowd
the

master

of

the

to

and

entrancing

himself

prepared

receive

to

the

school

whom

the

Aristotle

pupil.

curb

but

Plato

saw

there

was

restless
very need.
in an
epithet: "Aristotle

that

joined

penetrating glance

His

Plato

by

die

immortal

the

youth needed
in

and

opened,

was

activity
is the

school."

of my

continued

is,till the death

of

Platonic

the

Socrates

man

detected

soon

greatness

Aristotle

to

listened

disciples,
amongst

characterized

Mind

had

of

teacher.

impetuous

the

promise
was

who

them

His

returned.

Plato

that

followers

"old

the

of

questioned,

of

and

still recould
eloquent," who
member
with a smile his keen
and
playful irony ; and others
of the deep thoughts brooding
acquainted with some
of
soul
Plato.
These
Aristotle
melancholy
eagerly

were

in

"35

friends
men

ARISTOTLE.

OF

listen

to

the latter.

philosophy ;

Plato

to

But

he

did

nor

has
disagreement

for twenty years ; that

did not confine
himself

he

entirelyagree

with

it.

vulgar notion of a
Master
and
personal disagreement between
Pupil : a notion^
to be sure, propped
up with pretended anecdotes, and knocked
Much
has
with others
been
down
written
equally authentic.
call
Aristotle's ingratitude.
what
this quarrel, and
on
on
people
said of Plato
We
thing was
place no reliance on it ; the same
this

from

And

with

treating that
with

opinion

It

slavish
was

pupil

Stagyrite

undertakings:
which

were

materials
After
a

school

who

Philip

Aristotle.

as

by the
philosophy; and,

him

tude,
ingrati-

have

not

received

Both

selected
*

from

munificent

captured

four

years
master

Alexander

when
of

Philip

from

son
was

in
parted
de-

Aristotle's,one
and

from

assistance

ander,
Alex-

in all his

curiosities,

of natural

provinces,

form

to

the

History of Animals.*

long interval Aristotle returned

in the

For

give his

to

illustrious

scholar

especiallyin the collection

of the
a

that be

manifested

instructed

him.

Callisthenes, attended
the

have

expedition,a

Indian

his

on

pupils

preceptor

rhetoric, and

poetry,

If

doubtless

mentions

always

tenderness.

thought of Macedonian

wise

illustrious

the

he

but

Plato;

for

reasons

followers.

such

Alexander

all

as

excellent

his writings Aristotle

with

respect, sometimes
it is such

been

of

the

have

we

In

calumny.

as

the

combats

Socrates, and

to

respect

arisen

Lyceum

school

which

to

Athens

and

eclipsedall

opened

the others

METHOD.

ARISTOTLE'S

"3*
in numbers

both

and

his restless vivacious

curiouslyillustrative of

importance.

It is

temperament

that he

could

still

stand

not

opinions whilst walking up and

the
down
shady paths of the Lyceum, attended
by his eager
his discipleswere
PhiloHence
called the Walking
followers.
sophers : Peripatetics.
His
kinds : scientific and
of
lectures
two
were
popular

and

acroamatic

his

delivered

lecture, but

acroaticy and

or

and

treated
Much

the

endeavour

who

determine

to

that

conclude

exoteric

was

distinction

in

these

distinction

of

to

precise

the

cannot
; but we
distinction
the

above
as
was,
Poetics
and
are

Dialectics

lectures

the
of

capable

were

delivered

afternoon

were

of instruction

kinds

who

for

were

the

ing.
morn-

larger class,
and
of popular subjects : rhetoric,politics,
tics.
sophisin
learning and ingenuity has been thrown
away

latter

The

former

those

students, and
pursuing scientific subjects ; he
advanced

more

The

exoteric.

much

to

stop

it^

the

esoteric

to

seem

these

notice

between

doctrine

of

nature

in

us

two

Those

error

and
; the

stated, purely that of subject-matter.

addressed

not

laborious

the

to

life in

hearers.

same

the

ledge,
pursuit of knowincredible
of works, about
number
fourth
and wrote
an
a
it is calculated
of which
extant
are
; the division,arrangement,
and
authenticity of which has long been a pet subject of contention
has yet been
scholars ; but, as no
agreement
amongst
effected,we may leave the question as it stands.

He

spent

long

and

CHAPTER

II.

Aristotle's

Aristotle may

and

Plato

philosophy

to

teach.

the

between

Plato

now

the

Aristotle

was

the

learning did

It is not

not

of

same

most

enervate

contain

to

two

plan

our

great

advanced

to

the

speculative

knows
draw

all

these

endeavoured

science

of

that

comparisons

otherwise

men,

have

We

all the

them

knows

happy subject.

way
to do

have

said

whoso

greatness

furnish
in what

out

Greece

had

Greece

would

of

be

mei'hod.

to

his age.

two

point
We

by Anstotle.
learned

the

man

of

antiquity,but

vigour of his mind.

He

this

studio

ARISTOTLE'^

Ously sought, both

wherewith
views

own

in books
build

to

minuteness

tedious

brought

in

out

Hence
Method

of any

definition

expect

find

stands

Plato,

Aristotle

Induction

Syllogism

was

modifications, all

of

precision,he

it

gave

them

these

Classification

which

took

it up

had

but

tion
Investiganition
Defi; the

vague

precise.

and

thinkers

two

reduced

he

the

it precision.

gave

and, by still further

aim, i.^., greater

;
one

soliditywhich

Van

as

The

powerful

between

with,

Socrates

of

one

was

scientific form, and

more

Plato,

so.

his
may

his master,

of

powerful but

were

rendered

We

Demonstration.

of

one

it.

point between

of Socrates

left it Aristotle

Plato

is

middle

of Socrates

to

that

It

the gap
of Analysis and

Method

Where

we

of

nature

detect

must

we

fills up

by the addition
Socratic

when

at

the

mentions

own.

as

Aristotle

of

it were,

as

wondered

resembling

Method

The

of

and

historical

the

evidence, and the absence

his Method
in his writings.

his

of

remarks,

; that

be

to

be

to

and

one,
it somewhat

Aristotle.

and

affirmed.

Method

never

has

he

modifications

Heusde

dogmatically

but
to

some

of

Plato, Aristotle

method;

not

rather

seem

of historical

abundance

express

Unlike

his

misconception,

; a
the

consider

declared

have

some

opinions often
than

rials
mate-

his
laying down
predecessors with

his

of

own

criticisms

his

nature, for

Before

views

his

^^i

external

doctrine.
the

; and

in

and

examines

he

Method,

it to

endure

for

fundamentally differ ?
universal
explanation of

this

enabled

centuries.
Wherein
Until

did

diflference

This

of

the

the

Hegel
this

brieflyto

was

Materialist

one

time

the

Aristotle

and

Plato

one

eflfect

is

Plato

totle
Idealist,Aris-

an

Rationalist, the other

Empiric

an

trustingsolely to Reason, the other solely to Experience.

explanation Hegel crushed
by showing, that although
.

Aristotle
he

also

Let
And

laid

to

do

Platonic

the

answer

became

science.

master,

there

if here

he

it all other

be

first ask, What

must

we

so,

readily

In

upon

did

than

experience

Plato, yet

science.
alone could form
expressly taught that Reason
the real diflference.
can
penetrate
us, then, try if we

positionot
can

stress

more

can

doctrine

the

found

no

to

fundamental

question

That

Aristotle be

fundamental

differ,we

found

to

readers

our

theory of Ideas, whereby

If here
be

the

was

Dialectics

agree

diflference between
shall

be

able

to

his

with

deduce

them

from

diflferences.

truth, Aristotle

radicallyopposed

the

Ideal

theory j and

METHOD.

ARISTOTLE'S

238

criticisms of that
Plato are
the greater part of his criticisms on
theory. He does not deny to Ideas a subjectiveexistence : on
he

the contrary,

them

makes

materials

the

science

of

; but

he

their

calls
objectiveexistence, and
the
and
He
them
poetical metaphors.
empty
says, that on
and Models, there would
supposition of Ideas being Existences

is

be

completely opposed

Models

several

may

classed

the

under

classed

be

for

; since

Thing

same

several

heads.

the

thing

same

Socrates

Thus,

be

may

Socrates, of Man, of Animal, and of

''stout
The
Biped; or Philosopher, General, and Statesman.
of the Ideal
Stagyrite" not only perceived the logical error
how
the error
originated. He profoundly
theory, but also saw
remarked, that Ideas are nothing but productions of the Reason,
separating,by a logicalabstraction, the particularobjects from
*under

relations

those

those

are

objects

which

objective
understanding perceived

the

the

evidence

theory

of Ideas

for

the
having to enumerate
by increasing the number,

exact
as

saw

for

an

of

number
way

separate

Aristotle

of

likens

things,
simplifying
of

calculation.
In

this caustic

What, indeed,

qualitiesnew

the

expressions of
driven

read

black

before
or

his whole

multiplicationof the
imagined that things

brown.

and

criticism.

colour,

Plato
and

separat"d
made

these

existences.

the

to

if

notion
Terms

words, of General

existed.

had

greatness, weight,

Having disproved
other

may

theory, but

Men
and

heavy,

of
qualities

we

Ideal

the

was

great, and

were

illustration

of Existences

number

was

Aristotle

alL

subjective distinction

relation

them

to

common

who,

commence

the

of

partisansof the

The

existence.

the

which

mistaken
; had
between
two

one

to

Ideas

mistaken

had

that Plato

the

to

Relations

maintain

that

of Ideas

being Existences, ^in

than
the
being anything more
of individual
things, ^Aristotle
Individual
the
Things alone
"

"

individuals

exist, only by sensation

only
can
be
them
if
know
is
how
they
known;
and,
we
by sensation,
the Universal, to
known
how
do we
kq^oXov, ever
get abstract
This
ideas ?
the more
Science
question was
pertinent because
could
of the Universal, or
the
only be a Science
(to use
of general truths.
language of Positive
Science) a science
Aristotle
admitted, with Plato, that there could be no " science
science which
of sensation," no
founded
ideas ; and
not
was
on
it was
needful, therefore for him to show how such ideas could
But,

"

be

obtained.

ARISTOTLE'S

Plato's solution of

the

doctrine

METHOD.

problem

This

solution, of

existence

^'

did

course,

in

the

world

particular things; by
particular. Sensation
Memory.
sensations, and

by

wherein

things

Memory

then

formed

this art

distinction

becomes

have

say,

'T-the

art

and

which

art

is

The

into

Memory

former,

the

that

Experience;

no

our

discern

to

this art.

has

is, that

Men

converts

Man

we

this
they dififer;and
general conception is

alone

have

Memory,

of Induction.

Aristotle

That

Brutes

have

the

not

whereby
Man

enabled

are

we

the

have

we

remember

things, we

wherein

is Induction.

between

although they

art

perceive

we

sensation;

of

of

state

the

that

and
an

sensation

By

many
remembrance

resemble

which

general in
perceive
basis of all knowledge : but

is the

that

anterior

an

we

faculty besides
perceived
Havmg

was

former

Ideas

of

traces

of

not

Ideas.

induction

another

have

of

He, too,
satisfyAristode.
cence
indispensable; but reminis-

not

was

of

reminiscence
the

; it

exhibited

before

by

previous experience,

of

"

the

reminiscence

that

aware

was

of

we

soul's

ingenious
apprehension of truths awakened
discovered
sensation
in Things.
the

439

is to

Experience

reasoning animal.

Induction

of which

tlie art

by

he

speaks
be
luminous
proved by one
by experience, may
of the Metaphysics.
Art
commences
when, from
a
passage
of Experiences, one
general conception is formed
great number
which
will embrace
all similar cases." *
And, lest there should
his
trate
be any misunderstanding of
definition,he proceeds to illusit
that a certain remedy has cured
know
Thus
: if you
meant

furnished

as

"

"

Callias

of
the

efifect on

same

that

is

cure

all persons

Experience

is the
is that

Art

of Universals
That

passage.
little more
than

"iia

yivcrai

yevtyrai

certain

disease

that

individual

the

tAv

other

several

on

that

remedy

same

is Art

has

duced
pro-

persons,
will

remedy
:

for

ence
Experi-

things (rcov KatfcKoora);

(twv icatfdXov)."
was

of

Positive

nature

and

Science

"

\k iroXXwtrrqc

awakening
science,lies

the
of

processes

Socratic

! f"

mood

higher

of Induction

conception
Analogical Reasoning ; but

In

Ik rlxv?! ^fav
rcpi

with
of

and

know

to

of
the

that the

Socrates

strain I heard

commencement

that

but

attacked

appreciationof

an

knowledge

*'

The

disease,and

certain

we

in

saw

in this Aristotelian

KaB6\ov
Iftittiplae
ivvoti/iarutv

6|tol"y dir6Xqi^"". ^'Met.,'i.

"

to

I.

iiBTHOt),

ARISTOTL^^!^

34^

conception
2ation

from

Nor

rite's: it was

him

observation

phenomena,

if

for,

ohservaiion
furnish

Thus

other

of

which

illustrate that

and
demonstration."

is

oii

celestial

easily

could

y\i^

admits

that

all

the

regulate them.
nothing that

omit

Jf we
respectingphenomena

Stagy-

respecting

the

which

the laws

ai

grounded

observe

to

old

furnishes

is

Astronomy

sciences.

demonstration

the

guess
his premisses

f roper ly

demonstrate

afford us

can

claims

the

Experience

*'

genefali-

the

Science
of

from

again
were

we

might

we

applies to

same

science.

every

Positive

random

deduction
logical

Hear

principlesof

Tlie

this

was

the

knowledge.

which

Instances

those

its Method.

of Instances, and

the Collection

see

we

monstrate
being desusceptible of
of

not

"

in his investigation
abandoned
And, in another place, when
assertion.
We
hazard
he will not
must
an
by phenomena,
since
for further phenomena,
are
phenomena
wait," he says,
"

"

be

to

more

than

trusted

conclusion

the

of reason."

always steadily held before his eyes this conception

the Empiric which
Germans
of Science, had he always been
so
would
have
call him, he
anticipatedBacon
contemptuously
he

Had

"

he

would
it

But

that

been

have

could

not

generalizations
his

out

carry

certainly

sufficient
with

him

only

upon
at the

on

"

could

conception
application of

short

of

way,

Method

such

speculations

was

always

not

are

laid

insufficiencyof facts, he

not

was

generalize

to

himself

he

the

Method

there

which

from

and

in

effectually

not

because

which

Method

and, indeed,

Experience

to

that

Aristotle's

the

not

he

accumulated

then

Hence

effect

the

; but

one

led

Science.

His

scheme.

Experience

any

carried

Experience,

own

did

he
himself

confine

"

of

just

have

could

father

the

precisely because

was

age

of Positive

down.

jumps to a
Impatient
the
solve
problems which
Eager, as all men
present
are, to
h
He
his
priori.
applied
themselves, he solved them
Syllogism
his
of
before he had ascertained
exactitude
the
premisses. But
the

radical

can

penetrate
to

in his

defect
the

create

sufficient

disproof

is

Experimentalist,an

mere

The

distinction

of

between

"

'

of the

notion
This

existence.

and

metaphysical system;

system

is the

Philosophy

mystery

conclusion.

vulgar

that science

made
this

notion

him

deavour
en-

metaphysical
of his

being

Empiric.
Aristotle

Analy. Prior./

and

i.

c.

30*

Plato

is, that while

you
but

have

which

object, it

an

something

affirm

may

; but, when
affirm
you

when
that

sensation* of

you

is true

to

LOGIC*

AklSTOTLE^S

J4i

true

sensation;

thing,you

another

of

something

Every single thought

thoughts together, that is

two

connect

you

be

must

false of it.

affirm

may

is false.

Everything therefore that you think

a
Proposition; in fact,your thoughts
To

understand

understand

the

the

Art

whole

whole
of

about
a

are

of

nature

Thinking

series

tions.
Proposi-

of

Propositions
the province

to

"

is

"

reduced

be

may

of

Logic.
of the
By a very natural confusion, Aristotle,thus convinced
hood
that truth or falseled to maintain
importance of language, was
rather
did not depend upon
things but upon words, or
upon
therefore
combinations
to
of words
Propositions. Logic
upon
the
real
him, as to Plato, though in a different way, became
tion
the distincBut, as John Mill remarks,
Organon of Science.
definitions
nominal
real and
between
definitions,between
called
definitions
of words
and what
of things,though con*
are
"

"

formable

it appears
is ever

thing.

to

is

It

Aristotelian

ihost

maintained.

be

us,

of

intended

writers

those

ideas

the

to

We

explain

to

unfold

of

thought

have

who

apprehend

and

confirmation

some

logicians,cannot,

there

were

no

of

that

the

of

none

definitions

of

criterion

in

succeeded

as

tion
defini-

nature

opinion

our

that

the

that

discovering any
by
be
from
a
thing can
distinguished
any
that thing. The
definition
other proposition relating to
they
of the
but
the
definition
nature
unfolds
thing
:
no
can
say

things

which

have

the

ever

definition

unfold

its whole

quality

whatever

of

nature

The

All definitions

are

true

of

of

and

names

the

of

state

proposition in
thing unfolds

every

predicated

is

of its nature.

and

the

case

of

we

take

which

any

part

some

be

to

this

only ; but, in soine

nothing is intended except

names

it is clearlyapparent that
definitions,

explain the meaning of the word ; while, in others, besides

explaining the meaning of the word, it is intended to be implied
that there exists a thing corresponding to the word.
Whether
this be or be not implied in any given case, cannot
be collected
to

from
with

the

mere

the upper

form

parts

of

expression.
a

man

and

the

rectilineal

centaur

lower

is

animal

an

parts of

horse

'

figure with three sides

are, in
the
in
form, expressions preciselysimilar; although,
former, it
is not implied that any /A;"r^
conformable
to the term
reallyexists,
and

'

triangle is

of

while in the latter it is ;

as

may

'

be

seen

in
by substituting,

both

AkISTOTLE*S

the
definitions,
centaur

word

means

unchanged
would

deduce

of

expressive only
particularsign.
are,

definitions

which

call

to

the

it would

the

"c., the meaning

from

geometry
in which

manner

in

intend

we

meaning

themselves

of

from

the

other

definition

the

remain

would

sense

obviously impossible

be

of

truths

expression of this

an

"c.,

first expression,'a

the

trianglemeans/

*.a

include

of the

Its difference

In

443

therefore, expressions commonly

"There

explanation

second

the

of

any

for is*

animal/
since

altered

be

means

an

in the

LOGIC.

passing

peculiarkind

sort,

kind

consists

in

employ

the

it is not

But

term.

proposition
to

than

more

to

for

mere

correct

of definition.

this,that it is

not

tion
definiThe
something more.
of a triangle,
given above
obviously comprises not one,
but
two
is,
one
propositions,perfectly distinguishable. The
exist a figure bounded
There
by three straightlines :
may
this figure may
the
be termed
a
other, and
triangle/ The
former
of these propositionsis not a definition at^^all
: the latter
a

definition,but

and

'

is

definition

nominal

mere

application of
and

reasoning,

The

term.

or

first

explanation of the
is susceptible of truth

therefore
be made
the foundation
of
may
llie latter can
false
neither
be true nor

a
:

use

and

or

hood,
false-

train of
the

only

conformity or discon*
of language.
formity to the
"
definitions
is a real distinction,then, between
of
There
and what
are
erroneously called diefinitions of things ;
names
the meaning of a name,
but it is that [the latter,along with
assertion is not a
of fact. This covert
covertly asserts a matter
is a mere
identical
definition
definition,but a postulate. The
of
the use
only about
proposition, which
gives information
of
respecting matters
language, and from which no conclusions
The
fact can
possiblybe drawn.
accompanying postulate on
the other hand, affirms a fact which
lead to consequences
may
of every
degree of importance. It affirms the real existence of

character

it is

susceptibleof
ordinary usage

things,possessing the
a

whole

combination

this, if true,

definition; and
build

is that

of attributes
be

may

luminous
profound and
Aristotle,and his whole system

oversight.
of

set

foundation

/
;

forth in the
sufficient

to

fabric of scientific truth."*

This

the

of

He

was

vitiated

thought that Logic

Thought, but,
"

distinction"

as

System

such,

the

of Logic/

was

not

seen

by

in consequence
of
the
ment
Instrunot
only

Instrument

vol. i. pp.

was

of

195-7.

investigating

ARISTOTLE

244

LOGIC.
.

his

In

Causes.

Logic

the first

Categories, They

place

ten

are

in number,

and

follows

as

Substance.

ovata

brated
cele-

occupied by tb^

was

:"

'

......

irofjov

Quantity.
Quality.

leoiov

Relation.

irpoc

Action.

voiiiv
......

Passion.

vaax^tv
fcov

the

Where.

itoTt

the

When.

KilaQai

Position

kxitv

Possession.

These

Categories, or,

intended

were

under

as

Latin

the

enumeration

an

of which

some

as

thing

every
universal
most

writers
of

those

was

to

in space*

Predicaments

say,

classes,
be

or

getiera^

reduced.

They
various

expressions for the

relations of things ; they cannot
further be analysed, and remain
definitions
fundamental
the
of things. It is,however, as has
been
remarked, a mere
rudqly
catalogue of the distinctions
marked
with
little or
out
no
by the language of familiar life,
to penetrate
by philosophic analysis,to the rationale
attempt
were

held

even

of those

to

the

be

distinctions.

common

superficially
conducted,
be

both

others
a

redundant

and

repeated several

dvision

of

animals

would

into

Some

under

an

however
analysis,

the

shown

have

defective.
times

Such

enumeration

objects are

different

heads.

omitted

It is like

quadrupeds, horses, asses,

men,

to

and

and

ponies.*
at classification may
be, it
imperfect this attempt
held
centuries ; nor
to be
was
satisfactoryattempt for many
a
another
until Kant
bold
on
was
one
enough to venture
any
What
have
much
to criticise it,as
to do is not
to exhibit
we
so
its historical
position. As such it is important. The idea of
examining \h.Q farms of thought could scarcely have originated
earlier.
with
Previous
occupied themselves
speculators had
inquiriesinto the originaiid nature of knowledge ; Aristotle saw
that it was
time to inquire into the necesssary
of thought.
forms
To
do this,to analyse the various
of the mind, and
processes
the
in all its details is the object
to exhibit
art of thinking
of his Logic.
Some
h%d declared
sense^knowledge to be all deceitful;
ful,
declared
others had
that sense-knowledge
was
perfectlyfaithit went, but that it was
incapable of penetrating
as far as

However

'*

"

"

Mill's

System

of

Logic,' vol.

i. p. 60.

ARISTOTLE'S

LOGIC.

245

beneath

phenomena*
Scepticism was
assuming
attitude.
Aristotle,in his way, endeavoured
to meet
it thus

met

always

That

far

as

sensation

wrong.

you

make

may

according
to

appears

about

to

you

sensation
If

is true

an

; but

that

affirm

lies not

Error

But

the

in

either

be
also

are

affirmation
true

in

you

have

if,on

the

false,

or

the
is

water

accurate

of

strength

is

broken, your
false sensation, but
oar

not

to

are

any

dipped

oar

sensation.

that

senses

be

may

is

senses

right; both

broken, the sensation

be

enough ; you have

that sensation, you
is false.

that

affirmation.

the

to

sensation

our

our

parties are

Both

as

from

that

also

true

they go.

as

derived

knowledge

is true;

correct,

trusted,

the

menacing
it,and he

tion
affirma-

in

false

affirmation.

tidns

; it

truth

seek

must

we

necessityof Logic, which is the science of Affirmais in the Enunciate

Proposition,"iro^aKrtKos Xoyos, that
the

Hepce

falsehood.

or

into Affirmative

This

^^.,

It

is

impossible

for

divided
is sub-

Negative Propositions,which

and

mutually opposed, and give rise

they are asserted in the same
sense
"

Proposition

the

to

Contradiction,
of

and

one

thing

same

the

to

be

so
same

and

are

soon

as

thing
not

to

be.''
omit

to mention

Predicables, which have

also played a considerable
part in the History of Philosophy.
of general Names,
Predicables
The
not
a five-fold division
aie
difference
that
in
their meaning,
is,
a
grounded, as us^ual,
upon
in
attribute
which
difference
in the
a
they cannoX/^^ but upon
the kind of class which
We
they denott.
predicate of a
may
We

must

not

thing five different varieties

yivoQ
el^oc

the five

of class-name

'
.

"

.*.....

dta"popd

"

Genus,

Species.

Differetice.

Property.

^
'

idiov

vtfiifitfiriKQQ

an

Accident.

thes^ distinctions,"says the author

what
the predicate is in
not
quoting, that they express
are
we
its own
meaning, but what relation it bears to the subject of
it happens
be predicated.
which
the particular occasion
to
on
which
and
There
not
names
exclusively genera,
some
are
are
which
others
exclusively species or differentiae;but the
are
is referred to one
another
Predicable, according
or
same,
name
"

It is to be

remarked

of

"

to

the

subject

of which

it is

predicated

on

the

particularocca-

LOGIC.

ARISTOTLE'S

246

John

specieswith

; a

applied

names

between
not

to

what

upom
it

are

with

genu^

words

they

the

upon

in

occupies relativelyto

class

that

or

are

relation
the
express
relation
a
grounded,

^ifnotes, and

classification

The

terms;

predicates r^^notes, but

the
place which
upon

the

Man

to

Being.

or

predicates,to
given subject :

some

respect

relative

therefore

certain

and

them

to substance

respect

species, "c.,

genus,

which

instance, is

for

Animal^

sion.

class

given

some

the

particular

subject."*
investigationsinto

various

The

Aristotle prosecuted

which

were

theory of reasoning, f "^.

his

Syllogism to

be

the

an

being
a necessaiy
without
and
the Propositions
in the

Propositions.

Thus

All

which

the basis

form

to

Syllogism.
in

Propositions

of

nature

necessaiy

enunciation

laid down,

the

defined

He

of
the

certain

Propositions
distinct from

conclusion

is

drawn,

employing

any

idea

contained

not

"

bad

men

miserable

are

Every tyrant

is

bad

man

;
:

ergo,
All

His

examination

needlessly weary
as

dialectical

not

detain

but

which

tyrants

of the

sixteen

exercise,was

here.

Syllogism would
great ingenuity,and,

of the

forms

It exhibits

readers.

our

miserable.

are

doubtless

MilFs

sufficient \ but it must

of Logic will be found
'

System
the deepest exposition of the whole
the clearest and
Syllogistic
is that portion of it
Art ; and
especiallyworthy of attention
to an
devoted
appreciationof the value of the Syllogism, a form
have
eminent
often declared
to be idle,
of reasoning which
men
ns

In

is there

ascertaining the

shown

real

to

be

meaning

of

highly effective
the premisses we

art

of

employ

in

as

an

reasoning.

any

theory of the Syllogism is succeeded

The

theory of Demonstration.
owes

anterior
The

its existence
?

knowledge

conclusion

It

is but

particular. Thus, if
know

it because

the middle

is to

be

term
aware

tells

us

the

of
*

know

that

by the

all rational

ledge
know-

is this
What
knowledge.
is the major proposition of a Syllogism.
the
application of the general to the
know
that Tyrants are miserable, we
to

anterior

that All

know

we

we

We

in Aristotle

that
cause

System

of

bad

men

are

miserable

Tyrants are bad men.

\ to demonstrate, is
Logic,*vol.

i.

p. 162,

To
to

; and

know

give the

METAPHYSICS.

ARISTOTLE'S

247
"

which

Syllogism
therefore

expresses
that every

necessary

principlesthat

upon

according

as

affirmation
themselves

without
The

or

principlesare

subjects

the two

is

orders

of the

which

be
so

predicated
thing
; another

of demonstrations
from

cause

those

them

what

row

universal

they

thing

one

it is

why
"

consideration

6toTt, the demonstration

the

know

the

are

It is

to

thing defined

existence.

make

of them.

the

ort,

so

are,

to

know

hence

tion
demonstra-

effect ; " and

effect from the presence

of the

"

Tov

of the

demonstration

of

particularthings

may

thing

repose
in selves
them-

conclusion.

the

to

an

proper

of

evident

anterior

explanation of the essence

affirmingany thing respectingits

which

that

Syllogism should

is

It

Axioms, Hypotheses, "c.,

self-evident,or they presuppose
some
they are
Definitions
when
negation ; they are
they limit

to

attributes
and

scientific

have.

we

true, primitive,more

are

undemonstrable

These

knowledge

conclusion, and

the

than

the

of the

the
of

cause."

We

his

with

Logic

his work

exposition of

this

close

"

have

in this attempt to
have
labours
done
not

inferior to

too

formed

had

construct

of

science

as

the works

on

sciences

other

successive

of

of

Aristotle's

he

concludes

predecessors
of Reasoning

If,therefore, the work

the assistance

with

works

no

it all.

points

leadmg

jtouchingwords,

somewhat

own

We

the

to

assist

to

appears

you
been

have
in the

labourers

indulgence for
some
department, you will show
of our
gratitude for the
some
work, and

own

; our

which

the

us

same

tions
imperfec-

discoveries

it

contains,"

CHAPTER

IV.

Aristotle's
In

spiteof

of his

his

Logic.

Method,

Aristotle

We

rapidly set

his system.
The
problem
solve

was

there

were

taken

The

metaphysics.

that
Four

must

which
of the

the

Causes,

down

Metaphysician because
the leading points of

eariy thinkers

First Cause.

into consideration.

Material

was

not

one,

The

Cause, the

had

set

Aristotle
and

four

each

Causes

Essence^

to

to

maintained, that
of these

were
n

themselves

as

be

must

follows

"

^v clrat^ the Inva-

METAPHYSICS.

ARISTOTLE'S

248

Existgice, which

riable
"

Essence

**

philosophers

is the best

so

translation

the
Cause, viroKti^Ltvov^
Efficient
III.
The
Cause,

Substantial

^^

haps
variously sought. Perof the phraseII. The

Substance**

of the

men.
School-

hpxfi t^s ^injo-cwc,

**

the

IV". The
Final
Cause, to ov htKa koX
Principle of Motion."
Causes
and
These
End."
"the
all
were
Purpose
Tctyafloi/,
had
recognised separately by the early speculators,but no one
as
connected, and as all necessary.
recognised them
his predecesAristotle is right in his criticism on
doubt
No
sors.
all
his own
But
theory is extremely vicious ; it makes
the
to
logical distinctions; it makes
speculation subordinate
it creates
of investigation
Categories the great instrument
; and
that
the
was
spiritof useless and quibbling distinctions which
almost
all fervent
characteristic
vice of the schoolmen, who
were
Aristotle
In
Aristotelians,
word, the nearer
one
approached
from
sound
to
systematic precision, the wider he wandered
this because
of his fundamental
principlesof inquiry. And
of supposing, that Logic was
error
an
Organon, /.^., that subaccord
In
with, objectivedistinctions.
j'ectvedistinctions must
consequence

of

interrogatedhis
This

may

seem

which,

instead

we

before

interrogating Nature,

he

mind.

own

at

variance

s"i sense-experience, and

AS

of

observed, the

at

with

his notion

variance

with

of

his

rigorous application

the
Method

necessity
;

but,

of his Method

excellent
as
barely possible ; and, however
a
precept, it
be
almost
to
inevitably vitiated in practice.
was
as
so
vague
this.
of vitiation was
The
Experience was
process
necessary,
for
ReasoH
materials
with.
the
to work
as
affording
Any reasoning
of
founded
not
be
must
on
a
knowledge
phenomena
it by no
all
false ; but
that
founded
means
follows,
reasoning
will
be
Here
Aristotle's
of phenomena
true.
a knowledge
was
on
He
mistake.
But,
thought that Experience could not deceive.
make
his
laid
down
he
should
have
the
Method
to
perfect,
for "interrogating**
rules for testing that Experience
Nature
of what was
^for the discrimination
the
pertinent to
question
in
hand
for establishinga proper
experimentum cruets**
Thus
in
facts," as they are called, are notoriously valuable
which
proportion only to the value of the theory upon
they
"
collected.
talk
if
have
been
of
facts
facts
as
were
People
convictions.
irresistible
The
truth
to produce
is,they are susceptible
in
the
of almost
explanation ; and,
history of
any
the theories,
find ^tfacts^ but
do not
changing;
science,we
was

"

"

^^

"

"

"

METAPHYSICS^

ARISTOTL"?S

JSO

development ; we have exhibited his method*

It only remains
works
to add, that his ethical and
political
are
distinguishedby such sober sagacity,the very genius of good
in the present day they are
studied
with profit.
that even
sense,
which
those Logical and Metaphysical doctrines
And
regard
we
completely beside the truth were, as is well known, the great
as
centuries.
influence
The
of speculation during many
source
they exercised is beyond all appreciation; and, although much
of that influence
evil,as leading to frivolous subtleties, as
was

historyof

human

misdirectingthe
the

hand,

in

much

Aristotle,as the
wide

acuteness, the

and

number
a

formidable

passing
those

respect.

range

of his

excellence

the works

of

form

^miliar.

been

tone.

Science,

always
learning,his singular

vast

and
investigations,

must

ing
the astonishhim

works, will alwa)rs make

Plato,''it has

'^

been

all with

first of

the

well

feelingwith
beings with whom

livinghuman

student

said,

''

to

entire absence

that dramatic

and

The

distinguished the
activityof speculation,

fascinatingmaster.

Aristotle,is struck

of

His

his

of

more

of that dramatic
has

and

rival to his

from

the

give it a proper
second
pillarof Greek

attention

command

wondrous

which

to

respects

some

to

keep alive

to

the other

; yet, on
experience, and the

systematic reasoning

and

Stagyrite,did
and

mind

the human

appeal

constant

acuteness

of

energy

which

he

he

has

passed away.
Protagoras, and Prodicus, and
in the midst
Hippias are no longer lounging upon their couches
of groups
have
of admiring pupils : we
walks along the walls
no
of the city; no
readings beside the Ilissus ; no livelysymposia,
Critias reabout
love ; no
to high discourses
giving occasion
calling
in the days of his youth, before
the stories he had heard
he became
and gloriousrepublics; above
a tyrant of ancient
all,
conversed

have

no

Socrates

he

stands

showing

forming
out

clear

that the

most

thoroughly humorous

centre

and

to

distinct
of

subtle
and

these

humane

in

various
his

groups,
individual

dialecticians
of

men.

may

Some

be

while

yet

character,
the most

little sorrow

beautiful

pictures will perhaps

be felt by everyone
; but by far the greater portion of readers
will believe, that they have
an
ample compensation,,in the
ness
precisionand philosophicaldignity of the treatise,for the richand variety of the dialogue. To hear solemn
disquisitions
for the

loss of

those

clear

and

without
opinions calmly discussed
of personalities; above
the interruptions
all,to have a profound

solemnly treated
and

considerate

\ to

hear

judge, able

and

not

unwilliugto

pronounce

SUMMARY

OF

positivedecision
think

THE

upon

great advantage,

wrongly,

not

expect,

SOCRATIC

MOVEMENT,

the

evidence

before

and

this

far

and

find in Aristotle."

to

CHAPTER
OF

SUMMARY

the

of

sake

historical

than

more

words

period firom
humanity.

call the

may

MOVEMEKT,

clearness

history of
What

Socrates

himself

appeared

during the

tentatives

of

the

scepticism,which

out

carry
manner,

of

had

He

the

from

men

had

led

bade

them

in

all ended

pernicious use
Scepticism by the

this

already

Scepticism.

utter

place a few
(as we

Aristotle)in

to

have

we

made

was

of doubt.

science.

moral

reign

Nature, which

about

confusion

effected

withdrew

He

Method.

Sophists down

early thinkers

banished

Socrates

the

they

tliis they

here
we
may
Socratic
of
the
Movement
respectingthe position

For

this

him;

V.
SOCRATIC

THE

251

of

He

seen.

The

the

various

desolatlDg
by the Sophists.
one

invention

of

new

metaphysical speculations
into the

them

inward*

look

inextricable
He

created

Cyrenaics and the Stoics attempted to

this tendency ; but
as
they did so in a one-sided
their endeavour
successful.
was
only partially
The

remarkable
of the disciplesof
Plato, the youngest and most
Socrates, accepted the Method, but applied it more
universally.
the most
Nevertheless, Ethics formed
important of his speculations.
illustrative of
and
Physics were
only subordinate

Ethics.

The

Truth

"

existence

God-like

the

"

which

he

for

to
besought men
contemplate, that they might share it,
for his own
had always an Ethical object : it was
sought by man
to live in a manner
perfection. How
resembling the gods was
ever

the fundamental
But

there

and

this germ

The

was

he
had
to solve.
set himself
problem which
of physical speculation in his philosophy,
a
germ
developed by his pupil,Aristotle.
was

difference

between

Plato, however, fills up

the

Socrates

and

abysm.

In

Aristotle
Plato

we

and
development, both in Method
Metaphysical speculations are intimatelyconnected

point

"

of

Ency. Metrop,,' ^Art. Moral

"

and

Met,

is immense
see

the

sition
tran-

in Doctrine.

Phtlos,

with

those

Ethics.

of

SOCRATIC

Ethics

Aristotle

In

MOVEMENT,

form

only

Physics

ancj

Metaphysics

THE

OF

SUMMARY

252

branch

one

the

usurp

larger

of

share

sophy
philohis

of

attention.
then

What

which

from

to

Aristotle's

of

result

Philosophy

brought

he

this:

the

was

again

round

wrested

had

Socrates

labours

it

he

Precisely

that

to

opened

the

condition
world

again

man.

Was

cratic

Epoch

having

first

In

above

sufficed

the

epoch

to

Aristotle's

all,

region
of

that

for

in
of

light

to

Scepticism,

paved

No,

on

importance
a

several
of

the

early

way

The

So-

humanity
Ethical

of

sophy,
Philo-

incomparably

speculators.

That

centuries.
Socratic

Method,

Metaphysics

and
the

of
and

new

the

Physics
he

benefit

by
for

atization

bringing

Inquiry,

the

pursued

humanity

system
his

double

substituted

having

of

nullified

Socrates
the

brought

Method

Method

of

conferred

and
better

advent

the

then

for

and,
into

again
new

epoch

the
"

("9otl)*

^W'b
CRISIS

SECOND

OF

SCEPTICS,
NEW

GREEK

PHILOSOPHY:

EPICUREANS,

Amongst

curious

the

into

of Alexander

with

reflect

the

on

of

; he

expedition

serious, reflective

one

man,

had

faith in doctrines
race

of wise

of belief.

nature

been

led

to

to doubt

learned

and

their

acting upon

Democritus,

of

was

the

founder

their devout

spectacle
strange creed, and

to

accompanied

purely philosophical interest; that

of the Sceptical philosophy. Conversing
have
the Gymnosophists
been
of India, he must

this

and

SCEPTICS.

there

with

Pjrrrho,the
widi

struck

I.

train which

India,

him

followed
was

THE

ACADEMY.

THE

man

AND

STOICS,

CHAPTER

who

THE

He

so

unusual

studious

have

question

the

led him

tlie

originof

this doubt

now

him

believing

men

belief,must
had
already, in

; and

to

sophy
philoledge
know-

became

irresistible.
On

his

return

philosophy
profound

to

which

The
all

on

the

himself

by

became

remarked

inculcated, and

absolute

doctrines
him

it made

resigned and
hirtiself

he

and

speculative

Socrates

"lis he

had

the*

insist

wholly

contrary

general precepts
was

uneasy,

of

which

effect upon

same

as

on

he
him

morality.
it,and

he found

common

the

practical

simplicityof his life.

scepticismwith

tranquil,accepting life

the'

the

for

sense.

regarded
as

upon

He

was

guiding
Socrates

restless, perpetually questioning

others, despising metaphysical speculations but

Pyrrho, utterlydissatisfied with all the attempts
eager for truth.
of his predecessors to solve the great problems they had set to
and

SCEPTtCS.

^^^

4J4
m

themselves, declared

the

dissatisfied:

declared

problems insoluble.
that

he

Socrates

also

was

nothing; but his

doubt
an
active, eager, questioning doubt, used
as
was
a
result of all investigastimulus
not
to investigation,
as
tion.
a final
The
doubt
of Pynho
a
reprobation of all philosophy;
was
"he doubt
of Socrates
the opening by which
a
new
sophy
philowas
he

doctrines.

established.

be

to

was

too

Their

knew

lives

Pyrrho, the grand Priest

with

accorded

Elis,lived

of

their

died

and

in

lived in
universal
esteem.*
and
Socrates
happiness, peace,
ridiculed as
perpetual warfare, was
always misunderstood, was
a sophist, and
perished as a blasphemer.
The
precise.doctrinesof Pyrrho it is now
hopeless to attempt
mixed
in antiquitythey were
Even
to detail.
so
up with those
found
of his followers
that it was
impossible to separate them.
We
are
forced, therefore,to speak of the sceptical doctrines as
and
and
able
admircollected
they are
systematized by that acute
writer,Sextus Empiricus.
The
strong-hold of Scepticism is impregnable. It is this :
There
of Truth.
Plato
is no
Criterium
magnificently developed
Aristotle
his Ideal Theory,- which
crushed
by proving it to be
purely subjective. But then the theory of Demonstration, which
Aristotle
that
1
not
^Q^2i}\ysubjective
placed in its stead, was
this boasted
What
was
Logic but the systematic arrangement
ledge
Aristotle's knowof Ideas obtained
through Sense ?
originally
could
only be a knowledge of phenomena, although he
wished

make

to

out

Phenomena

are

exists the

Criterium

to

ascertain

we

are

We

full

know

times

different

exactitude

the

Things of
that Things

well
;

different

diflferentlyto
If
true ?
Appearances

Apple
*

All

reflect

reveals
is

to

us

where

How

of

these

accordance

which

animals.

so, which

in

of

absturdity.

real

those

life

who

this

on.
a

presented

the stories about

scepticism
invention

the

But

are

Are

? and

do

these

of

any

how

at

know

you

are

Moreover
which

things.
these Appearances

of

mena?
Pheno-

are

they are Appearances

differentlyto us
appear
different
individuals
differently to

appear

appear

which

of

what

of

Appearances
truth

of the

the

with

Appearances

the

And

of Causes.

science

different
to

us

him
are

we

which
too

We

have

five

qualityin
see

the

it,smell

pretend

to

object. Thus
it,feel it,taste

illttstrate the

trivial for refatation,being

thought Pyrrho ought

each

senses,

to have

been

effects of

of
an

it,
his

obviously the
consequent in
^

"

'

!ha"

hear

bitten,and

it

different

five

perceive

"

would

have

Appearances
If

five different

"

had

we

sound,

in which

Aspects

Senses

three

qualitiesmore

three

sight,smell, feeh'ng,
taste, and

the

Thing.

the

SCsPflCS.

it would

three

present

we

Thing

the

more,

are

more

have
thing
but two
qualities. Now, are these qualitieswholly and entirely
Senses, or do they really appertain to the
dependent upon our
?
of them
Thing ? And do they all appertain to it,or only some
The
different people, would
differences of impressions made
on
show
that
the
to
seem
qualitiesof things were
dependent on
the Senses.
that
These
show
differences
rate
at any
things do

Appearances

not

present
All

and

such

cannot

the

with

say

three

Apple

have

we

Sensations
is

have

we

Senses

is,that Things

truth

our

would

less,the

true, if we

to

keener

Amidst

Sensations

images of
brilliant,
round, odorous
are

true

that it appears

mean

such

pretend

is the Criterium

Reason

and

Aristotle

Very
But

given up
it is

herein

are

proof
You

have

must

relyupon
?

correct

ever

return

reason

the

to

Criterium

the

Things^

and

sweet,

our

senses

be

Sense

assert

that

is your
Criterium.
itself distinguishes

that

; and
errs, what

is wanted

they

distinguishes.Plato

Reason

Reason
never

we

taste, it may

false \

Reason

that this Criterium

not

that your

you

you

agreed.
Sceptics,

must

; you

from

true

; but

impressions, Philosophers

sensuous

of Truth

well, reply the

what

truly?
have

to

of

distinguish the

to

in such

us

is true

duller

this confusion

to

appear

vision,scent, tact, and

or
dull, rugged, offensive,and insipid.
but,

has

been

ask you

we

proof
for

have

already
proof

what

you that
Criterium
;

your
hold to be

infinitum. This argument we

wholly
irreversible,as far as regards Metaphysical knowledge; and

and

so

lest

we

on

ad

should

be

mistaken

Sceptics, ourselves, we will

side of the Sceptical
the weak

for

brieflyto point out

philosophy.
The
Sceptics maintain, and justly,that, as
endeavour

"

our

knowledge

is

and not at all of Noumena

knowledge of Phenomena,
Things as they appear to us, and not as
^as we
only know
all
tence
they reallyare
attempt to penetrate the mysteries of Exismust
be vain; for the attempt
can
only be made
on
absolute
is
attainable
truth
not
although
But,
by
appearances.
science
of
be
there
be
there
cannot
although
can
a
Being,
man,
of Appearances.
The
"ey admit, are
a science
Phenomena,

only

the

"

series of Appearances.

That

that

be very

may

had

manner.

say

That

we

uniform

one

can

we

if

SCEPTICS.

THE

ifo

true

Phenomena.

as

and

observe

of

What

have

we

classifyPhenomena
coexistence

parlance, to trace
having done this,we
adequate to all
mon

and

to

man's

or,.

of

the

we

as

Science

td

blances
resem-

in

say

and

cause

founded

have

shall

in them

trace

succession;

therefoire

is

do

to

connexions

the

com"

effect,and,
of

ances
Appear-

wants.

not
Sceptics lived was
ripe for such
of a
a conception : accordingly, having proved the impossibility
of Being, they supposed
the
science
that they had established
had
impossibilityof Science, and
destroyed all grounds of

the

But

age

in which

the

certitude.
added
that
modem
worthy of remark
Sceptics have
nothing which is not implied in the principlesof the Pynhonists.
Hume
The
thought he destroyed all the
by which
arguments
grounds of certitude are differentlystated from those of Pyrrho,
is

It

but

founded
differently

not

same

they

j and

may

in the

answered

be

way.
The

Sceptics had

negative doctrine; consequently,

the tendency of the
only a negative influence.
They corrected
mind
towards
accepting its conclusions
as
adequate expressions
the
moderate
to
of the facts ; they served
impetuosity of the
of
that the pretended Science
speculative spirit
; they showed
the day was
not
so
firmly fixed as its professors supposed. It
is curious, indeed, to have
the gigantic efforts of a
witnessed
Socrates,

Plato

only

and

Philosophy, which

Aristotle

an

towards

the

reconstruction

a
Sophists had
brought to ruins
then
and
to witness
Reconstruction, too, on different ground
of the iconoclast
that image, to witness
the hand
smiting down
the
logic of the Sceptic undermining that laboriously
pitiless
constructed
edifice,leaving nothing in its place but another
built ; for,
edifice was
the
heap of ruins, like that from which
not
only did the Sceptics refute the notion that a knowledge of
of Existence, not
Appearances could ever become
a knowledge
of sensation, and
only did they exhibit the fallacious nature
of certitude
the want
in the affirmations
of Reason, they also
attacked
and
destroyed the main
positions of that Method
which
to
was
supply the ground of certitude; they attacked

of

the

"

"

Induction
Of
writes

and

Definitions.

Induction,
thus

"

"

Sextus,

Induction

(to koBoKw)) from

in
only be correct

far

as

brief, pregnant

one

is the

individual
as

in

conclusion

things.
all the

But

individual

of
this

the

chapter,
Universal

Induction

things agree

can

with

EPICUREANS.

THE

258

tion between a thing seemingand a thinghdng ridiculed with a

*
trulycomic gusto, he should turn to Molifere's Mariage Forc^,'
Such folliesform no portionof our subject,
and
Act. i. sc. 8.
with

them

leave

we

worthy efifortsof

more

pleasureto

some

human

noticed

IL

in their

condemned

meaning

the

how

renders

attached

now

bias

inadvertently
gives a

to

EPICUREANS.

THE

Epicureansare

attention

our

ingenmty.

CHAPTER

The

direct

to

our

We

names.

to the name

before

of

Sophist,
of
the
Sophist
judgment

extremely difficult

it

to
conceive
the
of that school otherwise than as shameless
rogues.
Equally difficult is it to shake ofi the influence of association

school, and
members

with respect to the Epicureans; although historians are

pretty well agreed in believingEpicurus to have been
of

and

pure

virtuous

life,and

one

doctrines

whose

now
a

man
were

abstemiousness.
and reallyinculcating

moderate

bom
Epicurus was
Olymp. 109, at Samos, according to
in the vicinityof Athens, according to
some
; at Gargettus,
others.

His

began ;

so

grammar.
career

parents

At

his father

were

poor;
very early age, he

his thirteenth

earlyas

tells us, his

year.

teacher

of

philosophical
But

we

must

He
this statement.
dates his career
from
which
those first questionings
and perplex all young
occupy
those of any superior
less
minds, especially
capacity. He doubt-

misunderstand

not

period when, boy-like,he puzzled his

questionbeyond that teacher's power.
Hearing
said
all
the verse
Hesiod
wherein
arise
of
from
to
thingsare
And whence
Chaos ?
Chaos, Epicurusasked :
came
Chaos ?
Whence
is not this the sort of questionto
came

refers to
teacher with a

that

"

**

"

*'

occupy
that

we

the active mind

are

all led

into

of

boy

Is it not

philosophy?

And

questions

by

such

to

philosophyhe

referred for an explanation The writingsof Democritus

fellin his way, and were
of others
avidlystudied ; the writings
followed ; and, his vocation being fixed^he sought instruction
was

from

"

many

masters.

EPICUREANS.

THE

all these

from

But

he

masters

259

gain

could

tions;
convic-

solid

n^

giv^e him Truth ;

they gave him hints ; they could not
the materials
they furnished, he produced a
and, working upon
he justifiedhis claim
by which we presume
S)rstem of his own,
to being self-taught.
visited
He
His
were
agitated and unsettled.
early years
remained
He
there
Athens
at eighteen,but
only one
year.
He
then
Lampsacus.
passed to Colophon, Mitylene, and
returned

opened
Olymp.

school,

his

in

Athens

to

six-and-thirtieth

which

over

he

till

presided

there

his

death,

127.

place he chosQ for his school was

spot pleasantly typical of his doctrine.
The

their

and

year,

Academic

Grove

the

the

Platonists

The

Aristotelians

Garden,

famous

walked

had

along

the

Cynosarges : the Stoics

occupied the Porch ; and the Epicureans had their Garden.
Here, in the tranquilGarden, in the society of his friends,
The
he passed a peaceful life of speculation and
enjoyment.
In
is well known.
them
a
friendship which existed amongst
time of general scarcity and
to
each^
famine, they contributed
of comother's support, showing that the Pythagorean notion
munity
of goods
could
friends, who
was
unnecessary
among
the
of the
other.
At
Garden
confide in each
entrance
they
^
The
hospitable keeper of this
placed this inscription:
will find pleasure the highest good, will
mansion, where
you
and
fresh from
water
present you liberallywith barley cakes
the spring. The
gardens will not provoke your
appetite by
artificial dainties, but
satisfy it with natural
supplies. Will
Lyceum

you

not

be

the

well entertained

Garden

The

Cynics occupied

has

often

the

?"

been

called

sty ; and

the

of

name

designation of a sensualist.
But,
of Epicurus
in spite of his numerous
assailants,the character
from
rescued
both
been
and
has
by
by ancient
contempt
critics.
of the
modem
Diogenes Laertius, who
gives some
in detail,easily refutes them
accusations
by an appeal to facts ;
writers
have
of
and the modem
easily penetrated the motive
which
ancient
the
from
the
calumnies,
mostly proceeded
like
A
of
all
Stoics.
doctrine
that
Epicurus wOuld, at
times,
in
itself to gross
lend
misrepresentation ; but,
an
epoch like

Epicurean

that

has

in which

it

appeared,

furiouslyopposed
if the

the

become

bitterness

to

of

it

as

and

contrasted

that of the

opposition

with

Stoics, we

translated

doctrine

cannot

itself into

so

wonder
bitter

EPICUREANS,

THE

26o

calumny.

It is

differences

to

of

one

make

which

consequences
indubitably the

he
consequences
conducive
sound
to

opinions are

and, being

believe

to

deduce

you

that

contrary

so

from

for himself.

morality ;

convinced, it is

of

tkat

Your
are

you

for

natural

to

you

immoral.

be

must

speculative

opponent's opinions
them, as if they were

your

deduces

opinions

of

results

commonest

attribute

you

the

convinced

the

Your

immoral

opinions; and
you
imn oralityas
proclaim
an
unquestionable fact. In this,
is a
viz., that your
slight forgetfulness
however, there
;
occupies exactly similar ground, and what yotf think
opponent
holds

opponent

contrary,

ergo^

his

of him

thinks

he

Stoics

The

of you.
ineffable
had an

effeminacy of

contempt

exaggeration
other

follows

have

met

of
of

with

Stoics, from

the

in their actions

course
more
more

and

Epicurus is said
Greek

the

weakness

Epicureans

had

and
an

effable
in-

unnatural

rigidity and

they mutually libelled each

the libels against the
Epicureans
; but
than
credit
those
against the
general
of the latter,both
imposing character

Stoics.

the

for

contempt

Epicureans. The
for the
spasmodic

the

That

doctrines.
to

have

Philosophers, except

been

the

voluminous

most

Chrysippus

of

all

and, although none

are
extant, yet so many
fragments are preserved
here
and there, and
such
ample testimony as to his opinions,
that there are
few writers of whose
doctrine
can
we
speak with
it does
in itself present
not
as
so
greater certainty,the more
difficulties of comprehension.
any
be
unlike
Aristotle
Plato
and
than
more
Nothing
can
be
characterized
the
at
Epicurus ; and this difference
may
in the
difference
outset
by their fundamental
conception of
of Life, and
Philosophy, which Epicurus regarded as the Art
the Art of Truth.
that power
not
Philosophy, he said, was
Reason
conducted
(ci/cpycta)
to happiness.*
by which
man
The
not
investigationsof science he despised, because
only
were
they uncertain, but contributed
ness
happinothing towards
of science, found
Logic, the instrument
; and, of course.
his
favour in
no
sight. His philosophy was, therefore, only

of these

another

form
at

Scepticism,consequent
previous inquiries. Socrates
of

rbv
\6yoiQ nai diaXoyKrfiOtg
Emp, Adv, Math.

ilvai

Sdxtus*

works

on

had

mental

taught

tifdaifiovapiov

faction
dissatismen

wpiiroiomav*

to

"

THB

regard their

nature

own

this lesson

and

But

curiosity,or
order

not

erudition:

simple
improve
may

he

object of investigation,

great

interrogate his

for

that

the

as

96t

Epicurus willinglygave

does

man

MPlCUkEANS.

it

own

he

he

ear

to.

nature

out

studies

learns

his

the

of

simple

nature

of

extent

in
his

The
capacities in order that he may
properly direct them.
be Happiness.
aim, therefore,of all such inquiriesmust
But
what
constitutes
happiness ? Upon this point systems
differ: all profess to teach
all
the road
to
Happiness, and
be no
There
point out divergent roads.
dispute as to
can
what
of
Happiness is, but infinite disputes as to the way
this
we
saw
securing it. In the Cyrenaic and Cynic schools
battk
the
question leading to very different results ; and
we
are

to

now

renewed

see

]l6picureans
and

the

on

very

similar

ground,

between

the

Stoics.

constituted
Epicurus, like Aristippus,declared that Pleasure
tively
Happiness; all animals
it,and as instincinstinctively
pursue
do
avoid
Man
Pain.
should
deliberately that which
animals
do
is in itself good ;
instinctively.Every Pleasure
The
evil.
become
but, in comparison with another, it may
an
in this.That
while
Philosopher differs from the common
man
knows
how
to
they both seek Pleasure, the former
forego certain
will
and
vexation
hereafter
pain
cause
enjoyments which
;
whereas
the
seeks
The
common
only to
man
enjoy.
foresee
will
him
be
the
enables
what
to
Philosopher's art
result of his acts
he
will not
only avoid
; and, so foreseeing,
those
endure

enjoyments
those

which

pains from

occasion

grief, but

know

how

to

surpassing pleasure will result.

of the
but
the enjoyment
moment,

which

Happiness, then, is not

seek
the enjoyment of the whole
sify,
intenlife. We
must
not
to
but
to
morrow,
equalize : not
debauchery to-day and
satietytobut equable enjoyment
all the year round.
life ; and the pleasures /
be pleasant but a virtuous
No
life can
be
of the body, although not to
/
despised,are insignificantwhen
of
The
former
soul.
but
with
the
those
are
compared
'

the

momentary,

latter

embrace

both

the past and

the

future.

He
not
only insisted
golden rule of Temperance.
the
for continued
on
necessity of moderation
enjoyment, he
also slighted,and somewhat
scorned, all exquisite indulgences.
fed moderately and
He
plainly. Without
interdictingluxuries,
he saw
that Pleasure
and
enduring if luxuries
was
more
purer
which
This is the ground
dispensed with.
were
Cynics
upon

Hence

his

26r

EPICUREANS.

THE

and

Stoics built

saw

that

their

their

simplicitywas

notion

preferable

^.

too

exaggerated systems.

own

to

luxury; but
with

Contentedness

consisted

regarded as a great good :

wants.
great possessions, but in having small
limit man
to the fewest
possible enjoyments :
wished

he
him

him
able

be

to

in all ways
to live upon

ill fortune, and

who

man

able

to

lives

fear
plainly has no
enjoy exquisitepleasures.

Virtue

rests

upon
since, without

without

and

enhancement

an

as

Free

Will

Free

Will

Reason

depends

man's

on

consists
the Will

how

virtues

or

furnished

would

scientific

poverty,

Mind

The

is better

and

which

be

passive,
thing,
Every-

blind.

be

is virtuous

to

able
insepar-

are

would

willing.

the

wished

enjoyments.

would

arguinents both

vicious

or

cation
Philosophical edujudge accurately,

own

many

The

doctrine

may

be
and

assailants

to

seen

to

the vagueness
and
elasticity
minds
to
adapt it to their

notice

enable

their

to

of

of his Ethical

also

may

rare

which

contrary,
he

manfully.

to their vices.

exhortation

Let

choose

We

it,which

of

accustoming

slightoutline

readilyit

defenders.

to

this

From

Will

not

preventive against

Reason

our

and

as

on

of

Reason,

actions

knowing

in

and

Free

our

therefore,in human

and

both
little,

the

in

not

did

He

; but

multiply them

to

they pushed
Epicurus

little

said wealth

he

and

also

They

luxurious

would

vices ; the temperate

in it only

see

would

see

in

an

it

expositionof temperance.

devote

few

words

his theories

other

subjects.
to
correct
a
appreciation of
Epicureanism, in leading man
the moral
end of his existence, in showing him how
to be truly
hide from
with many
obstructions
which
happy, has to combat
his illusions,
obstructions
him the real road of life. These
are
his prejudices, his errors, his ignorance. This ignorance is of
two
kinds, as Victor Cousin
points out ; ignorance of the laws
of the external
absurd
superstitionsand
world, which creates
Hence
troubles the soul with false fears and false hopes.
the
kind
of
necessity of some
knowledge of Physics. The second
the necessity
of man.
Hence
ignorance is that of the nature
of the

us

Epicurean Logic

to

called

rules

respecting human
reason
The
Epicurean pyschology
which
the
Democritean, upon
The

atoms

throwing

of

off

which
some

the

of

Canonic^ which
and

and
we

universe

their

on

is

collection

of

its

application.
derived
from
physics were
have
already expatiated.
is formed

parts, hvoppoai;

are

and

constantly
these^ in

EPICUREANS.

THE

with

contact

Epicurus
the atoms

did

tibe senses,
maintain
not
believed

; he

their atoms,
but was
far this resemblance

it

neither

can

sensations

of

those

them

certain

point

to

be

proved

nor

the

insane

and

is

have

to

resemblance
in

where, and

out

to

how

exists.
must

true

waking

in what

as

their

between

difference

sensations
himself

confessed

yet he

such,

as

The
; it is aXoyos,
also true ; and,
are

dreaming

the

men,

the

sensation; and,

contradicted

difference

and

sane

determine

to

man

of

that

be

although there

But
sensation, aurdi/0-19.
these
were
images of
airoppoai

produce

unable

sensation

Every

'

263

and
unable

consists.

constitute
alone
Sensations, however, do not
knowledge;
has also the facultyof conception, TrpAq^tg, which
arises

repeated iteration of sensation : it is the recollection

Aristode
of the various
the
would
sensations; or, as
say,
It is from
general idea gathered from particularsensations.
these
conceptions that the general ideas, Sd^at, are
formed,
from

the

it is in these

and

sensation

object

general ideas
may

in relation

or

that

be

considered

to

him

resides.

error

in

either

relation

experiences it ;

who

its

to

in the

latter

it is

agreeable or disagreeable,and renders the sentiments,

the basis of all morality.
iradTjy
Ta
With
such
of
a
basis,we may
readily anticipate the nature
If agreeable and
the superstructure.
disagreeable sensations
case

the

are

moral

all moral

originof
rule than

to

and

seek

phenomena,

there

the

agreeable and
is pleasant becomes

whatever

can

be

avoid

to

other

no

the

the great

agreeable
dis-

object

of existence.

Physics of Epicurus

The

Democritus

that

need

we

do

no

distinctlythe

so

are

allude

than

more

Physics

of

them.

to

of Epicurus, we
doctrine
find in it
reviewing the whole
of the
the scepticism which
the imperfect science
day necessarily
in many
different shapes ;
minds
brought with it to many
of that scepticism a refuge in Morals,
and, as a consequence

On

and

an

attempt

to

attempt
failed

as

we

the

because

the attempt
itself is
whole
Socratic movement
was,

have

attempted

basis

endeavoured

bring Philosophy

on

was

view
down

to

broad

prove,

an

morals.

from

the

itself

Socrates

clouds

at

attempt

; he

; but
of the

Method

Socratic

the

The

enough

characteristic

reconstruction

that
to

scientific basis.

not

worthy of notice, as
; for, although

science, yet
with

Ethics

construct

was

structing
recon-

only

was

the

first to

was

the

first to

THE

2^4
Science

make

all his

other

STOICS.

itself the basis

and

followers

Morality^ and

of

in

shape

one

that issued

all the schools

from

or

them

kept this view present to their minds.

who
The
Epicureans are, therefore,to be regarded as men
solution of the great problem, and failed because
ventured
a
on
their rivals,
The
Stoics were
truth.
a part of the
they only saw
and
of them
to speak.
now
are
we

CHAPTER

III.

THE

The

Stoics

chronicle
and

these

the

ourselves

He

birth

Citium,

at

His

brought

until

engaged,
with

after

of the Socratic

works

some

studied

his father

and

eagerness

Some
forced

are

to

select is Zeno.

we

island

by Greeks.
a
merchant,

was

and

Greek

we

city in the

small

father

one

to

Brutus

to

many

; but

the

inhabited

origin,but

home

needed

be

mountebanks.

solemn

type, and

one

is uncertain.

himself

were

to

born

was

of Phoenician

have

many

founder, down

embraces

sect

few

so

would

willinglyintroduce

would

we

the

Zeno,

Antoninus,
worthies, and not

confine

work

separate

From

all.

Marcus

Roman

he

that

them

of its members

large sect, and

celebrated

been

of

were

STOICS.

of

The

date

in which

philosophers

of his
trade

Athens

to

voyage

rapture, and

Cyprus,

determined

these
his

vocation.

and

pleasure,

philosophy.
his valuable

poverty,
whose
minds.

Athens, the

to

Shipwrecked

willingly
display

ostentatious

noticed

before

We

is

an

'

Rittersays, "'

Socrates

wrote

purple

of his

in

bookseller's

the works

nothing.

of poverty
similar
a

of

of

having

and,

doctrines

the

in his choice

anecdote

Commentaries
*

embraced

determining Diogenes
There

on

both
of interest
voyage
for trade
both
and
great mart
the
lost the whole
of
coast, he

of Phoenician

cargo

he

undertook

thirty,he

about

When

had

thus

reduced

to

Cynics,
captivated many
of

influence

the

as

probably

philosophy.

day read Xenophon*s

he
shop, and so delighted was
one

Socrates," but

this

is

clearlyan

oversight.

STOICS.

THE

266

majesty^ and

fabric

the

sees

doctrines

new

which

tottering,beneath

either

crowded

in sullen

the

sincerity: when

want

despair

in

or

his

onlooker

fellow-men

are

blaspheming levity,and,

seeing this, he feels that there is safety still possible,if men

but

bold.

be

exhortation

doctrine

behold

salvation

and

resolve.

have

heed

to

; and

the

their
He

unused

been

by

warning,

of

them

they may

unused

voice

bids

he

their

behold

raises

He

to

voice

of

peril and tremble,

preaches to them a
hear, or, hearing it,

of his

force

mere

and

will

intense

own

viction
con-

believers who
saved.
If
gathers round him some
are
the
social anarchy
be not
his
too
widely spread, he saves
channel
try's
country by directingits energies in a new
; if the counis sealed, he makes
doom
gallant effort,though a vain
a
leaves
and
to after-times."
a spotless name
one,
Such
Zeno.
fallen ; but hope still
Greece
a
man
was
was
remained.
fast
A
the
wide-spread disease
was
eating out
vigour of its life : Scepticism, Indifference,Sensuality,Epicurean
softness were
the reigning doctrines, only counteracted
by the
of Plato, or the vast
but abstruse
magnificent but vague works
All
civilization was
fast fallingto
Greek
system of Aristotle.
decay. A little time and Rome, the she-wolfs nursling,would
the place which
had once
the
Greece
so
proudly held
usurp
place of vanguard of European civilization.
Rome, the mighty,
he

'^

"

would

take

no

longer worthy

in

Zeno's

which
for

was

with

of

There

was

the

manly

the

world

him

In
to

conquer

worth,

moral

intoxicated

hold.

to

breast.

hands

feeble

the

from

which

success,

was

she

Greece, the

sought

she

pressentiment of

the

trust

energy

and

; in him

the

glory
to

of

deep

Rome

Rome
plicity
simence
rever-

before,

literaryand

the

ape

stern

was

the Stoic had a Roman

Zeno
philosophicalglory of old Hellas.
noble
Romans
spirit; and this is the reason
why so many
his disciples; he had
became
of their
deciphered the wants
nature.
spiritual
Alarmed
seemed
at the scepticismwhich
inevitably following
speculations of a metaphysical kind, Zeno, like Epicurus, fixed
his thoughts principallyupon
His philosophy boasted
Morals.
with
of
the daily
being eminently practical and connected
the philosopher
practices of life.
But, for this purpose,
must

not

does

not

in
And

regard Pleasure
consist

life of
what

in

activity;

are

life of

so

much

Virtue

contemplation
is Virtue

for what

the attributes

as

of

man

"

Are

and

this

and

Virtue

speculation, but

Virtue

they

is manhood.
not

obviously

STOICS.

THE

the attributes of

467

speculativebeing? and
which
excludes
that be Virtue
can
or
neglects man's activity?
only to speculate :
Man, O Plato, and O Aristotle,was not made
wisdom
O
is not
his only pursuit. Man,
not
Epicurus, was
made
also to do somewhat, and to
made
only to enjoy : he was
be somewhat.
all
Science?
It is a great thing, but it is not
it greater, could
It is a slight thing,and, were
Pleasuire ?
not
acHve

an

well

as

of

as

"

"

embrace

man's

entire

activity.

is neither to be wise nor

existence
aim, then, of man's
his manhood.
be Virtuous
To
to
to
to realize
enjoy, but
this aim, Science
is a means,
be also one
and
Pleasure
may
;
but they are both
subordinate.
But before we
be taught to lead a Virtuous
life,we must
can
be taught what
Virtue
is. Zeno
thought, with Socrates, that
The

"

Virtue
but

Science

If to

error.

and
he

the

was

of

know

the

practice of it,then

had

to

explain the

explain

the

relations

of

human

of

nature

the

suit
pur-

easilydefined :
to
knowledge, and
task

the universe.

to

man

teacher's

the

was

to

tantamount

were

nothing

was

Morality find itself inseparably

connected
with Science
more
especiallywith psychology.
; and
A brief outline of this psychology becomes,
therefore, necessary
introduction
an
to the stoical Morahty.
as
Zeno
utterlyrejected the Platonic theory of knowledge, and
modifications, the Aristotelian
accepted, though with
some
Thus,

theory.
words.

by

as

'*

with

good

Vice

that

; and

Good

Reminiscence

Ideas

the mind

wherebv

of

those

he

from

all the materials

But

Socrates,

"

does

and

regarded but
a

as

comparison

of

knowledge

these

materials

who

**

maintain

that

of
:

Ideas"

him

to

were

notions

the universal

particulars. Sense

Reason

were

Sense

was

the

mere

formed
furnished

ment
plasticinstru-

fashioned.
furnishes

us

the materials

with
this difficulty,By
what
hampered
relation is there between
does
sense
perceive ? What
process
and
Sense
the sensible Thing?
What
of those
proof have we
sensations
with the Things ?
being comformable
This difficultyis a serious
and early occupied specuone,
lators,
have
as
we
already shown.
Indeed, this question may
be
the vital question of all philosophy:
pronounced
upon
its solution depends to a great extent
the solution of all other
questions. Let us state it more
clearly in an illustration.
At the distance
of fifty
yards you descry a tower
: it is round.
What
do you
that the
mean
mean
by saying it is round ? You

knowledge

are

"

268

made

impression
similar
and

you,

that

to

all

upon

made

by
call

men

THE

STOICS.

your

sense

other

some

round.

enabled

nearer
approached
it to be round, because
to approach it,and

square,

and

never

you

believe

round,

not

it
as

the

on

that

to

sight is

then

you

But,

so.

find

that

you

as

the

are

is

tOwer

into this difference.

examine

to

trees, which

as

supposition that
would
always
you

tower,

appeared

impression

an

objects, such

Now,

begin

you

of

distance; and yet you say it really

is square.
*A
of optics seems
little knowledge
to explain the
difference
does
At
not.
fiftyyards, you say, it appears
; but
At
round; but it really is square.
fifty yards, we
reply, it
round, and at one
yard // appears square ; it is neither :
appears
both
round
and
butes
are
conceptions of the mind, not attrisquare
ence.
of things : they have
objective exista subjective, not
an
It

appeared

round

at

that

ancient

far the

sceptics penetrated ; but, seeing herein

destruction
of all certainty in sense-knowledge, and
utter
an
that
admit
of
Sense
the only source
to
was
our
compelled
all knowledge
deceit.
The
a
knowledge, they declared
ception
perThus

of

recognition

of

reconciliation
mind
reason,

"

who

Things which

uncertainty

the

work

choke

up

the

the

of

of

sense-knowledge,

"

and

the
the

after-times.

believed

that

affected

them,

of the

Subject, the
eidola^ airy Images
the

escape

of the specutheory with the natural wants

lative
reconciling scepticism with belief,and both with

expla;iatory
and

dilemma

this

to

of that

the

was

Those

issue whence

the real

the

gave
driven
to

were

relation

thing and
afiiuent

invent

Sense.

We

Things,

from
a

direct

thesis
hypo-

some

subsisting between

the

to establish
gap, and
and
the Object

reports of the

true

senses

the

have

Object

seen

how

invented

were

connection

to

between

Subject
that an image detaching itself in
Zeno, acutely enough, saw
the
from
an
airy form
only represent the superObject, could
fices of that Object, even
if it represented it correctly. In this
than
the
be
shown
to
thesis
hypoan
no
more
hypothesis was
way
real
the
to explain Appearances
question is
; whereas
How
do we
do we
How
not
but,
perceive Appearances ?
If we
perceive Objects?"
only perceive their superfices,our
and
fall
of phenomena,
is only a knowledge
we
knowledge
of the sceptics.
into the hands
tried to obviate
and
it.
the extent
of the difficulty,
Zeno
saw
But his hypothesis, though more
comprehensive, was as corn**

"

"

STOICS.

THE

without

pletely

foundation.

beneath

He

269

that

assumed

could

Sense

itself.

and

perceive Substance
nary
confusion
exists on
this point in the ordiAs considerable
ourselves
the testimony of
to
historians,we shall confine
Sextus Empiricus ; to us the most
satisfactoryof alL
directed
Book"
In
his 7 th
that, namely,
against the
penetrate

Logicians*

Appearance,

he

"

tells

of truth

criterium

for

Apprehension).
by the
impression on

it

and

man,

held

that

there

they

what

was

{rqu KarakrjTmKrjv ^avrao-iav

CatalepticPhantasm

We

Phantasm

meant

Stoics

the

us,

the

Appearance.

(rv^wo-tskv i^x^)*

mind

their differences

for

the

the

t,e.

first understand

must

or

one

was

called

suous
Sen-

what

they

It was,
they said an
^^^
iroia this point

understood, by this
to
impression
impression, an
by the signetring upon
Chrysippus thought this
tov
rvTrwa-iv,
wax,
icqpov
absurd
he, seeing that thought conceives
; for, said
many
soul
the
the
that
at
must
time,
same
hypothesis
objects
upon
He
receive
of
thought that Zeno
impressions
figures.
many
than a modification(mpoKLo-is).
meant
by impression nothing more
voices sound
Comparing the soul to the air,which, when
many
simultaneously, receives simultaneously the various alterations,
Thus
the Soul
unites several
but without
confounding them.
correspond with their several objects.
perceptions which
is extremely ingenious.
This
Indeed, distinguishing thus
of
the
Sensation
soul, is opening a shaft deep
a
modification
as
into the dark
down
But, if it lets in
region of psychology.
of
the light of day, it also
brings into notice
a
new
some
is modified, does
This soul, which
it not
also in its
obstacle.
commence

Cleanthus

similar

that

made

exercise

turn

modify
no

the

action

water

No;

but
;

also

; but

does

from

you

the

colour, taste, weight, "c., which

it does
Thus
soul
truth

become

not

is doubt

of

the

again spread
the

no

however,
"

in

object

sensation

watery,

There

presented

to

you
be

can

my

sight,

unmodified

attributes, certain form,

soul bestows
on
it,which

in itself.

possess

modifying

my

wine.

remain

stone

certain

me

the
is

stone

into^ water,

wine

pour

modify

If

receives

it

you

reaction.
soul

my

If

influence

without

it modifies
"

an

less

thus

than

Zeno

L* ^P* 180-3

did

of

over

whole

the

sensation^

produced?
the water
not

Henry

foresee.

question.
rely upon

it

can

Has

vinous
He

not

?
was

Stephen's edition.

the

These
intent

The
the

wine
quences,
conse-

upon

STOICS.

THE

270

proving
not

the

as

wax

Let

truth.
The

reallyapprehended objects, not as eidola,

receives the impression of a seal,but in absolute

that the

soul

continue

us

Phantasm,
of the

we

slight and
inform

Now

the
"

the

it

it is

false

when
the

at

"

"; or,

even

Phantasms,
and

to

the

such

earth,"

this

the

is odd,"

or

day-time:

"

The

truth

of

both

false.

nor

of

number

false, or

true, or
neither true
are

which
dict
contra-

those, the

are

during the nighttime

or,

as

time,

which
the

were

cause,

those

as

during

verify,such
number

that

that

those

say

third

The

probable,

same

understood

those

those

are

to

were

and

are

soul

second

one

day."

first

the

The

above

impossible

is

stars

is

improbable,

in

if

as

is not

sun

Now

which

such

reason,

tion
modifica-

in this general
; and
sense,
Kinds
of Phantasms
that
: those

The

other.

equable motion
that it is day.

us

our
"

the

nor

is also

ideas

Stoics as we
understand
by
said
that there were
three
they
probable, those that were
w^re
one

the

causes

Sensation,

name

the

neither

Sextus.

which

Appearance,

or

which

Soul

from

borrow

to

true

They

are

of anything ; false if they

they can be truly affirmed
such
when
believes
as
one
wrongly affirmed,
dipped
are
an
oar
it appears
be
When
in th# water
to
broken, because
so.
for a Fury, he
Electra
had
Orestes, in his madness, mistook
a
true

when

both

Phantasm

true

and

something, viz. Electra

false;

true, inasmuch

false,inasmuch

as

he

as

Electra

saw

not

was

Fury.
Of

Phantasms,

true

are

some

and
Apprehensive (cataleptic,)

latter
such
arise from
as
are
non-cataleptic. The
for innumerable
tasms
Phandisease or perturbation of the mind;
but
these
produced in phrenzy and hypochondria ;
are
The
is
that which
all non-cataleptic.
cataleptic Phantasm
are
which
which
is
of that
exists,
a copy
js impressed by an object
object, and can be produced by no other object.
Perception is,elsewhere, said to be a sort of light,which
that'it lightsup the object
time
manifests
itself at the
same

others

from

From
task

it is derived.

which
the

foregoing exposition

of criticism
saw

the

is

compared

weakness

of

to

the

may
that
of

theories

be

easy

invention.

Stoical

others
in

are

their

doctrine

removed

How

the
tinctly
dis-

Zeno

proposed by
better
theory

failed,however, in establishing any

Empiricus may well call the
place. Sextus
Can
and undecided.
anything be more
vague
the above
scientific precisionthan
theory ?
he

how

seen

from
we

to

STOICS.

THE

distinguishthe

true

all,how

to

we

are

from
learn

271

false

the

whether

in

appearances

Above

impression exactly

an

cides
coin-

problem,
supposed object ? This is the main
circular
and
Zeno
pretends to solve it by a most
argument.
to distinguish the true
Thus
are
we
problem, How
: given the
impressions from the false impressions ? The solution offered
with
of the impressions coincide
is, By ascertaining which
the real objects ; in other
words, By distinguishing the true
with

the

"

impressions from the false ?

is metaphysics.
Such
Let us continue
our
exposition. Having
object is

knowledge

not

should

reason

within

from

Perception

assent.

of

of perceptions so
composed
shake
them.
argumentation can
only constitute Opinion.
is

making

; but

the

short

Stoics

were

eager

to

that

thus

not

it
difficulties,

that

Science

reason.

Perceptions

with

work

man's

an

; assent

solidly established

is

This

without

from

comes

it is the free exercise

perception of

it is necessary

knowledge,

; for

lished
estab-

be

must

no

fessed
con-

something against

oppose
the

characterized
Scepticism which
and, in their
age,
their dations.
founto build, they did not
sufficiently
secure
eagerness
Universal
doubt
they felt to be impossible. Man
that
in a
and
constant
too
must
occasionally assent, and
There
absolute
with
perceptions which
manner.
are
carry
the

irresistible conviction.

them

action

unless

conviction
one

every
are

to

is

inexact?

possess

there

stop ?

were

certain

some

That

all

willing to admit.
What

is Evidence.

would

There

criierium

Nothing

our

no

truth.

which

have

we?
be

are

not

are

and

exact

The

clearer

of
possibility

Where,

perceptions

But

can

be

then, is
correct

which

criterium
than

we

evidence,

definition.
This
no
they said; and, being so dear, it needs
it did
but
could
the Stoics
not
precisely what
was
want;
give itr
In truth,the Stoics, combating the scepticism of their age,
reduced
strait
the
to
Reid, Beattie, and
were
same
as
to
Hutcheson, combating the Scepticism of Hume
: reduced
Sense,
The
give up Philosophy, and to find refuge in Common
battle
fought by the Stoics is very
analogous to the battle
fought by the Scotch philosophers,iti the ground occupied, in
the instruments
employed, and in the enemy
attacked, and the
object to be gained. They both
fought for Morality, which
they thought endangered.

STOICS.

THE

273

subsequently have

shall

We

if

theory; enough
ignoratiodenchi
which

of the

their

of

the

onslaught

Perception

the

upon

curious

real force

Sceptics

The

of

fortresses

two

of

position,

own

philosophers display.

irresistible

an

Common-Sense
to

misconception

helplessness

utter

Common-Sense

the
made

had

the

and

enemy,

the

attention

call

now

the curious

"

the

we

consider

to

Reason.

and

They showed
tion
Percepbe
based
and
be
to
to
Appearance,
Appearance
upon
Certainty.
They showed, also, that
only Appearance, not
and
Reason
unable
to
distinguish between
was
Appearance
Certainty, because, in the first place, it had
nothing but
Phenomena
(Appearances) to build upon ; and, in the second
criterium
have no
itself.
to apply to Reason
we
place, because
Having gained this victory, they proclaimed Philosophy no
the Stoics
Whereupon
valorously rise,and,
longer existent.
Common
the
Sense, believe
taking their stand upon
they rout
of the
forces
Sceptics ; believe they retake the lost fortresses
by declaring that Perceptions are true as well as false, and that
distinguishthe true from the false,by
distinguishing
you may
has
in Evidence,
Reason
which
and
its criterium
them;

philosophy,
"

"

criterium

requiresno
the

much

same

if the

as

possess

themselves

French

defeated

it is time

to

it is

This

clear.

so

French

pretty

us

invade

England ;
Dublin, declare
supposed that

to

were

to

seems

London, Edinburgh, and

England the subject of France, and it was then
home
to be driven
again by a party of volunteers
they were
Hampstead
Heath, displaying the
taking their stand
upon
and
loud
alarums
with
of England,
banners
proclaiming the
But

and

There
or

consider

effectuallywe

; the

things

of

out

divine
laws

the

second

The

formed.

The

doctrines

Ethical

glance

must

matter

Reason

which

or
crirepfmTLKolf

in Nature.

elements

two

are

primordial matter

are

the

at

of the Stoics

their

conception

Deity.

the

of

this

do

to

of

govern

passive
is the

element

operating

first is vKy\ irpwrf^

which
from
things

active

forms
element, which
Grod.
Destiny (Itfiap/iicioy),

Reason,

The

matter

upon

it,laws

which

productive causes.

God

the

bestows
Stoics

is the

called
Reason

it

upon

Xoyoi
of the

world.
With

this

speculative doctrine

practical doctrine.
from

their

theology.

Their

Ethics

If Reason

it is
are

is the

easy

to

easily

to

connect

be

their
deduced

great creative law, tq

THE

274

STOICS.

shame.
They loved
life,
quitting it : and they wept without
When
for them
the time came
and they said so.
to risk it, or
their honour
^when
to give it for their country
or
something
sacrifice
then they
the
to
be
higher
was
gained by
they prized
died unflinchingly. The
shed
and
tears
by Achilles
Ulysses
them
did not unman
had
loved
terribly
fought
they
as
: they
like
wild
howls
beast
a
tenderly. Philoctetes, in agony,
in expressing it
he feels pain, and
shame
feels no
because
"

"

But

shrieks

these

have

him

softened

not

stern, terrible,implacable Philoctetes.

he

is still the

So, also, the

same

wounded

howling* off the plain.

of becoming
The
effeminate, became
Stoics,in their dread
marble.
To
be
They despised pain ; they despised death.
above
pain was
thought manly.
They did not see that, in this
Humanity, they sank miserably
respect, instead of being above
Mars

goes

If it is

it.

below

condition

of

human

our

organizationto

be

the
conceal
to
pain, it is only affectation
silence stifle pain, it were
well ;
expression of that pain. Could
stifle the cry is not to stifle the feeling; and
but
have
to
to
a
feeling,yet affect not to have it,is pitiful. The
Savage soon
civilized
is superior to it
learns
that philosophy ; but the
man
receive a blow, and you
wince ; so
do not
You
does
stone.
a

susceptible of

You

face

are

to

face

with

Death,

and

you

have

no

regrets ;

unworthy of life.
As a reaction
against effeminacy. Stoicism may be applauded ;
It ends
in apathy and
doctrine, it is miserably one-sided.
as
a
considered
by the Stoics as the
egotism. Apathy, indeed, was
in
condition
of
truth, it is thelowest.
Humanity; whereas,
highest
It leads, also, to gross immorality and
to
gances.
unseemly extravaReason
be
the
to
Declaring
only true regulator of x)ur
that the natural
of
actions, and, deducing from
consequence
with
all actions
non-conformable
being either conformable
or
curious
conclusions.
Reason, they arrived at some
Thus, all
with Reason
actions conformable
not
are
good ; and
only all
In like manner,
all actions not
formable
congood, but all equally so.
with
all
and
The
Reason
bad.
bad,
are
equally
then

are

you

absurdities

enough
that

to

*a crime
with

if

which
we

move

Reason.
but

mention
your

equal

this doctrine

to

that

led
one

man,

are

innumerable

gravely repeated

little finger without

killinga

into

them

since

both

reasonable
are

by Perseus,
motive

non-conformable

in creditingsuch extravagances,
There,is great difiiculty
limit to systematicerrors.
no
really there seems

is

ACADEMY.

N4W

THE

IV.

CHAPTER

The

ACADEMY

NEW

THE

New

solicit

attention,

our

it by Cicero
on
celebritybestowed
other and
higher points of interest

for the
hzs

cariosity.

of which

combat

The

CARKEADES.

AND

ARCESILAUS

would

Academy

375

it

was

and

Horace

than

those

the theatre

and

with

it

is,
are

certitude
the

of

ingenuity

either

from

flow

it

literary

was,

singularimportance. The questions connected

vital questions respecting the
those
origin and
human
knowledge which so long have occupied

only

; but

of

of

which

it

were

tion
soluthinkers, and the consequences
of the problem are of the utmost
importance.
the
endeavoured
The
have
to establish
Stoics,as we
seen,
lish
certitude
of human
knowledge, in order that they might estabattacked
the doctrines
the truth of moral
principles. They
believed
of the Sceptics, and
they triumphed by bringing

of

forward

their

Academicians

own

had

Sceptics, although
Pyrrhonists. The
has

doctrine
other
their

of

Common
to

arguments

scepticism
of

nature

this

They

offer.

differed

difference

the

But

Sense.

from

too

that

Sextus

New
were

of

the

Empiricus

noted.

the Philosophy of the

Many persons," says he, " confound
with that of the Sceptics. But, although the disciples
Academy
of the New
sible
Academy declare that all things are incomprehenthe
from
Pyrrhonists in this
distinguished
; yet they are
dogmatism : they affirm that all things are incomprehen-t
very
sible
the Sceptics do not a,ffirm that.
Moreover, the Sceptics
consider
all perceptions perfectlyequal as to the faithfulness
of
their testimony ; the Academicians
distinguish between
bable
proand
first
the
class
under
improbable perceptions:
they
various
which
heads.
There
they say,
are
are'some,
merely
others
also
which
confirmed
others
-are
probable,
by reflection,
which
are
subject to no doubt.
kinds.
is of two
Assent
which
the mind
Simple assent
without
yields without repugnance
desire, such as that of a
as
child following its master
the assent
which
follows upon
; and
conviction
and
The
reflection.
the former
Sceptics admitted
"

"

**

kind

; the

These

of

sects

Academicians
differences

we

find the

the latter."

are

of

no

smallest

great

moment

variation

; but

invested

in the
with

history
degree

276

and

importance;

of

which

we

Academicians

the

ACADEMY:

NEW

THE

understand

can

the

distinguished themselves
slightgrounds as the above.

such
Sceptics even
on
In treating of the Academicians
we
plan pursued with the Sceptics,viz.,to
of the

sect, rather

whole

individual

distinction

between

Arcesilaus

and

Arcesilaus

bom

taught mathematics
phrastus, afterwards

in ii6

Pitane

at

Aristotle, and

of

this last school

he

was

the

follow

the

the

doctrines
of each

share

the

and

modems

the

New

drew

do

to

so.

types.

our

Olyinp.

rhetoric, became

and

from

the ancients

therefore,shall be

Cameades,

In

Academy

although

to

consider

them, it is difficult for

was

Flatonist.

one

forced

are

the
particularize

to

Middle

in

unite

thus

we

than

The

member.

Academy

pertinacitywith

He

was

pupil

of

early
Theo-

finally of

Polemo

the

contemporary

with

Zeno,

probably there began that antagonism which was

so
re*
in their subsequent career.
On
the death
markable
of Crates,
Arcesilaus
filled the Academic
filled it with
chair, and
great
His fascinating manners
him general
won
abilityand success.
learned
and
sweet-tempered, and generous
rejgard. Hs was
to
fault.
a
Visiting a sick friend, who, he saw, was
sufferingfrom
of gold underneath
privation, he slip])ed,unobserved, a purse
the sick man's
the attendant
discovered
pillow. When
it,the
and

said

man

with

frauds."

lived

He

of

was

till the

"

smile

This

is

of

one

luxurious

somewhat

of seventy-five, when

age

Arcesilaus's

temper,

generous
but
he

killed himself

he

by hard

drinking,
the

Cameades,
born

in

Cyrene,

at

This

Africa,

him

made

t have

If

141

of

the^ Academicians,
was
He
Olymp.
was
a
pupil of

taught him

Stoic, who

the

Diogenes

illustrious

most

exclaim

sometimes

reasoned

subtleties

the

in the

of

tion.
disputa-

course

of

rightly,I have

gained my point ;
me
Diogenes return
paid him for his
the pupil of Hegelessons."
On
leaving Diogenes he became
Academic.
then
held
the
sinus, who
chair; by him he was
instructed
in the sceptical principles of the Academy, and
on
debate

if not,

let

"

the

his

death

the

voluminous

value

to

of his

own

used

10

be

what

are

two

he

succeeded

him

as

"

am,"

kinds

his chair.

He

also

studied
diligently

These
writings of Chrysippus.
were
exercising his subtlety,and trying the

metal.
say
I

to

mincB

He

Had
a

owed

there

not

sentiment

pf writers

so

much

been
very

Thps^

to

of

this opponent

great

temper
that he

Cbrysippus, I should not

of explanation.
There
easy
a

who

instruct
directly

us

'

ip

ARCESIIAVS

AND

CARNEADES.

277

knowledge, and those who

indirectlylead us to the
truth by the very opposition they raise against their own
views.
Next
to exact
knowledge, there is nothing so instructive
as
and
in
to
exact
error
presented
error
: an
clearly stated,
you
it at first presented it"elf to the
the same
somewhat
as
way
mind
that now
upholds it,by enabling you to see not only that
it was
it is an
deduced
its prebut by what
from
error,
process
misses,
soutid

valuable
is among
the most
than
direct instruction;

of instruction.

modes

It is

the
learner's
better, because
mind
is called into full activity,and
apprehends the truth for
instead of passively assenting to it.
itself,
Cameades
felt
He
justifiedin his praise of Chrysippus.
was
felt that to him
He
he owed
he
to his antagonist
,how much
owed
clear conception of the Stoical Error, and
viction
cona
a clear

better

of
no

truth

the

portion of

inconsiderable
him

marked
sador

out

send

to

of the Academic

countrymen

; and

also

subtlety which

and
as

owed

fittingAmbas"

Rome.

to

in Rome

Cameades

that readiness

his

amongst

doctrine

Scepticism

"

in

the Stoic

city ^pffesents
"

Romans
crowded
round
interesting picture. The
him,
fascinated
Before
Galba
by his subtlety and
eloquence.
before
the Censor
^he harangued with marvellous
Cato
unction
hard
and
in praise of justice;
brow
the
of the
grim Stoic
smile
those
thin
firm lips.
softened
played over
approving
; an
brilliant
But
the
exhibit
the
undertook
the next
orator
to
day
uncertaintypf all human
knowledge; and, as a proof, he refuted
with which
the day before he had supported
all the arguments
Justice. He spoke against Justiceas convincingly as he had
again, and with a
spoken for it. The brow of Cato darkened
instinct of the dangers of such ingenuity operating upon
keen
the Roman
the
youth, he persuaded the Senate to send back
Philosophers to their own
country.
an

"

"

Cameades
with
to

returned
the

the advanced
That

not

age

indeed,

result of
sect

Conamon
abdication
of

taught

the

which

did

Sense

; that

of

should

But

his

renewed

great applause,

as

we

have

have

not

accept
is

to

it

say,

it may

seem

embraced

and

test
con-

lived

Scepticism is

said.Scepticism

ten(Jenciesof

Philosophy, which

Scepticism.

with

there

ninety.

of

the Academicians

strange

only

He

Stoics*

and

Athens,

to

was

was

the

whole

forced
forced

abdication

strange

was

the
; and

epoch

evitable
inthe

refiigein
to find refuge in the
is in itself a species
to

that

find

the

Academy

derive

should

itself from

should

Arcesilaus

A CADEMY

NEW

THE

37"

be

it may
and

Plato;
continuer

strange

seem

admirer

warm

that.
of

Plato.

ancients

The

divided

were

some

We

have

themselves,
each

amongst

according to Sexlus
Empiricus,
other
trine;
respectingPlato's real doc-

considering him
already explained

and

shown

sceptic, others

the

how

of

cause

dogmatist

this

difference

of

little

consistency and precision

all
is in the ideas of Plato
there
subjects
except
upon
Method.
Scepticism, therefore, might very easily result from
all.
this is not
attack
Plato's
a
study of his writings. But
file
of his predecessors, which
theories
were
grounded
upon
The
dialogue
upoiii sense-knowledge, is constant, triumphant.
of the
to the subject of Science,
Theaetetus,' which is devoted
opinion,

have

very

is

for

All

Science.

incapacityof

the

exposition of

an

that

furnish

can

sense

to

sense

the

furnish

materials

materials

is

for

it
when
Optnion^ and Opinion, as he frequently declares, even
is Right Opinion, never
be Science.
can
which
Plafo, in short, destroyed all the old foundations
upon
He
theories had been
cleared
the ground before
constructed.
the
his own
he obviated
work.
By this means
commencing

Sophists,and

of the

attacks

which

errors

his

reduced

it

to

the

of

to

declared

ruins, they

the
The

attacked

belief, and

old

sustain

accumulated.

predecessors had

the weakness

saw

yet refused

of

onus

Sophists

it.

Having
triumphant,

themselves

of the old fortress being

appeared, and admitted
he
that the
denied
its deserving to
be so ; but
in ruins, and
taken.
Expend," said he, " your wrath and
city of Truth was
such
fortresses ; I will assist you ; for
skill in battering down
the

Plato

fact

"

yet approached
and

knowledge

Philosophy

of

from

the

he

Ideal
The

Aristotle
?

set

fiieoryin
:

came

aside,the stronghold
it Plato

found

destroyed

and

that

refuge
theory.

Scepticism.
Plato, the uncertainty of Opinion ;

admitted

with

Aristode

He

arguments

of

{he

Ideal

thus

admitted,

theory.

Ideal
of

the

was

the real fortress you

have
not
far higher ground."
Sense-

with

also

Opinion

on

Opinion being

Sophists.

Arcesilaus
but

; it is situate

then, remained

What,

But

useless.

them

declare

I too

; the

theory.
Platonic

was

Plato

thus
had

reduced

the
to

incorrectness
absolute

the
quite (lestroyed

of

the

Scepticism.
certitude

of

of Aristotle had quite destroyed the

arguments
And
thus, by refusing to accept one
argument

doctrine,Arcesilaus

could

from

Plato's

works

ARCBSILAUS

his

Reduce
the

CARNBADES.

AND

279

theory of the Incomprehensibilityof all things:

own

aattalepsy.

acatalepsy recalls to us the Stoical doctrine

it is the antithesis.
of catalepsy or Apprehension, to which
The
the True
Perception according to the
was
CatalepticPhantasm
the
all Perceptions
Stoics ; and, according to
Academicians,
the
bore
conformity to
no
were
objects peracatcUepiic^i,e,,
ceived
did
if
bear
it
could
they
; or,
any conformity thereto,
doctrine

The

be

never

of

known.

Arcesilaus

pretended that there was

a
and
science
opinion, which
this

perceptions,and
the

truth

Sense

difference

the

of

Assent
He

felt that

between
madman

the

criterium

'

in

Assent

There

"

which

is

the

of

of

mind

the

wise

Stoics

what

"

is
the

and

man,

in name."

but

itself in

was

to

Common

Arcesilaus,
a

false

gave

words,

difference

no

and

true

other

But," said

*'

the

between

Assent

perceptions :

Criterium.

the

was

decided

the

was

certain

of

the Stoical argument.

Zeno
decided
between
Criterium, which

point of

the weak

saw

need

of

Criterium.
the Stoic

Chrysippus
combated
was

pending

"

is there

Criterium
have

question.

see^pi the
Let
us
now

Criterium

The

turn

What
We

The

Carneades^

by

this

in

Arcesilaus, and was

great question then

combated

Sensation.

of

the

attempts
reside
reside

It cannot

of

of

either

our

knowledge

Stoics

the

to

in Reason,

in Reason,

this

answer

answered

howCameades

see

must

truth

the

Stoics.

Conception,

itself

Reason

because

01?

it operates
the
two
independent of the other
:
upon
them.
furnished
materials
by them, and is dependent
upon
is derived
the Senses, and
Our
from
object
knowledge
every
must
presented to the mind
consequently have been originally
mind
the
their accuracy
must
presented to the Senses
on
r

is

not

depend.

"

Reason
Criterium.

Nor

it.

can

to

Nor

admit, the
which

what

Our
far

as

senses

they

the

are

Criterium

within

; for the

reside

deceptive, and

are

be

is

contain

conception

can

senses

cannot

For

therefore

cannot

same

itself the

arguments

in Sense, because,
there

is

no

desired

apply
as

all

perception

false.

Perception ?
of
only inform us of the presence
it.
is
this
But
what
affect"d by

an

object in
Is it not

so
we

who

are

affected

"

we

who

are

modified

Yes

; and

this modi^

THE

38o

fication

reveals

objects in its own

Perception is
correspond

the

also

it

caiuses

objects opon.

this, that

in

like

it shows

colours.

with

problem
every modificationof the soul exactly
that modificacauses
object which
the soul.

modificatum of

is this

solve

to

object which

the

showing itself,shows
thrown.
Like
Light also

it i"

now

itself and

in

Light, whicby
which

both

ACADEMTt

NEW

the

Does

external

The

whole

tionf

This

is the

They
problem presented by the Academicians.
their
saries
adverdid
answered
but
it.
solve
left
not
to
they
They
;
the
between
the task
of proving the
correspondence
their
here venture
to
object and subject. We
carry out
may
still
it is one
to solve the problem, as
principles and endeavour
minds
of meta(physicians.
agitatingthe
We

say,

nowise

in

that

the

object, in nowise

the

external

The

early thinkers were

certainty to sensuous

any
Senses

does

except

cause,

transmit

does

the

Sensation

the

modification

in the

relation

well

correspond
correspond

of

cause

that, in order

aware,

knowledge,

must

we

and
to

with
with

effect

attribute
that the

assume

the
Democritus^ who was
first to see
the necessityof such
hypothesis, suggested that
an
Ideas were
our
Eidola^ or Images of the Objects, of an extremely
which
off by the objects in the shape
thrown
airy texture,
were
of efflutria,
and
who
Those
entered
the brain
by the pores.
admit
could
the hyposuch
not
thesis
an
explanation substituted
quiries,
inin
of Impressions. Ask
such
versed
not
any
man,
believes
he
whether
his perceptions to
be
copies of
objects ^whether he believes that the flower he sees before him
human
of every
and
other
exists quite independently of him
with
exists
and
attributes
tiie same
of shape, firagrance,
being,

Copies of Things.

us

"

taste, "c.

regard
And

"

you

yet

^his answer
as
so

madman

is

if you

early as the

in the

be

to

sure

affirmative.

will

it

doubt

epoch of which

we

are

now

had
in somewise
learned
history,thinking men
that
our
not
Perceptions were
Copies of Objects,
of our
they were
simply modifications
minds, caused
the

He

ing
sketchto

but

see

that

by the

objects.
Once

admit
not

modification

ask,

Is

the

this,and sensuous
only uncertain, but
be

pain

copy of the
occasioned

it at all like the fire ?

Does

is for ever
knowledge
nounced
prosuch
Can
a
absolutely false.
which

cause

by
it

at

bum

all

exoress

modifies?

As

of the
copy
the essence

fire?

well
Is

of fire ?

THE

s8a

It is

reflected.

are

ACADEMY

NEW

to divest

extremely difficult

prejudice ; but we may be made

to those
perceptions which are

of the fallacyif

aware

visual

of thil

ourselves

attend

we

perceptions
of sound, fragrance, taste, or pain. These
are
clearly nothing
of our
but modifications
being, caused by external objects, but
We
in nowise
all agreed that the heat is
resembling them.
are
in the fire,
but in us ; that sweetness
is not in the sugar, but
not
in us;
effluvia of particles, which,
that fragrance is but
an
in us.
sensation
In
a
impinging on the olfactory nerve, cause
all beings similarlyconstituted
these things would
have similat
pain, sweetness, and fragrance \ but, on all
cause
effects,would

beings

other

but

paper,

the

effects would
it ;

pain

not

of

give it the sensation

radical

The

things

^1^

not

mix

Sugar would
; and

sweetness

of

error

different

be

bum

would

water, but

not

forth.

so

they are, consists in mistaking

Fire

with

believe

who

those

the

to

"

that

perceive

we

for

metaphor

fact,

is a Mirror
in which
external
believing that the mind
the human
But, as Bacon
objects are reflected.
finelysays,
understanding is like an unequal mirror to the rays of things^
with the nature
nature
which, mixing its awn
of things,distorts
is the process
and perverts them^
attribute
This
whereby we
heat, to the fire and colour to the flower ; heat and colour really
occasioned
consciousness
being states of our
by the fire and the
and

^^

flower

conditions.

certain

under

What

is

Perceptipn?

of the perapient

stctte

occasioned

be

may

complex
than

as

the

adequate cause.
conscious, and
forms

in

learn

we

effect

an

in

change

every

time

"

than

more

This

produced
Sensation

our

give de^nite

to

state

and
be as
cause,
may
it is still nothing more

complex, but

consciousness
Of

nothing

consciousness.

external

some

is

cause

of

state

by

of

state

ue.

"

is

Perception

"

by
we

an
are

and

names

in the fact of

sciousness
ConBut
changes.
In our
there is nothing beyond Consciousness.
ceptions
perhave
taken
conscious
we
are
only of the changes which
transcend
within
the sphere of our
own
us
never
place
can
; we
the

to

consciousness
of

aware

do is

to

near
see

it.

we

can

identifycertain
to

never

Turn

the

we

external

have

fact of

in it but

go

the

of ourselves, and

out

caused

identify the

sensations

notyi^g

these

objects which

the

changes, e.g.
certain

of

causes

changes

those

appearances

known

to

consciousness

change of

follow
how

"

name

we

can

interttal

fire

"

with

being placed

our

will,you can
being operated

you

sentient

all

certain

with

we

appearance

become

ARCBSILAUS

by

external

some

world

faithful reflection

it gives no

it only

gud

from

world, apart

world

the

non-ego"

utterly different
know
effects

per

the
se;

excited

as

"

as

it ; for all

know

we

consciousness

our

consciousness

our

of

consciousness, i.e* the non-ego

be
certain, something
is,we
may

through

usy and

on

are

se

modification

own

the world

from

it is derived

of

our

mirror

no

thingsas they BXtper

of

its

of

gives a faithful report

by external
things.
The

is

Consciousness

cause.

%%l

CARNEADES.

AND

is

of

we

its

what

obviously only

of ourselves,not

state

do

How

to

appears
This

know

you
?
us

that

the

per

trough

consciousness^because

relation

of

the
other

blind

were

be

operating

such

no

thing

to

in

on

If all animals

were

the

some

effect.
as

us

sciousness
Con-

our

If all

cause
light,be-

operation of

of the

out

up

Cause

different

very

be

would

lightis 2^ phenomenon made

thing on the retina;

would

world

briefly. The

answer

is the

same

produce

there

us

it

what

it appears
it is only known

World

the

But

organizationwould

animals

unknown

Effect.

from

what

from
to

effect.

and

cause

will

we

different

be

must

se

is different

world

question is pertinent, and

world

things.

of external

copy

some

deaf

there

such

sound
is a phenomenon
thing as sounds because
made
unknown
thing (supposed
up out of the operation of some
be pulsations of air)on
If all animals
the tympanum.
to
were
without
their present
the
having
or
nerves
same
disponerves,
be no
such
sitionSjthere would
pain is
thing as pain, because
external
a
phenomenon made
put of the operation of some
up
thing on the nerves.
Light, colour, sound, pain, taste, smell are all states of consciousness,
and
nothing more.
Light with its myriad forms and
colours

no

Sound

"

appears

to

mind.

Nature

is

We

its thousand-fold

with

Nature

; but

us

they

eternal

an

resembling
Effect;

and

the

World

as

its truth

Darkness

rdation, i.e. it is the

operation
resemblance
external

Let
abstract

us

is

the

it appears
not

the

"

"

make

what

Nature

the investitures

only

are

conclude, therefore, that

life

an

World

eternal

per

se

of the

Silence.
is in

nowise
is

to

us.

Perception

truth

of

resemblance, but

an

of

operation of the world on us, the true

But
and Effect.
Perception is not the true
mirror
of the world. Consciousness
is no
ing
reflecttrue

of Cause

things.
substitute

expression

for
of

"

metaphor of a mirror the more

by an
Perception is an Effect caused
the

384

THE

external
matter

An

this

darkening

of the conlusion
object," and mucli
will be dissipated.
know, agrees with its Cause,
Effect, we

it does

but

not

it.

resemble

Effect

An

ACADEMY.

NEW

no

more

of

Copy

the

is

pain

than

Cause

a
^

applicatioi^of fire to

of the

copy

be

never

of what

accurate

an

they

in relation

are

said

been

It has

finger : ergo^ Perception can

of
what
things are per se^ but only
report
to

us.

that, although

sin^e

does

actually
of
nevertheless
anything,
impression
we
convey
confinn
enabled
to
are
or
modify the report of one
sense
by
the report of another
Sense, and that the result of the whole
is a true impression of the external
activityof the five senses
Thing.
This is a curious fallacy. It pretends that a number
oi false
impressions are sufficient to constitute a true one !
to

is

There

sense

correct

conclusion

The

this

us

no

drawn

be

to

from

correspondence

no

fpregoing premisses is

the

the

between

object and

Effect.
sensation, except
of
do
all
them.
resemble
not
Copies
Objects ;
at
objects through sensation
only know
as
ue.
that

of Cause

Sensations

and

As
we

"

know

Sensations

our

can

we

"

never

ascertain

the

are

not

we

can

only

can

the truth respecting

objects.
This

brings

which
but

back

us

the

to

strenuously maintained
a

modification
of

nature

Do

side

then

we

with

the

Perception, being nothing

re^

the

reveal

never

Academicians

deceptive?

knowledge

rhonists,

that

things.

we

human

Academy,

Soul, could

the

of

disciplesof

the

New

answer

You

No:

quite

are

in

them,

to

right in

all

proclaiming
to

as

th^

Pyr-

afiirmii^that

man

his

sphere of
consciousness, cannot
own
of
know
things, cannot
essence
can
penetrate
causes,
know
this
crushes
But
it
affirmation
only
though
phenomena.
interdicts
the
it
Metaphysics
inquiry into noumena,
though
the

transcend

cannot

the

real

"

"

into

and

essences

touch

Science.

phenomena,
to

It

there

all man's'

External
in

true

Cause,

its relation

constant

Science

causes,

as

all

their

of Effects.

us,

is but

Science

who
ue.

Causes;

can

in

never

futile
a

of Phenomena

If Sensation

wants.

to

because

knowledge

our

still be

can

we,

frivolous

as

is but
know

its Effect.

that
These

does

"

not

of
knowledge
adequate

the

effect

of

Cause, know
Effects

and, consequently, there

can

are

be

an

it
as
a

SUMMARY

Such

Science

which

is to

refuge for

mind

the

to

and

refute
.

and

to

Sceptics,and

The

treated

say,

were

in

their
and

best

attacked
All

and

it with

the wisdom

of

the

they

of

Plato, and

weapons,

Academicians
the
from

with

was

there

one

was

preserved

even

of

Socrates

this
of
peared
ap-

is there

Who

we

these

just

From

arms.

borrowed

Philosophy,

attacked

had

have

Epicureans,
Sceptics, we

Aristotle, they had

success.

antique

the

world

was

gone.
midst

reduced

Truth

the

of

to

the

extinct.

was

Philosophy

peculiarityof
in the

powerless Sigainst

was

was

"

But

the

"

formidable

most

Sceptics. Speculative belief

uncertain
probability." Faith in
endeavour

themselves

called

the

in human

power.

the

intellects

the

Sophists.
Sceptics?
thinkers
during the epoch

possession

Socrates, from

greater

made

period

first

usurping

more

New

or

which

the

all

Stoics, Pyrrhonists

the

crisis in

second

the

to

closed

far

such, whether

were

EPOCH,

Scepticism

The

discredit

discredit

to

EIGHTH

once

with

time

refute

to

to

behold

this

and

men,

this

saw

V.

narrative

our

history of speculation.
Sophists powerful, and which
now

of

mena,
Pheno-

throughout

Effect

Academicians

the

nor

THE

the

history,we

of

inspection.

our

OF

brought

now

and

aim

inquiry.

SUMMARY

have

Science, the

Successions

Cause

CHAPTER

We

%%S

they consequently proclaimed Scepticism

of

and

of

Pyrrhonists

the

final result

the

as

submitted

neither

But

Positive

named

relation

the

EPOCH.

EIGHTH

Co-existences

the

trace

universe

THB

is that

trace

i.e, to

the

OF

Faith

impossible.

was

Socratic

most

doctrine

scepticism.

Socrates

which
had

quent
object of his inquiries: and all subsewhich
had given it a degree of attention
before
thinkers
the consequence?
What
The
unknown.
was
was
consequence
doctrine
of the
Sense
that the Common
the
Stoics,and
was
Probabilities of the Sceptics, however
futile,as scientific principles,
efficapipu^enough as moral
principles. Common
were

made

Ethics

the

great

iS6

SUMMARY

Sense

be

may

The

made

of

despair

of

thinkers,

it

but

that

age
to

of

system

its

in

have

been

no

terrible.

it

The

from

their

the

error

last

baffled

been

have

to

all

protest

more

for

wrung

that

the

as

cure

predecessors

also

against

made

energetic,

was

ing
reason-

morals.

tendency

more

was

there

declared

Scientific

or

Scepticism

their

declared

and

wrong,
a

which

seemed

they

as

for

anarchical

so

Sophists

wisdom

the

cry

not

the

BPOCB.

Metaphysical

basis

therefore,

was

by

for

bad

so

protest,

Philosophy

In

not

EtGHTH

THB

basis

bad

it is

but

OF

lessly
hope-

without

was

remedy.
.

It

indeed,

was,

aspirations
doomed

of

Aristotle

but

were

'which,

question

doubted

it

step

one

it

with

of

great

the

but

-began*

aged

of

doubt.

which

child-like
it doubt

attempted
the

not

was

not

problems

did

had

It

ends

have

only

others

Science

that

with

Not

their

of

the

of

in

ended

thought

began

solution.

any

of

solution

which

doubt

the

It

problem

possibility

the

to

of

pied
occu-

harvest

possibility

the

to

had

the

he

which

men

fi-om

the

nearer

an

these

Centuries

form.

to

ended

begins,

which

against

child-like,

solutions

the
it

of

when

proceed?

thought

of

gleaned

be

to

arguments

mind

the

advanced

forms

struggles

was

anxious

so

the

irrevocably

Thales,

things

all

and

hopes

Jthus

from

men

do

The

minds

many

of

the

Little

endeavours

with

so

Whence

"

Scepticism.

they

of

struggles,

contemplation.

incomparable

many

systematization

elaborate
an

saddening

himself,

asked

first

so

the

inquiry

it

doubt
had

no

illusions.
This
thus

period

was

assailed
opens

the

could

with

crisis

second

only
the

find

attempt

of
a

Greek

refuge
to

construct

Philosophy.
in

Faith,
a

and

Religious

Reason
the

next

sophy.
Philo-

'Cpocj^.

V[lni^

ALLIES

PHILOSOPHY

WITH

ITSELF

FAixH

THE

SCHOOLS.

ALEXANDRIAN

CHAPTER

L-

ALEXANDRIA.

Philosophy

longer

seemed

have

to

solved.

be

had

been

able

to

asked

revived

under

Unable

only

Rome

who

which

enabled

had

books

strangers
as

Their

those

novel

own

and

if

Rome

had
from

but

into

been

been
quiry,
in-

seized

and

excessive

being
doctrines

the

they
into

and

with
to

the

on

renown

novelties
the

to

answers

new

to

instruction

wonder
a

people
of

cost

oral,

the

imported

just invented.

Greece,
both

had

Egypt

listened

from

all

in

gain

to

were

and,

subject.

stimulate

to

readily

were

^warmly,

they

exiled

they

ask

to

the

questions

offer

doctrines

almost

days,

as

Philosophy,
Alexandria

its

welcomed

were

or

doctrines

old

of

none

in

places

question

new

success.

to

them

their

been

speculation,

of

remained
of

had

of

to

devise

ingenuity

old

Philosophers

carried
those

to

likely

one

no

problems

could

not

view

asked

questions,

all

annals

new

hope

and

exercise

to

had
forced

was

ingenuity

early

nothing

the

in

and

delight.

and

new

They

been

asked,

occasion

travelled.

were

ask

to

already

those

had

none

it

seemed

whenever

to

give speculators

to

or

is

doubt,

forms

new

the

men

questions

when

is made

awaken

to

arrived

thinkers

In

country,

human

early

advance

suggest

is

all

now

by

examination.

to

the

and

when

which

Greece

in

had

and

stated,
system

decisive

question,

But

been

Every

and

period

devised

stand

new

is
a

elsewhere.

home

its native

in

worshipper?

any

them

seek

found

longer

no

was

cases

it

favoured
was

guest

stranger,

in
and

288

ALEXANDRIA.

naturalized.

Alexandria, however, it made

a.
it produced gave it an originality
brilliant display ; and the men
it never
influence which
and an
possessed in Rome.
but
weak
Roman
Philosophy was
a
paraphrase of the
it
Grecian
and
no
place in this^ history.
we, therefore,give
;
the fashionable
To
tion
ambispeak Greek, to write Greek, became
child
instructed
of Rome.
The
slave
was
by a Greek
Rhetoric
Professors
Greek
to
taught Philosophy and
aspiring
had
become
the necessary
which
tour
youths. Athens
was
It was
education.
there
that Cicero
ta
complete a man's

could

be

not

In

**

"

learned

which

ideas

those

he

in

delighted

setting

forth

in

dialogues.
was
light
in the sparkphilosophy, which he has enshrined
to the
Wandering from the Academy
ling crystal of his verse.
It

charming
and

there

learned

Horace

that

careless

with

make

to

gives

so

with

him

are

be

they

luxurious

men

it is

rare

old

and

bonhomie^

world.

of the

embued

became

poetical enthusiasm

; and

pensive epicureanism
which,
a character
poems;

his

freedom

; his poems
?
otherwise

merit

his sole
could

to

he

which

that
to

after-dinner

of

Garden,
his

checks
of

character

peculiar
sort

the

to

system

a
a

recommends

how

Porch

scepticism which

that

learned

the

from

and

Porch,

are

Not

the

They

that

this

of

every

delight
not

are

Falernian

wine

especially
tutes
consticlass ;

only wise, tJiey

sparkles in

that

with kisses.
musical
veins, and their numbers
are
In Rome,
Philosophy might tinge the poetry, give weight to
topics of conversation
no
supply some
; but it was
oratory, and
serious
it
minds
took
the
of
in
Belief
men
root
the
:
no
filling
existence
it
Thinkers.
national
no
produced
great
;
their

In

Alexandria

the

and

formed,

were

doctrines

case
some

existent.

then

made

different.

was

There

introduced

elements

new

thinkers

Great

and

it

several

schools
into

the

Plotinus, Proclus,

"

it had

illustrious;
rival, whose
a
Porphyry
immortal
confer
it : that
alone
would
antagonism
renown
upon
rival was
Christianity.
In no
the Alexandrian
school
ficient,
despecies of grandeur was
M.
Saisset
:*
and
as
genius, power,
justly observes
have
consecrated
it.
duration,
Reanimating, during an epoch
of decline, the
of
it created
fecundity
an
a
aged civilization,
whole
family of illustrious names.
Plotinus, its real founder
"

resuscitated
*

des

'Revue

Article

on

Plato

this

Deux

subject.

Proclus

the

gave

Mond^s,'
"

1844, torn^ iii, p.

.

Aristotle

another

world

78^;
7

an

admirab^q

OP

NMO'PLATONisM

means

constitute

HtSE

290

Thinkers

by

no

We

may

the

and
former
the

designates

writing
section

purpose.
Jew is the

Alexandria
ideas

Greek

the

movement,

section

of

commenting

that

Reason

far he

Thus

dialectics

had

in his mind

years

in

man

As

are

we

only this

select

Christ.

He

was-^

influence

The

felt in

of all

him.

the

human

some

be

th^ Greeks

there

there

origin is

the

is

not

he
and

to

far

; thus

element

another

was

Oriental, there
must
delusion, we

the

was

Science

Real

; but

Cameades

From

is a
knowledge
higher sphere. The
powerless ; but there

is Faith.
; its

much

owed

of truth.

But

Greek

he

knowledge,

with

travel

strange mixture

was

sensuous

criterium

willing to

may

is Faith

dame

any

If

in

there

"

had

beside

Reason

truth

conducted

for Truth

seek

the

was

mysticism.

was

designates

Alexandria, and Philo,

writingsof the Jews, did so in the spiritof
with
His
Greek
genius was
thought.

the

on

before

already being

was

distrust

to

that

the

Neo-Platonists.

these

first of

deeply imbued
Greek
Oriental, his education
; the result
To
Plato
dialectics.*
of mysticism and
the
New
to
perhaps, more.
Academy,
deny

terms

latter

we

"

School

movement

Philosophy only,

few

one

learned

Alexandrian

our

the

at

"

convertible

not

are

History of

for

Philo
bom

the

"

whole

illustrious

most

of

Neo-Platonists

**

a
School, they constitute
in the
sophy.
history of Philo-

they form an
Epoch
merely observe that the

and

Movement,

PtitLO.

is the

goodness

senses

is still a

faculty

giftof God

of God

ceive
de-

may

its

its

is

cause

Piety.
this

Now

Platonic
for

the

Plato

would

of Faith

sake

of God

conception

could

not

never

have

thus

known,

although

his

is

nevertheless

condemned

yet he, too, thought

and
;

be

Plato's, and

that

existence

Reason
the

nature

could

be

this respect he
In
have
would
proved.
agreed with Philo.
does
not
But, although Plato
speak of Science as the gift of
God, he does in one
place so speak of Virtue ; and he devotes
the whole
that Virtue
Meno
cannot
to show
dialogue of the
it is not
be taught, because
a
thing of the understanding, but a
he
The
there
reasons
giftof God.
easily have
employs may
suggested to Philo their application to Science.
this point Philo's
becomes
From
a
Philosophy of course
*

St.

Patd

Jews

and

the

Greeks

seek

characteristic
comprehensively expresses the national
Crreeks:
The
Jews require a sign (i.^.a miracle),and
after wisdom
(t.^.philosophy).'' 1, Corinth*^ i, v. 22.
thus

**

"

of
the

klSE

theology.
be

may

NiO'PlATONiSM

OP

God

; his nature

"n
icaraXiy'TrTos,

rw

vw

he

exists is in

cTvac fiovov.
knowledge of his

itself the

simple, immutable,
implied in the simple knowledge
otherwise, if he

in what

glance

the

This

Divinity

(using

tiiat

perfect,

he

not

cannot

know

to

with

our

only believe*
his

in

ovl\

knowledge

penetrate

can

God

his

of

\6-^(yithis

cannot

We

know

knowledge

some

Word,

We

one,

is

this is

know

to

essence.

cannot

we

This

existence

his

of

But

perfection.
of his

mystery

If, however,
obtain

his

consists

all.

at

being

attribute.

without

exist

But

to

Kara

firj

68* apa
tp know

known.

be

never

can

and

be

291

ineffable,incomprehensible: his existence

is

known

PHILO.

we
essence,
know
it in

we

the

caa

The

in

its
expression
place in all the mystical
scripturalsense) fills a curious
God
being incomprehensible, inaccessible,an inters
systems.
mediate
existence
God
interpreterbetween
as
an
was
necessary
Word

"

"

and
The

this

and

Man,

intermediate

the

existence

Mystics

called

Word.

The

This
according to PhilQ, is God's
Thought.
is two-fold; it is Aoyos tvhiaOtroQjthe Thought
as

Wordf

Thought
of the
term
embracing all Ideas (in the Platonic sense
Idea),
it
and
i.e. Thought
is
as
Thought ;
Xdyos vpotpopiKds,the
the World.
Thought realized: Thought became
In these three
the Trinity of
see
hypostases of the Deity we
There
is first, God
the
Plotinus
foreshadowed.
Father;
of God, i.e. the \oyos ; thirdly, the Son
of
secondly, the Son
Aoyos, i.e. the World.
will
of
brief outline
Philo's
This
Theology
sufficiently

exemplify
understood

the
:

"

two

; 2ndly,
by. uniting it once

more

powerless
agitated.
Various
one

And
his

to

solve

Schools

result.

yet, said

with

Religion.
had

the

had

great

was

Mystics,

"

we

with

the

questions

have

Philosophy,

Movement

of

of

an

be

to

of

but

idea

every

of

God

the

utterly

Philosophy

Methods,

conclusion

cism
mysti-

to

shown

been

hav^

to

oriental

given

pursued various
the

anxious

are

characterizes

Reason

Scepticism
the

direction

which

School.

we

of Platonism

new

entirely

It is this direction
Alexandrian

union

ist, the
the

facts which

great

then

all with

struggle.
and

of

ineradicable
belief in his existence,
goodness ; we have an
and
in the perfection of his nature, consequently, in the beneficence
of his aims.
Yet
these ideas are
innate ; were
not
they
be uniformlyentertained
innate, they would
by all men, and

\
'

RISE

29JJ

NEO-PLATOmSM

OF

all nations.

amongst
derived?

If

from

Not

they

innate, whence

not

are

Reason;

PHlLO,

experience;

from

not

they

are

then

from

Faith."
it how
will,is entirelythe
Philosophy, conceive
you
endeavour
to explain by Reason
offspringof Reason
: it is the
the
which
have
live, and
our
"move,
we
mysteries amidst
is incapable of
Reason
being." Although legitimateto say,
solving the problems proposed to it,"it is not legitimateto

Now,

"

add

thereforewe

"

sophy. Reason
is
and
do

not

belief

are

not

within

the

aid

the

reign alone,

If

permissible.

there

dreamt

in

our

of

Philo-^

In

abdicate.

No

things between

are

of

Faith."

of

or

possible sphere
but
in them, indeed;
we

come

believe

may

either

must

which

earth

call in

must

promise
com-

heaven

Philosophy which
our
Philosophy we
"

"

christen

cannot

thlsit

philosophical.

is capable of solving the

things either Reason
its attempt is
case
problems, or it is incapable : in the one
in the
is futile.
second
its attempt
case
Philosophy;
Any
exclusively
attempt to mix up Faith with Reason, in a matter
One

of

addressed
that

two

the

to

what

"

Faith

justify; but we
is altogether to
Reason

conclusions

for

Reason,

implicitlyaccepts.
say

that

to

justifyFaith

Philosophy.

tests, from

require.
All speculationmust

what

felt itself strong

; but

Faith

Directly Reason
explanation
be

must

say

explicitly
of

Reason,

of
not

quiry.
in-

any

furnish

is abandoned,
then

is

offered

altogether
philosophical explanation would

must

originallyhave

Reason
of time
process
"
called
natural explanations

in

aid

the

destroy the philosophical character

may

not

not

may

to

do

We

Reason

bring Faith

and
Philosopliy ceases
every
;
a
theological explanation, and
different

abortive.

be

must

put

been

timidly ventured
"

; and

from

the

to

theological;
upon
moment

but

what

that

are

it

enough to be independent. Philosophy was

established.
In the
early speculationsof the lonians we saw
sophy
the pure
efforts of Reason
to
explain mysteries. As Philoevident
that the
and
more
progressed, it became
more
in
by the early thinkers
problems so readily attacked
were,
truth, so far from being a solution,that their extreme
difficulty
became
difficulty
appreciated. The
was
only just becoming
and
superabl
inmore
pronounced
more
apparent, till at last it was
declared
Reason
the Faith
incompetent. Then
was
:
which
had sq long been
set aside was
again called to assist the

CHRISTIANITY

AND

TONISM.

NEO-PLA

293

words, Philosophy discovering itself to be

powerless, resigned in favour of Theology.
in which
Reason
is a Theology?
It is a doctrine
What

inquirer.

undertakes

When,
mind

by
"

other

In

to

therefore,we
the
the

influenced
will be

say

that

to

at

once

follow

premissesof
given to the

the

direction

see
us

which
of

"

was

its immense

in

our

Faith.
human
tianity
Chris-

materially
theological
importance,

exposition of

the

of Plotinus,

CHAPTER
ANTAGONISM

from

spiritualmovements
are
speaking

will

prepared

mystical doctrines

we

the

School, in conjunction with

Alexandrian

only two
the epoch

direction, the reader

and

conclusions

deduce

OF

CHRISTIANITY

III.
AND

NEO-PLATONISM.

was
making rapid and enduring progress in
Christianity
from city
spite of every obstacle ; while the Apostles wandered
other
sometimes
honoured
sulted
intimes
at
to city,'
as
demi-gods,
the
and
stoned
Neo-Platonists
as
were
enemies,
ing
developthe germ
not
deposited by Philo, and
only constructinga
theology, but endeavouring on that theology to found a Church.
Whilst a new
Christianity,
was
daily usurping the souls
religion,
of men,
these philosophers fondly imagined that an old Religion
it.
could effectually
oppose
Christianitytriumphed without much
difficulty.Looking at
it with a purely moral
its
is at once
immense
view,
superiority
The
Alexandrians
exaggerated the vicious tendency
apparent.
have
fruits in the Cynics and
the
of which
we
already seen
\
Plotinus
the
blushed
to
tendency
despise Humanity.
Stoics,
because
he had a body : Contemptof human
personalitycould
in
farther.
What
oft'ered
?
The
ecstatic
was
no
exchange
go
of
the
in
of the
that
absorption
perception \
personality
your
J
inaccessible
to knowledge
to love
Deity a Deity
as
^a Deity
which
the soul can
only attain by a complete annihilation of its
different from
personality. How
Christianity;in which, so
far from
human
nature
being degraded and despised, it is
elevated and sanctified by the Messiah
who
adopted it,and by

While

"

"

CHRISTIANITY

294

doctrine

the

The

immortality in which

of

life

live the

and

it had

periods.

The

Neo-Platonists

It

had,

his

Saisset

M.

and

great

the

but

Plotinus.

school, and

to

remarks, three

brilliant

least

Saccas

chief of

the

becomes

again

it made

service, and

as

these, the

of

of Ammonius

fruitful,is that

rise

to

it deserved

failed,as

in its

great talents
first

body is

the

come

world.

the

Alexandria

to

of the

attempt

fail ; but
in
noise

NEO-PLATONISM.

AND

porter of

of

men

most

gepius

disciplesare

Plotinus, Origen, and

is perfected in obscurity, and
receives
This School
Longinus.
basis
last a solid
at
by the development of a metaphysical
of this system,
shortly after
Plotinus, the author
system.
It is then
with
that the
lectures
at Rome
amazing success.

listen

him

to

amongst

Alexandrian

School

lamblicus

and

Porphyry
with

Platonism

Julian

the

it becomes

the

in

throne

power

the difference.

mark

nothing of its real

convictions, and not
a
spiritual power,

was

sort

of

of

the

world.

Christianity

Constantine

of

in

place

putes
dis-

and

Church,

the

; Neo-

of

person

Apostate.

losing Constantine

In

; for its
power
in the support

lost
of

person
its
usurps

With

period.

second

the

it,and

dethrones

But, now,

might

its

upon

Christianity the empire

ascended

had

enters

losing J^llian,Neo-Platonism

lost

its

with

that

lay in the

power

; its
In
fruitful.

of potentates

active,

ever

tianity
Chris-

ever

political and

power,

religious.
of Produs
did

period

third

The

bestows

strive

he

is the

Such

at

the

one

the

were

last

outward
doctrines

loss

and

the

genius

of

gleam

In vain
splendour.
of
spirit
Platonism, as
revivethe
to
religious spirit of
vigorous but sterile. Under
nian
Justi-

of Alexandria

School

the

on

revive

; his efforts

Paganism

it

endeavoured

had

Plotinus

glance

to

commences

scientific

became

history of
which

the

extinct.
School

there

were

let

us

now

cast

elaborated.

of thinkers

writings
professedly eclectic, such as were
that^he greater portion will be
the Alexandrians, it is obvious
the
reproductions of former
thinkers; and
repetitions and
historian will therefore
himself
neglect that portion to confine
In

to

the

that

which

constitutes

the

originalityof the Alexandrians

Dialectics
Platonic
a
guide
as
the doctrine
having connected
the

Greeks

in

havingmade

of
originality
consists
to

the

School.

in

having employed
Mysticism and Pantheism

of the

Reason

The

East

the

with

the

the
; in

dialectics

of

of Faiths
justific^^tion

There

are

THE

ALEXANDRIAN

three

essential

Dialectics, their

points to

295

examined.

here

be

Their

principle of

their

Trinity, and

the

of

theory

DIALECTICS.

Emanation.

Platonists
By their Dialectics
they were
; by their
Mystics ; by their principleof
theory of the Trinity they were

Emanation

they

Pantheists.

were

IV.

CHAPTER

DIALECTICS.

ALEXANDRIAN

THE

of the

Dialectics

Platonic

have

already
rendered
employed
intelligible;so that in saying
needless
them
from
much
saved
repetition.But, although
are
we
Dialectics
basis
of
Alexandrian
formed
the
science^they did not,

The

nature

hope

we

to

Plotinus

Plato, furnish

with

as

science

for

did

these

not

come

the
was

with

Plato

Every

individual

passing quickly

away,

and

therefore

be

these

subordinate

the

God

World

Ideal

the
which

I
As

the

last

am

is

as

to

step

ric

av

how

ovv

am

; it could

universals"

of

do

we

know

in

us

know

how

but

ordinate
sub-

were

the

Sensible
and

the

existence.

anything

we

awakens

not
were

World,

of God*s

mode

How

words,

Ideal

the

the

they

Phenomena

perceive through
gain glimpses of, through the

world

our

senses

consciousness

riiv 8vva/itv

reminiscence
are

we

we

to

the

how

no

of

to

Deity ?
the
Infinite ?
I comprehend
can
the
Infinite
Infinite,I am
myself :
that
finite
longer myself, no
longer

are

being :
comprehend

say,

being, having
*

arises

world
"

phenomenon,

these

other

science

themselves

In

but

was

finite

soon

that

we

sensible

the

turn

be

existence

But

Noumena

Appearance

sensible

The

science.

only

existences-^are

; but

then

question

The

real

Noumenon.

the

in its

IdealfWorld

no

only real
higher Existence

some

One

but

was

was

the

Noumena

to
to

world

to

of

problems
science, and

but

thing

having

object
are

subordinate

also

take

the

which

Ideas

could

there

human

as

were

human

sphere
requisite.

that

far

As

there

of

of Universals.

not

bdief.

efficient ; but

were

Method

agreed

of

grounds

within

another

Plotinus

"

Dialectics

went,

which

the

avrov

of
SXoi

his

own

Sfiov

vaffav

separate
;

yap

existence.*
'6fiQViravavt

396

ALEXANDRIAN

THE

DIALECTICS.

Infinite,it is not%
only finite objects,
by my Reason, which is finite and embraces
but
higher faculty,a faculty altogether impersonal,
by some
which
identifies
itselfwith itsobject,
of the thought with the
The
\
identity of Subject and Object
is the
thing thought of
only possible ground of knowledge.
readers
This position, which
of our
will recognise as the
some
fundamental
German
speculation, is so
position of modern
all ordinary conceptions that we
from
must
/ removed
digress
If, therefore,I attain

to

of the

knowledge

"

"

awhile,

in

without

it.

order

that
all

do

AVe

more.

know

to

of

change
-knowledge

Here

state

being

of

of the

horse

language, that
nothing more.

foregoing book
that

by

knowledge

An
smell

; and

our

that

cause,

say,
horse

"

knowledge
discussion

in

is only

the

in

"

it

really

we

know
our

our

ledge
know-

saying,in unusual
our
being, and

of

state

changes
call

we

only

therefore,that

that

fying
and, identi-

cause,

being are
(horse) we

fourth

chapter of

the

to prove
respecting perception,was
an
attempt
is only a state of our own
consciousness, excited

The

cause.

effect,not
knowledge
is
presented to you
apple
said

are

know

to

remain

must

cause

is

it,and

of the

cause

the

proposition

identical

and

is to be

maintain

we

know

we

external

is

The

; but

blank

more

absurd

external

some

with

to

are

what

only

external

we

unknown

some

because

'

the

nothing of

own

by

the

that horse

be

is

that horse

internal

our

know

to

is

know

; to

maintain

course

is

Neo-Platonism

identical

are

occasioned

in ourselves

horse.

of

not

horse

know

we

Being

and

Knowledge

it

explain

to

unknown

cause.
:

you

it.

see

What

it,feel it,taste it,

is this knowledge ?
j^ which
the apple

of the various wave

Simply a consciousness
blind
You
and
it : there it one
cannot
are
ic?e
affectsyou.
which
it
less
less
ix,
mode
in which
it is
one
quality
possesses,
You
without
the nerves
of
possible for you to be affected.
are
'

smell

and

ledge

of the

take
we

taste

there

apple.

are

So

two

other

that, by

deficiencies

taking

away

in your

we
your
senses,
in other words,

from
the apple each of its qualities:
away
of your
the
take
being affected.
means
away
of the
to
nothing. In
apple is reduced

with

increase

know-

Your
a

the

similar

ledge
knowway,

qualitiesof

by endowing you
increase
knowledge, by enlarging your
apple, we
your
and Being identical \ knowledge
being. Thus are Knowledge
more

the

is ^ "tate of

Peing knowing,

senses

we

298

THE

ALEXANDRIAN

DIALECTICS.

method, is not an infallible one for

arriving at Ecstacy.
Every thing which purifies the soul and
makes
it resemble
its primal simplicity,
is capable of conducting
it to Ecstasy.
radical differences
in men's
Besides, there are
therefore, though

Some

natures.

valuable

souls

belong to the Muses.

these
proportion; and
with

struck

ardent

Thus,

Reminiscence

Beauty

ravished

are

th"

Others
the

are

and

these

and

Unity

more

are

and

pious

religion.
from

passage

Ecstacy

to

wiUi

are

live only in

who

then,

Others

with

philosophers.
these
perfections ; and

moral

souls

ravished

are

simple

be

may
and

Sensation,

accomplished

in

from

or

three

ways.

of the term),
By Music (in the ancient
comprehensive
sense
by Dialectics, and
by Love
or
Prayer. The result is. always
the
the
the
victbr)^,
namely, of the Universal
over
same,
"

Individual.
Such

is the

given by

answer

old

question :
is incompetent

How

and

cannot

the

Man
in

some

which

such

to

finite

has

do

know

we

Alexandrians

the

God

knowledge,
the

embrace

because

knowledge of the Deity, he

question is.In what
: the
way
Christian

Fathers

were

that

worldof

is

Man

finite,

But, inasmuch
have

must

way?

enabled

Reason
Reason

infinite.

the

The

to

to

This
answer

obtained

as

it

question,
torily
satisfac-

could
by referringto Revelation, the Alexandrians
only
most
answer
unsatisfactorilyby declaring Ecstacy to be the
in Ecstacy the
medium
of communication,
because
soul
lost
in the infinite Intelligence.
its personality and
absorbed
became
in this philosophy an
read
instructive
lesson
We
specting
remay
all such
vicious
circle in which
the
reasonings are

condemned

to

move.

""

The
Of

This
and

finite
in the

Conscious

being

the abyss
poor finite being in
infinite being twinkling restlessly."
one

strives to

comprehend

impossible attempt
that

the

finite

as

exerts

finite

which

includes

it,
its confident
ingenuity.
the
cannot
comprehend
that

in
hypothesis is at least consistent
The
grounds,
making the finite become, for an instant,infinite.
which
this hypothesis is framed
plorable.
are
truly dehowever, upon
infinite
the
such
is
The
finite cannot
:
comprehend
the
infinite?
finite comprehend
the
How
axiom.
the
can
the
infinite,*

such

is the

is the

Alexandrian

problem,

solution 1

The

finite must

bmmc

the infinite ; such

TRINITY.

ALEXANDRIAN

THE

299

Absurd

this

as

is^it is the conclusion

premisses which seemed

absurdities
inseparable from
problems.

intellect from
of

one

the

of insoluble

CHAPTER
THE

deduced

by
indisputable.
the

vigorous
It is only

attempted solution

V.
TRINITY.

ALEXANDRIAN

a
was
philosophy of the Alexandrians
in
said
be
be concentrated
to
theology; their theology may
the
of the
doctrine
Trinity. Nearly allied to the mystery of
of
the
the mystery
Incarnation, which
inseparable from
was
Redemption, the dogma of the Holy Trinitywas, as M. Saisset
the
Christian
of all the
The
basis
metaphysics.
remarks,
greater part of the important heresies, Arianism, Sabellianism,
from
differences
Nestorianism, "c., resulted
respecting some
this
of
of
It
doctrine.
matter
therefore,
a
portion
becomes,
its parentage.
Some
high historical interest to determine
maintain
that the Trinity of the Christians
but an
imitation
was
others
of that of the Alexandrians;
the Alexandrians of
accuse
The
being the imitators.
dispute has been angrily conducted
sides.
both
It is not
with it,as our
to meddle
our
on
purpose
subject steers clear of such matters
thought it right to
; but we
indicate
the quarrel.*
The
Alexandrian
Trinity is as follows : God is triple,and,
at the same
His
within
it three
contains
nature
time, one.
distinct Hypostases (Substances, /.^.,Persons), and
these
three
make
The
first is the Unity : not
The
One
one
Being.
Being,
not
is the IntelliThe
second
gence,
Being at all, but simple Unity.

have

We

said

that

the

"

which

Soul,

is identical
of all

cause

is the

Such

On

Such

of
are

i. pp.

Deujf

conducted

the

Let

dogma.

them

us

is the

now

see

versal
Uni-

how

it.

to

the world, and

looking abroad
upon
observing its constant
is the first thing that presents itself
transformations, what

question
vol.

third

Being. The
activityand life.
of

formula

their Dialectics

with

our

readers

referred

308-41,

Mondes,*

to

and

M.

as

desire

may

Jules Simon
to

the

article

before referred to,

a
"

compendious

Histoire

by

M.

de

statement

I'Ecole

of

the

d'Alexandrie,'
Revue
des
Saisset, in the
*

to

minds

cur

The

whole

effect

us

which

that it is
with

But

becomes

cause;
are

seeking

to

Motion

apparent

be

must

cause

discover.

Our

an

the

logic

proceed far. It
myriad ongoings of nature

cannot

we

the

that

us

itself is but

Motion.

"

to

Life

that
this

we

seemingly

own.

and

Activity

this

changes?
only alive, but

discover

we

It is Life.

all these

is alive ; and, not

life similar to our

world

Universal"

TRINITY.

of

cause

looking deeper,
of some
higher

On

tells

the

as

participatingin

**

ALEXANDRIAN

THE

300

soon
are

but intelligent
activities. No hazard
rules
merely activities,
this world.
The
Intelligence is everywhere visible.
Cause,
have
been
it is an
then, we
seeking is at last discovered
:
Intelligent Activity. Now, what is this, but that mysterious
is
force residingwithin
What
us, directing us, impelling us ?
Soul ?
The
this Intelligent Activity but
soul \vhich impels
a
and
directs us is an image of the Soul which
impels and directs
not

world.

the

God,
here

dialectician

unravelling
Many

Soul

have

We

"^vx^-

the

Hypostasis of the Alexandrians.

out
deeper inspection this notion turns
in

last

eternal

the first

On

The

therefore, is the

Aristotle

order
the

One

dialectician

the
"

to

could

whole

arrive

perplexed

unmixed

the
"

whose

not

rest

web

which
bred

satisfactory.
dividing,
subconsists in dividing and
art
is always
at
unity who
pure
of speculation, to lay bare
at
had
become
enveloped in the

up
satisfied
There

less

"

in
with

the
so

schools

complex
least

of

Plato

an

and

entity as

ideas

at
two
are
here,
IntelligentActivity.
in
viz.
distinct
ideas
two
Intelligence and
entirely
nature,
idea
Motion.
might be united in some
Now, although these
could
to
both, yet superior to both, neither ot them
common
in an
gence,
the
last term
be
considered
analysis. The Intellias
an

and

intelligent
analyzed, is itself the activityof some
being, of Mind, Xoyos.
We
God, therefore, is Mind, absolute, eternal, immutable.
the
second
here
have
Superior to the Divine
Hypostasis.
of all activity,and
is the cause
Soul, ^vy^ TO? Tran-ds, which
twv
jSaercXevs
''^^ ictv^o-co)?,
king of the sensible world, x"PW"5
of
the
find
the
Divine
magflificence
Mind, vovs,
we
ytyvoficVcDK,
which
by reflectingon the splendours
faintlyconceive
we
may
sensible
Animals, and
Men,
of the
Gods,
world, with the
but imperfect
adorn
it : splendours which
are
Plants, which
when

images

of the

incomparable

lustre of eternal

truth.

The

Divine

Mind

embraces

the

all

imperfections, without
of

Age

the

whom

which

grandly

so

perfect world
Ver

erat

which

aeternuni

Zephyri

Mox

fruges

Kec

renovatus

Flumina

Flavaque

canebat

^avidis

viridi

anris

aristis.

nectaris

flumina

stillabant

when

flores.

ferebat

inarata

lactis,jam

de

described,

semine

sine

natos

Intelli-

Divine

the

have

they

tellus

ager

jam

is

sung,

the

Saturn, of

For

Saturn.

placidique tepentibns

Mulcebant
etiam

is the

God

without

are

superior region is

This

movement.

have

Poets

; that

gicnce

of

Gold,

which

intelligibleIdeas

ibaut

mella.*

ilice

That

is the

IntelligibleWorld,
golden age
eternal
Intelligence.

of

word

abstracted
is

at

his

from

premisses without
simultaneously with

knowledge
language : that

embraces

at

This
Ideas
"

to

use

identity

of

il v6r}(ns opcuris

premisses,

effect.

But

reasons

which

did

God

reason

he

the

sees

not
sequence
con-

His

the

in

time

same

it.

It

the

is the

existence, since

eternal

voi^o-es

voitctcus

language of Plotinus, is the

the act of seeing with the object
o/Muaa,

iy,

afi0(o to

Sight Seeing,

by
and

identity of Knowledge

seen

conception

a*

"

all

totle
Aris-

of

vcrrjcns

the

understood

be

once

the

united

or,

reason

Thought

; for to
he
who

once.

is at

vovs
are

It is

vovs.

not

Thought

premisses.
knowledge
resembles
hieroglyphic writing
as
our
which
we
discursively develop, he

our

written

eternal

something:

of

knowledge

it does

thinking :

consequence

Alexandrian

in those

resembles

the

this

on

all

from

acquire

to

arrives
see

two

or

the

""rTi

which

yap

will at

illustration
recurring to our
Being, given above.

of

the

to
fancy that this was
a
degree of abstraction
ardent
dialectician; to have analyzed thus far,
satisfy the most
arrived
Existence
and
the
and
to have
at pure
Thought
pure
its
Thinking and the Existence
Thought
apart from
apart from

One

would

"

would

modes"

abstraction

possible.
he

:
*

the

seem

'*

seeks
The

flowers
western

In

following

From

earth

From

veins

And

But

another

And

no

years

miasked,

nor

milk

from

was

and

the

earth

nectar

pores

renewed.

broke,
of oak."

DtydmU

Ovid^

last
tented
con-

higher,

ensued

corn

that

yet

still

meadows
reigned
spring maintained.

bearded

valleys

honey sweating

abstraction

of

immortal
the

is not

fields and

in

winds

ingenuity, the

dialectician

the

degree

unsown

of

limit of human

very

'

sirnpier:he

still

Thought,
although
notion

it

intelligenceis
yet is there

God,

weakness

own

as

human

of

unity.
God,
conceived
by human

calls

is God

tRlMry.

AlMXAJSrt"RiAN

The

302

and

an

unable

reveal

reason

of

This

intelligence
; but,
higher

any

intelligencea hint of its

God's
being something

is not,
God
ineffable,incomprehensible.
Existence
and
is Thought
What
Thought.
The
What
reason.
type is evidently human
of human

and

Existence

as

embrace

to

in human

assurance

What
does

think

To

dernthre

en

analyse^

is its type ?
tion
examinaan

is to

be

aware

distinguishes himself.
To
think
is to have
a
self-consciousness,to distinguishone's
the
personality from that of all other objects, to determine
relation of self to not-self.
But
to God
: in
nothing is external
him
there
be no
can
distinction,no determination, no relation.
Therefore
God, in his highest hypostasis, cannot
think, cannot
be Thought, but something superior to Thought.
Hence
the
necessity for a third hypostasis, which third in
the order of discovery is first in the order of being: it is Unity,
of

TO

"

which

object from

some

the

thinker

aTTAovv.

ev

Existence, neither is it Intelligence it is

Unity is not
tion,
superior to both : it is superior to all action, to all determinaall knowledge
the multiple is
to
as
; for,in the same
way
in the simple^ the many
contained
in the
one, in the same
way
is the simple contained
it is impossible to
in the unity ; and
discover
lute
the truth of things until we
arrived at this absohave
conceive
unity ; for, how can
we
existing thing except
any
is an
individual, an animal, a plant, but that
by unity ? What
is multiplicity
unity which
presides over
multiplicity? What
even
when
not
an
an
assembly, a flock
brought
army,
under
which
unity?
Unity is omnipresent: it is the bond
unites even
the most
complex things.
The
is absolute, immutable, infinite,
selfand
Unity which
sufficingis not the numerical
unit, not the indivisible point.
It is the absolute
universal
One
in its perfect simplicity. It is
the' highest degree of perfection" the ideal Beauty, the supreme
God, irpiOTov "yaJ96v.
The

"

"

"

God

therefore

Hypostasis
nor

mutable

the

Absolute

will

in

his

is neither

"

"

he

is the

Nothing,

absolute
Existence

state

"

highest

^neither moved

Hegel would
say,
readers
Our
Negative.
or,

"

Immanent

perhaps scarcely be patient under

subtlety, and absurdity; but

in his first and

Thought

nor

simple Unity
the

"

as

this infliction of
we

would

beg

tical
dialec-

them

to

AtEitANbRiA^

tnB

femember

that
than

subtleties

absurdities

the

and

of

discoveries

the

TRimrV-,

of
of

extravagances

genius

often

are,

Common

the

JCJ

that the

and

men,

Alexandrians

structive
in-

more

to

seem

us

eminent
If rigorous logic conducted
fraught with lessons.
minds
and
sterile,
to
conceptions which
extravagant
appear
in
induce
wholesome
of
the efficacyof
a
us
suspicion
they may
is
it is occupied with.
the problems
Nor
that logic to solve
the
The
lesson
inapplicable to our
present enthusiasm
age.
for German
Literature
German
and
Philosophy will of course
of many
the attention
minds
turn
to the
speculations in
young
which
is so rife; we
interested
are
Germany
consequently more
in Plotinus, because
affords
he agitates similar
and
questions
The
German
Metaphysicians resemble
very similar answers.
Plotinus

more

than

Plato

Aristotle

or

is the

nor

reason

cult
diffi-

discovery. Plotinus, coming after all the great thinkers,

had
asked
almost
given
metaphysical question, and
every
almost
either to scepticondemned
cism
possible answer,
was
every
of

to

or

any

Philosophy

extreme.

be

to

or

accept

of his
consequences
in this dilemma
was

Philosophy in a similar dilemma

incapable, or to proclaim its despotism

found

Logic demonstrated
with

faith

the

human

either

magnificently tyrannical : it chose

from
Plotinus, therefore, shrank
no
Reason
failed, there he called upon
establishment
coming after the secure

This

dialectics,however

in

be

must

Logic

Alexandrian

faith

in

be

extravagances
Faith.
of

abdicate
the
:

latter.
where

The

Germans,
Positive
Science,

either

to

declare

itself

infallibility
: what

and

absolutely

is remarkable,

to

to

true.

and

Ecstacy.
of

be contrasted
may
Of the possibilityof

Logic
being
without
Greek
suspicion ; they are
scepticismas to
the Criterium.
They proceed with peaceful dogmatism to tell
that ; to
that God
is this,or
the Nothing
explain how
you
becomes the Existing world, to explain many
other inexplicable
if
with
do
them
the
simple inquiry.How
things,and,
stop
you
j
this?
of
know
is
certitude?
What
they
ground
you
your
their exposition.
smile, allude gently to Reason, and continue
Plotinus
He
said, that
wiser, though less consequent.
was
conviction
of the. existence
although Dialectics raise us to some
of God, we
than
otherwise
cannot
speak of his nature
tively
negaWe
:
are
cv
a"f"aip""Tti,
vavra
ra
tovtov
XtyoficyoL
ircpt
forced
admit
his existence, though it is not correct
to
to speak
have

the

not

standard

truth

the

Germans

no

even

of

his existence.

To

say

that

he

is

superior to

Existence

ALMJiANDklAM

fHE

Jr4

is

Thought

and

from
be

what

This

is

he

ridiculous

not

difference

; it is

is

he

What

not.

endeavour

to

him

define

to

TRWlfV.

identityof
To

thought

similarityin the
Germans

capable
language.
Trinity, we
see
are

of

detecting

diversityof

Principle, the

is

but

who

Alexandrian

the

to

return

Perfect

under

him.

the modern

and

detect

; it would

know

is remarkable

speculations of the Alexandrians

all will

distinguishhinl

to

cannot

we

comprehend

to

apart, there

similaritywhich

only

One,

to

in

which

dTrXow,

it the

generates
the

the

Perfect
Principle generated by
ungenerated;
is of all generated things the
most
perfect : it is, therefore.
In
the same
Intelligence : vovs.
Intelligence is T/ie
a^
way

of
{Xoyosi)

Word
so

the

also

Deity

and

Word

Xdyos
yjrvctni

ri

First

2nd, the

manifestation

the
and

therefore, ist, the

are,

a?rXow;
Soul

is The

Soul

diov KoX

One

the

manifestation

of

the

gence,
Intelli-

Hypostases of the
Absolute
Unity, to ev
vovv
irptarttK; 3rd, the

three

The

vcm.

of its power,

Perfect, the

Intelligence,to

of the

world, ij"i^xv v'^^^pKoa-fuos.

This
of God
in
Trinity is very similar to the threefold
nature
tence,
is the infinite ExisSpinoza's system.
Spinoza says, that God
and
having two infinite Attributes : Extension
Thought.
Now
this Existence, which
has neither Extension
nor
Thought,
the
Attributes, although verbally differing from
as
except
Absolute
Unconditioned, the One, of Plotinus, is, in point of
fact, the

same

make

can

yet which

it is the

it is that
be

must

final

subdivision, however

and

Logic

be predicated, and
nothing can
of
predicate
everything : division
prolonged, stop there, and
admit,

Unconditioned

final, the

human*

which

0/

the

which

abstraction

last

Unconditional

Something : that
Proclus
calls the The
which
Non-Being, pJi]
although it is
ov,
to call it nothing,/itiyScv.
not
correct
This
it is impossible to state
in words
conception, which
without
to
stating gross contradictions, is,as we endeavoured
as

show,

the

result
The

at

the

Cause;
which

does

rigorous Logic, reasoning from

is this

process
of all the

bottom

and,

of

to
not

Hat
^necessarily

do

this I

present

I have

mystery

of

to

discover

existence

eliminate

"

false

that
the

which

misses.
pre-

is

great First

everything
as
as
self-existing,
self-sufficing,
the
things,
dpx^*

must

one

by

one

itself

first of all
ancients
The
but
began their speculations in the same
way,
with
of the
of
less knowledge
conditions
inquiry. Hence
Water, Air, Soul, Number, Force, were
severallyaccepted as

EMANATION.

OF

DOCTRINE

THE

3o6

metaphysical philosophy is
history of modem
of the
agitated Greece.
struggle which
same
revived

are

different

How

is

and

certain

but

CHAPTER

science

The

questions

follows

this

of the

in the

ended
I

various

the

soul

to

attempts

world

the

questions

these

answer

three

certainty?

origin of

is the

What

to

answers

absolute

them
as
School,
but
knowledge is necessarily uncertain
;
over
by the hypothesis of an Ecstacy in

difficultyis got

which

there

the

any

Alexandrian

Human

St.

in

consists

knowledge

of God

nature

review

Our
has

hujnan

blems
pro-

EMANATION.

OF

Metaphysics

Has

is the

What

of

same

VI.

DOCTRINE

THE

The

Science, in which

history of Positive

the

narrative

offered.

answers

same

progression,slow

but

nothing

the

the

but

identified

becomes

which

answered

the

Infinite.

with

2nd.

The

three
triple Unity
hypostases of the One
Being.
3rd. The
origin of the world is the law of Emafiation.
This
third answer
is of course
God,
implied in the second.
Existence
he
becomes
as
Unity, is not Existence
by the
; but
second
Emanation
the
from
his Unity (Intelligence),and
by
his Intelligence (Soul), and
emanation
from
this Soul
in its

of God

Nature

is

manifestations

"

is the

dualism

Hitherto

admitted

World.
had

distinction

any

between

Jupitej*organizing Chaos,
is wasted
and

in

regulates

Aristotle
escape
If

all

God

If distinct
not

Here
not.

is

he

answered

lies
If

the
he

for

easy
from

the

the

; the immovable
dualistic j and,

were

task.

the

whose

Anaxagoras

must

question
world

of Whence
have

must

conquers

is

distinct

be

force

of

Thought
indeed,

dualism

World,

who

its creator.

and

of Plato, who
Srj/jiLovfyyo^

distinct,he

in essence,
with

did

no

of

of those

creed

world

the

God

Motion

creeds

distinct

If

the

these
was

is

the

and

Matter

dualism

assumed.

is

creation

universal

the

been

in

at

once

Essence.

the

came

to

existed

world?
poraneously
contem-

him.

difficulty: either God

made

it, whence

did

made
he

make

the

world,

it ?

He

or

he

could

THE

not, said

he

substance.
identical
he

or

could
with

God
should

must,

him

with

it

his

of

out

existed

it.

Pantheism

it is

substance, then

own

have

then

produced

is

world

the

of

must

have

not

307

Nothing : for Nothing can come

of his own
it out
therefore, have made

it is made

If

EMANATION.

OF

it out

Logic, make

Nothing;

of

DOCTRINE

already

in

him,
of

this identification

But

; and

question it

the

begs

answer.

did

he

If

have

it

make

not

it out

made

of

substance

some

still remains

substance, he
already existing; and

his

of

out

own

must

the

question
This
solved
problem was
by the Christians and Alexandrians
in a similar,though apparently different,manner.
tians
ChrisThe
said that God
^created the world out of Nothing by the
exercise
of his omnipotent
mere
will; for to omnipotence
The
everything is possible; one
thing is as easy as another.
Alexandrians
rather
his

said

unanswered.

that

the

it

in essence;

than

world

in

God

of his will

manifestation

the

was

from

distinct

was

act

of

or

intelligence.
Thus
the

necessity

between
with

the

Matter

and

eternally distinct
Plotinus

the

philosophy is

yet

accounting
principles.

for

would

discovered

implies the

One,

It is the

property
it

follows

nothing

of

till it attains

By this law, which

himself

cannot

teach

sensible

us

escape,
to

Matter,

chain, since each

precedes it,and

If

Many.

implies the Many.

engender that which

of

ineffable

an

which

power

ineffable, inexhaustible,

power,

generation

to

generation,

possibility.

which
from
the world, and
God
governs
the totality of existences, which
tics
Dialecin

arrange
to

appear

being
the

the

been

also

stopping, from

limits of

the

virtue

necessity of
by the same

possibly remain

not

have

principle to
This

itself.

itself without

exercises

each

engender it in

to

of

also

could

One

the

the

had

he

never

preserved

confounded

longer oppressed with

eternally existing and

no

two

Dialectics

his

by

is

is not

God

Created.

otherwise, there

Many

loses

and

out
With-

world.

the

not

principles,the distinction

two

as

means

the

had

is

God

but

of existence:
the
apex
discovered
that the
Unity

Unity
alone

of

Creator

difficultyof

the

is God

world

the

us

is the

hierarchy

proper
thus

united

in

from

one

product of
producer of that

necessary

necessary

God

to

indissoluble
which

that
which

ceeds
suc-

it.
If asked

why Unity

should

ever

become

Multiplicity
"

why

THE

DOCTRINE

ever

manifest

3o8

should

God

One,

The

ready,

OF

himself

conceived

as

found

EMANATION.

in the

by the

God

world

Eleats, had

that

had
a
incomplete ;
no
Aristotle
God
that
be perfect : as
not
says, a
of
is
If, therefore, God
unworthy
respect.
necessarily active : a force that engenders

be

for

real force ?

necessity

therefore, in the

It was,

him

for

to

does

been

long

think

not

is

Intelligent,he is
that
nothing, can
God

of

nature

ij ^vo-ct ^

Iv

is

answer

intelligencecould

very

world

the

create

the

to

voulv,

is like

He

this

"

the

but

otoy

change

of

losing any of
All this
v"pL\ait.yfnv.

avrov

restless

Creator, wonp^^.

without

things,this

of

manifestation

restless

essence

his rays,

(fxaros,rrfv i(

ck

constant

very

forth

pouring

Sun

its substance
flux

his

therefore, is in

God,

birth and

death

These

force.

is

"

festations
mani-

The
individual
truth, no duration.
perishes,
it is only the universal
individual
because
that endures.
The
:
is the
individual
is the
finite, the perishable ; the universal
is the only existence
God
is the real
infinite,immortal.
: he
and
other
existence, of which
we
things are but the transitory
And
fears death
! timid
phenomena.
yet timid ignorant man

have

no

ignorant.

because

die is

To

to

live the

true

life : it is

indeed, sensation, passions,interests,to be free from

and
time
of space
to lose personality
; but
be
and
born
in God
to
to quit this world
anew
to
frail and
in the
to be absorbed
pitiable individuality,

the

quit this

"

being

is

die

To

live the

to

the

remain

Those

sufficient to reveal
in

embedded

light,a

return

to

To

to

die is

in his agony,

to
to

the

"

intolerable
of

moments

exquisite yet

so

the

divinity,and
is

to

ray

show

cannot

brief

so
us

to

Ecstacy,

Infinite,although it

moments

that

of the divine

are

deep

source

and
always strugglingto disengage itself,

live the

life;and

true

friendlyquestions:

"I

Piotinus

dying, answered,
strugglingto liberate

am

me."
resembles

attention,as indicative

preceding

towards

brief

glimpses of it

bliss

source.

divinitywithin
This
mysticism

worth

is

of

the

personalitythere

our

ray which

its

us

faint

Some

in the

is absorbed

Soul

there.

in

realized

are

sense

wherein

life.

true

anticipations

overpowering

some

mortal

In

of

Infinite.

the

the

ditions
con-

it is also

"

of

lose,

to

thinkers

desecration

have

we

of

mysticism,

other
every
of the march
seen

of the
very

personality.

From

human

strong

it is

but

mind.

tendency

Heraclitus

to

PROCLt/S.

there

Plotinus

and

Cynics,

the

conviction

The

his

seem
curse

world
natural

suicide.

the

world

of

moral

blood

suicide.

As

he

possible;

tears"

the

to

life

we

curse

doctrines

our

"

could

man

least

at

not

life

and

would

worldly condition
the only true
death
as

welcome

quit

to

worldly passion and

he

to

Asceticism

but

lead

to

lead

courage
to

teriously
myseven

"

seldom

summon

endeavour

linked

but,

suicide,nothing remained

would

from

removed

doctrines

even

"

and
of

world,

life

to

default

In

their

of

are

we

**vale

this

in

ever

consequences
as

"

man's

of

sort

ascertaining the truth,

have
to
oppressed philosophers with self-contempt. To
which
bound
the bonds
them
to quit a
to ignorance, and
thus
been
the
in which
to have
bound, seem
they were

impossibilityof

the

of

The

philosophicalbasis.
it his concurrence.
explicitly,
gave
the
of
and
insignificance,

sometimes

and
implicitly,

Plato

it

made

Stoics

this direction.

in

gradual advance

is

309

far

as

as

was

life.

is a disease
of the Spirit; an
activity
Life," said Novalis,
die
all such
excited
To
be free from
to
was
by Passion."
disease
conditions.
finite
^to be
no
longer subject to human
Thus
the
hectic
whom
German
admiring friends have
thought
exalted
into a Seer.
Thus, also, thought Plotinus, at a time
"

"

"

such

when

except
was

to

to

that

pour

renovate,

doctrine
one
new

that

corruption which

which

inevitable

the

was

he

life-blood
one

which

was

fast

would
into

not

the
to

-was

eating

result

of

all systems,

that

accept,

society it

emaciated

Civilization

save

it away

w^

which

one

the

Chris-

the

mean

came

from

'

tian system.

CHAPTER

VII.

PROCLUS.

Plotinus

tempted
attempted to unite Philosophy with Religion, atsolve
to
by Faith the problems insoluble by Reason,
and the result of such
an
necessarily mysticism.
attempt was
is an
in
But, although the mystical element
important one
^

his

doctrine,he

the

extravagances

reserved

for

his

miracles

Universe.

did

not

which
successors

and

allow

himself

to

naturally flowed
;

lamblicus

constituted

in

himself

be

into

seduced

from

it.

That

was

particular,who

High

Priest

all

formed
per-

of

the

PROCLUS.

3iO

Proclus

With
with

and

him

its defeat

in

the

Alexandria,
learnt

where

made

soon

and

Athens,

to

High

He

into

Plato

Aristotle.

and

Theurgical mysteries,

the

of the

Priest

early to
He
teaching.
and
Syrian us he

then

of

effort^

tinople,
Constan-

at
came

Plutarch

from

initiated

was

was

final

bom

412.

doctrines

the

to

was

Lord

our

made

He

Olympiodorus

comprehend
Afterwards, becoming
he

School

entire.

was

of

year

onwards

passed

Alexandrian

the

Universe.

than
visible in Proclus
theological tendency is still more
in Plotinus.
the
He
and
dean
Chalregarded the Orphic poems
oracles
divine
revelations,and, therefore, as the real
as
if
of
in this
source
Philosophy,
properly interpreted ; and
doctrine.
allegoricalinterpretation consisted his whole
The

**

intelligibleforms

The

of ancient

poets,

of old

religion,
the Beauty, and
the Majesty,
The
Power,
had
in dale, or piny mountain,
That
her hiiunts
Or forest by low
or
pebbly spring.
stream,
and
Or chasms
wat'ry depths ; all these have vanished.
!
They live no longer in the faith of reason
still the heart
But
need
doth
siill
a
language,
Doth
the old instinct
sjng back the old names.
fair humanities

The

And

to

Wiih

with

as

of

breath

deities,to restore
its symbols in a

to

life into

are

gone,
earth

this
"

the

nostrils of these

Pagan
the

was

sense,

now

share

friend."

their

beautiful

the
new

they

that used

Gods

man

the

breathe

To

world

starry

yon

Spirits or

defunci

creed, by interpreting

aim

of

the

whole

drian
Alexan-

School.

placed Faith

Proclus

The

which

by

"

the

but

expositor of
Proclus

But

which
that

of

all modes

reconcile

he

the

of

to

It

The

say,

said

the

was

One,
"

he,
"

only faculty

could

is

the

not

is

be

hended.
appre-

priest of

Religions ;
say, he
Belief by its interpretations. Reason

all

that

to

is

to

is

Faith.
made

could

was

is

Philosopher,"

The

Religion,

one

that

Good,

Science.

above

not

one

exception

tolerate, which

Christian.

there

he

He

was

his

mission

one

was

would
of

its

Religion

one

interpret;

not

vehement

most

opponents.
With
method
the

this
must

conception
be

of

eclectic.

it is easy to
Accordingly, in making

expositor of Religion, he
*

Coleridge, in

relied

his translation

the

upon
of the

'

see

that his

Philosophy

doctrines

Piccolomini,'

of his

ProCWjS.

without
predecessoi*s

311

pretending

discovQf

to

ttew

for his

ones

"

the
he
called
Aristotle,whom
Philosopher of the
whose
writings formed
understanding," he regarded as the man
the
the
him
In
the best introduction
to
study of wisdom.
purpose.

student

learnt

the

thought.

After

whom

called

he

the

to

region

Plato

word

every

the

of

**

study

is, of Eterngl
and

idol of Proclus,

to

Proclus

oracle.

an

the

came

the

also

the

of

forms
of

Plato,

sole

guide

study

Philosopher of Reason,"

Ideas, that

was

; learnt

Reason

this preparatory

the

was

his

of

use

Truths.
the

passionate disciple
his
perpetually studied

and
hidden
oracular
writings,and discovered
everywhere, some
meaning: the
simplest recitals he interpreted into sublime
for Alcibiades
aflfection of Socrates
the
allegories. Thus
volume
of mystical exfor a whole
the
becomes
slender
text
position.
'

It

is curious

various

schools.

temple

notice

to

Delphi,

at

and

ethical

ideas

of

in the

the
interpreted the inscription on
to psychothyself,"as an exhortation
logical

Socrates
'*

transformation

the

know

He

study.

covered
dis-

there

inwards, and

looked

scepticism of the Sophists

and
he
could
not
darken;
discoursed, says his biographer, on
Justice and Injustice,on things holy and things unholy.
Plato
looked
also
inwards, hoping to find there a l)asis of
know
philosophy ; but his
thyself,"had a different signification.
Man
to
was
study himself, because, by becoming
become
quainted
acthoroughly acquainted with his mind, he would
certain

which

truths

the

"

with
Reminiscence.
Ethical.

the
His

eternal

which

of

Ideas

self-knowledgewas

object of it was
the regulation of

awakened

sense

Dialectical

rather

than

contemplation of eternal
Existence, not
our
worldly acts.
also inteiprjtedthe inscription; but with
The
Alexandrians
them
the Socratic
conception was
completely set aside, and
the Platonic
Know
conception carried to its limits.
thyself,"
The

the

"

in his commentary
on
says Proclus
"
the
that you
know
essence
may
derived.
Know
the
divinitythat
know
your

These

the divine
own
are

One

of

which
will

mind,

and

you

not

the

words

meaning
To
to

of many
pages
this had
the wise

this extravagance

had

of

from

Proclus,

thoughts of
its sober

to

but

of his enthusiastic

all

they

you
you

ray.

are

may
Know

knowledge."
the

convey

dialectics.

Socrates

doctrine

that

you,

key

Alcibiades,'

source

is but

soul

the

First

whose

is within

your

have

Plato's

conducted
arrived

men

PHoClt/A

Ill

ye

struck

ate

in which

manner

science

ancient

; we

are

of

presented

as

the

and

frank

the

is assumed
with

struck

error

be the

to

na'we

decided

only

sible
pos-

in which

manner

metaphysical inquiryis laid open

if it

absolute

were

is the matter

system

with

Proclus

Metaphysics

the fundamental

view, and

in

stated

truth.
If

nakedly.

so

In

to

other

no

desired

we

illustration of the

of metaphysics we
covild not find
futility
better
than that afforded
a
by Proclus, who, be it observed,
clusions.
only pushed the premisses of others to their rigorous conan

What

of

does

teach

Proclus

ideas, in which

there is

teaches

He

"

that the

hierarchy

gradual generation from the most

abstract to the most
exactly corresponds with the
concrete,
hierarchy of existences,in which there is a constant
generation
from

the

that the

so

abstract

most

forms- of

the

real

whole

looks

The

inwards

learn the

the

that

to

each

word,

conceptions,express

to

that which

discover

thing he

universe.

whole

to

; in

fact,the

objection to the metaphysician has been

seeks.

of your
mind
the nature
know

nature

assumes

of human

This

is

lies without

which

that

of

conceptions

own

find the

to

the other ; in

to

one

bear

of the' universe.

hoping, in his
know,

subordinate

ideas

these

mena)
(pheno-

concrete

their action, their combinations

causes,

is frank.

he

the most

which

nomenclature

the

system

This
that

(Unity) to

relations

other, the laws which

the

he is

seeking to
is

mind

To

analyze your
Proclus
nothing else.
of

him,

your

mind

own

is

to

boldly
to

know

least consistent

at

this science
is to be
might reasonably ask how
learned?
not
simply by looking inwards, or else all sophers
philowould
have learned it ; not even
How
by meditation.
But

one

Listen

then ?

"

of

"Mercury, the Messenger

paternal will,and thus teaches
of all

transmits
investigation,

invention.
above

is

The

perfect than

more

; that

which

Invention
descends

Science

from

is excited

"^

^1

us

to

which

us

his

to

us

as

the

Jove's
author

the genius of
disciples,
into

descends

the

soul from

tion
by investigaany science obtained
in us by other men
is far less perfect.

is the energy of the soul.

fills the soul with
above

The
Gods
higher Causes.
and
and
by illuminations,

universe."

Jove, reveals
science ; and,

announce

discover

The

to

influence

the

it to
us

us

Science

which
of the

by their presence
the

order

of

the

COHCtVBtO^.

3H

But it bears a lesson which

thought of without sadness.
thus far will not fail to
have
those
who
followed
us
we
hope
It is a lesson on
the vanity of philosophy ; a lesson
read.
which
of the impossibility
almost
amounts
to a demonstration
those
exalted
mind
of the human
ever
compassing
objects
which its speculativeingenuitysuggests as worthy of its pursuit.
'of Auguste Comte, that
It points to that profound remark
and
there exists in all classes of our investigations
a constant
between
of
the
real
intellectual
extent
our
harmony
necessary
to be

and

wants,

efficient extent, actual

the

or

future,of

real

our

knowledge.
But
did

great Thinkers

these

found

chronicled

have

we

They left the great problems where they

they did not leave Humanity as they found it.

; but

them

still be

Metaphysics might
in its endeavours

mind

failures

whose

live in vain.

not

ascertain its weakness

to

measure

doubt ;
a region of
explore that regionhas

to

in

learnt

its force.

and

the human

but

some

sophy
Philo-

Greek

failure ; but Greek

results.
Inquiry had immense
had been
Methods
tried and discarded ; but great preparations
for the real Method
had been made.
was

Ethics

Moreover

had

become

consisted

in

science.

In

the

Pagan
Religion morahty
gods : to
particular
Greek
sophy
philopropitialetheir favour was the only needful art.
conduct
opened men's eyes to the importance of human
which were
to stand
to the
principles,
importance of moral
is
due to
this
in the place of propitiations.The
great merit of
He
Socrates.
as
objected to propitiation
impious : he insisted
a

obeying the

"

conduct
moral
upon
and hereafter.
But

the

Ethics

guiding man

alone

as

of the

Greeks

egotistical.Morality,however
seemed

as

.what

embrace

to

regards the

What

of

flood

divine axiom
The

exalted

and

Greek

"

hght

Love

comprehensive,only

or

plete
extremely incomscarcelyany suspicionof.

had

ever

poured

was

your

enemy

attained the

Morals

upon

ing to justprinciples;
By

the introduction
as

well

as

So far advanced

he

never

by

that

one

"

sublimityof

highestpoint he could attain

Social

and

it was

was

such

conduct

to

troubled

of that Christian

pointof

'

narrow

call social relations.

we

No

family:

at the best

were

individual

the

happinesshere

to

view.

himself2Sicox^-

himself

with others.

element, Ethics became

Individual.
are

we

in the

rightdirection

"

so

earnestly

CONCLVSIOM.

are

we

engaged

Individual

in the

endeavour

Ethics-r-that

of the Greeks
progress
and in the history of

%\l

apt

are

we

trivial

as

to

Humanity

perfect Social
look

to

down

but, in truth, it

must

ever

upon

as

the

immense,

was

occupy

well

as

able
honour-

an

place.
who
Those
came
Philosophy expired with Proclus.
in
themselves
were
philosophers,
him, although styling
No
employing philosophical formulas.
Religious Thinkers
of the three great problems:
endeavoured
to give a solution

Ancient
after
truth
one

Whence

the

came

world

What

is the

of God

nature

What

knowledge ? Argue, refine, divide and

sub-divide
as
only used
they would, the Religious Thinkers
Philosophy as a subsidiary process : for all the great problems,
Faith was
the only instrument.
The
succeeding Epochs are usually styled the Epochs of
Christian
Philosophy is an absurd
Philosophy : yet Christian
misnomer.
be
also
A
Christian
a
Philosopher; but tO
may
talk of Christian
Philosophy is to abuse language.
Christian
Christian
Metaphysics : and
Philosophy means
tian
Christhat means
the solution
of metaphysical problems upon
principles.
revealed
what
Now
Christian
are
Principles but the Doctrines
inaccessible
because
to Reason
to us
through Christ; revealed
;
is utterly
Reason
revealed
and
accepted by Faith, because
incompetent ?
of
the attempted solution
So that
Metaphysical problems
solved
constitutes
which
by Faith,
are
Philosophy
by Reason
the
But
and
of Philosophy is retained
!
very
yet the name
of
the essence
of Philosophy consists in pure
as
essence
reason,
There
consequently, be a Religious
Religion is Faith.
cannot,
in terms.
Philosophy : it is a contradiction
be
the same
problems as
occupied about
Philosophy may
Religion: butnt
employs altogether dififerent Methods, and
depends on altogether dififerent principles.
is the

of human

nature

"

"

Religion
in

may,

and

its aid ; but,

subordinate
office

should, call in Philosophy

to

doing, it assigns to Philosophy only the

is
of illustrating,
This
reconciling, or applying its dogmas.
not
: it is Religion and
a Religious Philosophy
Philosophy : the
latter stripped of its boasted
prerogative of deciding for itself,
and
allowed
only to employ itself in reconcilingthe decisions
of Religion and of Reason.
so

"

From

these

remarks

it is obvious

that

our

History, being

CONCLUSION.

3i6

narrative

of

the

detailed

any

Religion.
and

is

Produs

and,

with

from

Faith,

Des

the

and

development

sad

defeat

and

of

man

trackless,

trace

the

journey

are

""

left

is

that

upon

awful,

wanderers

^to

the

the

vain

in

is

Wisdom

object

when

of

ofttimes
we

our

without

Desert

horizon

and

without

and

fascinating.

follow

them

To
on

their

of

with

will

ruthless

of

nearer

when

soar,"

Second

whose

Desert

"

convictions

the

and

"

moral

afflicted

Humanity's

Poor

to

again

point

the
Great

reviewed

be

to

habitation,
vast,

the

continued.

mirage

progress

which

attempt

more

once

struggle

the

"

to

Than

the

its

solve

mighty

destiny,"

the

men

that

be

itself

to

watch

to

we

centuries

have

but

of

"

home

for

has

Struggling

truth,

Thales

by
separated

the

ineffectual

but

vast

without

silent,

"

will

opened

witness

are

vegetation

footsteps

bring

because

endeavoured

to

more

they

flower,

arid,,

to

Produs,

Cartes

definitely

more

we

hopes

of

without

gigantic

that

which

semblance

fruit,

of

great

noted

are

once

audacity

traces

again
once

therefore,

and

intellects

Des

speculation

of

Philosophy

more,

sublime

line

with

ends

of

History

the

itself.

for

Once

with

Philosophy,

to

.Philosophy

Reason

Cartes,

and

belonging

include

not

Ch^tian

commences

the

ceases

problems

only

Ancient

w31

only,

so-called

stricdy

Philosophy

with

the

subject

Accordingly

Modem

the

of

account

that

because

Philosophy

of

progress

Series*

we

stoop.

humble

useful

A.

APPENDIX

OF

TRANSLATION

clothing

About

they

Soc,

It

does

And

what

by

regi-

relate

not

all

to

of

sorts

discourse

not.
able

men

the

on

speak

to

matters

which

on

able, likewise,

them

think

to

it

them

makes

able

speak,

to

it

Certainly.

Gorg,

does

Now,

Soc,

the

not

sick

the

concerning

people

enable

medicine

of

arc

spenk

to

and

Undoubtedly.

Gorg.

Then

Soc,

habits

bad

the

And
to

particular

art

is

6f

subject
the

of

operations,

if

call

you

other

the

other

arts

each

with

subject

them

of
which

on

being

rhetoric,

arts

is

which

that

its

Are

relate,

arts

things

like

partly

it still better.

the

that

the

of

subject

the

on

discourse

the

other

all

of

respecting

call

not

you

such

and

operations
Now,

subjects

rhetoric

Because

Gor^.

the

on

so.

do

then,

discourse,

name

said

be

may

discourse

viz.,

conversant

appears

Why,

Soc,

discourse

viz.,

body.

thing

same

discourse

It

Gorg.

of

discourse

to

doubt.

Without

Gorg,
Soc,

relate

gymnastics

and

good

the

on

does.

And

Soc,

discourse

viz.,

discourse,

to

diseases
It

Gorg,

relates

likewise

medicine

of

subject

Soc.

sick

does.

It

Soc.

manual

the

teaches

which

that

does

then,

it makes

But

Gorg,

by

well

get

may

Gorg,

relates

about

discourse

of

sort

Rhetoric,

Soc.

cf

songs.

No.

Gorg.

think

of

art

discourse.

What

makes

of

making

the

is rhetoric

then,

What,

Gorg.

n;en

to

the

Yes.

GorfT,

Soc,

is about

music

And

Soc.

is

the

Yes.

Gargias*
Soc,

relates

Weaving

to

in, what

skilled

are

you

it not

does

thing

relates

Rhetoric

which

subject-matter
making

the

is

Rhetoric

Since

Socrates,

'GORGIAS^

PLATO'S

FROM

PASSAGE

whole

and

agency

what

understand
there

but

not

two

in

has

force
you
kinds

entirely

manner,

rhetoric

by

are
mean

of

nothing

;
arts

of

means

but

I
In

to

hope
the

manual
do

to

with

discourse.
to
one

stand
under-

kind,

APPENDIX.

3i8

for
action, and these arts have occasion
and
be
them
at
but little discourse
all,
require none
might
formed
per; some
This
is the
in silence, such
as
painting, sculpture, and so forth.
does
not
class to which
belong ; do you not ?
you
say that rhetoric
understand
You
rightly.
me
Gorg,
kind
which
there is another
Soc,
But
perform all by discourse, and
and
action, or very little,such as arithmetic, and
geometry,
require no
of action
and
have
about
of
of which
an
equal share
others, some
many
scarcely anything except discourse,
discourse, but the greater part have

greater part of

the

the

art

lies

in

by

means

of

and

effect

that

rhetoric

all their

Gorg.
Soc.

is

one

do

you

words,

in

although,

call

not

the

of

any

said

you

arts

believe

that

you

I have

toric
rhe-

mentioned

rhetoric

arithmetic

by

geometry

or

that

But

do

I
?

name

rightly.
of

finish

do

which

the

arts

the

same,

asked
Thus, if any one
is
the
of
It
arts
did,
one

you
he should
of

further

inquire,

rhetoric

what

force

consists

subject
is

is the

might

should

subject

which

of the

if

And,

reply, On

arts

course.
dis-

answer,

in discourse.

of the

one

the

ject
sub-

effect

their

which

discourse

greatest and

The

me.

whose

discourse, what

of

means

employs

Gorg.

On

is arithmetic

What

Since, then, rhetoric

numbers.

wholly by

end

which

Since
rhetoric is one
the
to
question.
answer
my
chiefly employ discourse, and, since there are others which
what
on
subject it is that rhetoric
employs
explain to me

Then

Soc.

say

saying, that rhetoric is the

discourse
wished
one
; and, if any

arithmetic

call either

think

You

Gorg.

as

to

you

much,

as

consists
in
the whole
art, of which
power
call
to cavil, he might ask. Do
then,
you,
not

I understand

it ; and

of

True.
But

purposes
of these

best

of the

of

concerns

man.

I
Socrates,
disputable and ambiguous.
Health
is the
heard, at entertainments, the old song,
suppose
you
best of all things, beauty the second
out
best, and the third is to be rich withguilt ?
is this ?
Gorg. I have ; but to what
purpose
the
the
three
of
Soc.
Because
providers
praised in the
are
things which
the
teacher
the
of
old song,
the man
of
viz.,
physician,
gymnastics, and
start
first, the physician might say, Gorgias
and,
business, might
up,
his
Socrates
deceives
relates to the
art, but mine, which
; it is not
you,
best
of man.
who
concerns
And, if I asked, Who
are
greatest and
you
this
in
?
he
would
I
if
manner
a physician.
speak
And,
rejoined,
answer,
How
do your
the object of your
art
to be the greatest good
?
How
prove
it be otherwise
? he would
can
reply : What
greater good is there to man
this

But

is

observed

answer,
have

"

"

than

health

each

set

the

greatest

up

like

In

manner,
of his

claim
I

good.

should

greater good to
Let
is this good ?

man

what

interrogated
consider

the

both

greatest

to

answer,
than

Gorgias

them

by

the
art

and

good

to

by

and

gymnast
be

the

the

which

art

man

of business

is conversant

would
with

the

But

that his art proGorgias contends

duces
would
then
They
reply, And
yours.
Consider
answer.
yourself, then, to be
me,

and
and

man,

What

answer,

of

which

you

is this

which

profess

be

to

you
the

artist ?
It
both

that

is,replied Gorgias,
enables

state, to govern

men

to

be

the rest.

which

themselves

is

really the
free,

and

greatest
enables

good,
each,

and
in

which

his

own

APPENDIX.

And

Soc.

the

replied Socrates,

what
that

art

you

of

man

of

than

more

this

able

are

in

have

the

business

for

will

speak

to

tribunal,

people, and

the

of

power,
you
will transact

business

who

you

No

and

persuade

an

tion
explana-

which
be

that

whether

? and

Soc.

such

am

real

a
a

is

any

knowledge
and

person,

topics this persuasion is,which

I cerclearly know
tainly
; and, though
do
Now,
I, suspecting it
why
you.

If

answer.

The
on

what

ask

to

were

who

man

material

What

you,

paints

animals

but
to

as

then,

painter is
;

might

other

are

painters

who

paint other

animals.

had

been

painted

ever

animals

except

Xeuxis,

your

right ?

"

the

whether
rhetoric
is
subject of rhetoric, tell me
What
I mean
is this : when
produces persuasion ?
a
anything, does he persuade people of that which he teaches,

Now,

then,

on

which

art

not

He

Gorg,
Soc.

To

persuades
to

return

our

arithmetician,

the

Gorg.
Gorg.
Soc.

Gorg.

teach

us

they persuade

So

arithmetic
it

Then,

the

does

not

properties of

arithmetic,

numbers

we

The

of numbers.

And,
is

matter,

us

does

also

works

persuasion ?

are
asked. What
persuasion which

in like

manner,

wrought by

each

persuasion,
instructs
we

can

of the

other

us

show
arts

and

respecting what, we
respecting the properties
what
persuasion, and on
which

mentioned

we

Yes.
Then

Gorg.

and

seems.

if

answer.

Gorg.

anybody.
examples :

forn^er

Yes.

Then

Soc.

than

more

Yes.

Then

Soc.

Soc.

not

ask

animals,

nobody
have

teaches

what

at

"

tnere

if

But

only

should

to

What

Gorg. Certainly.

not

to, I

if there

that

arrive

to

what

on

fairly.

you

were

you.

would

man

do,

can

Yes.

answer

Soc.

hearers

and

you

Because

Gorg.

the

relates

nevertheless

will

Gorg. Certainly.
Soc.

of the

and

up

rhetoric

then?

fairlyask

not

.the discussion

interrogate

which

not
myself declare it ? Not on your
account,
you,
of the
discussion, that it may
proceed in s^uch a manner
about
Consider
which
to
we
are
talking clearest
us.

sake

Xeuxis

agency

anything

minds

rhetoric

you,
is summed

so.

What

suspect, I
myself, question
make

sole

another, wishing

tell you.
What, and
results from
rhetoric, I do

the

to

near

it adequately.
persuade myself

I will

say

for

with

come

If I understand

define

to

me

out

in the

Socrates

converses

to

you

Soc.
you

then, said

its

point

you

to

seem

; you

thing

Gorg,

can

to

me

be.

to

and

produce persuasion

me,
who

person
of the

or

to

appear
rhetoric

persuasion,

that ;

to

Gorg.
Hear

wish

you

in

you

consider

works

which

terminates

or

have

in

judges

meeting

multitude.

Now,
is

If

the

ph3'sician for your slave, and

the profit,not of himself, but

in

voters

or

politicalassembly.

other

every

council-house,

cither

by discourse,

abilityto persuade

in

senators

or

is this ?

what

The

Gorg,

319

rhetoric is not

True,

the

only

worker

of

persuasion

APPENDIX.

320

Then

Soc,

wrought
Gorg,

we

ask

may

persuasion, and

what

you,

what

on

is

matter,

rhetoric.

by

persuasion of courts of justiceand other assemblies,

the just and the unjust.
the subject
this kind
I suspected that
meant
of persuasion, and
Soc,
you
The

and

on

of

that

But

subject.
something

which,

argument

may

may

this, appears

I should

if
surprised

oovious,
straight through ; not

carried

be

be

not

yon
like

do

I
on

so

hereafter

ask

in

that

order

you
the

tfiat

but

account,

your

this

on

anticipate each other's meaning by

and
that
manner.
complete your exposition in your own
;
guess
you may
do very
right.
Gorg, .You
is such
Let
then consider
this.
There
Soc,
a
thing as to learn.
us
Gorg, Yes.
such
Soc"
And
to believe.
a thing as
Yes.
Gorg,
the
and
To
these
Soc,
believe
same
to
learn, are
thing, or different
things ?
Gorg, Different things, I conceive.
from
be known
this : If you
You
conceive
.S^.
were
rightly, as may
we

not

may

ourselves

accustom

there
asked, whether
should.
I
Gorg,
Soc.

But

they

Then,

Gorg. They
Soc.

and

false

and

knowledge

true

false belief,yon

would

knowledge

say, Yes

No.

Gorg,
Soc,

there

are

betief

true

are

to

But

thing

same

learnt, and

have

who

they

them

the

not

are

not.

are

who

they

only believe,

both

are

of

persuaded
Gorg, They are.
Shall

Soc.

we

say,

without

belief

affording

then, that there are

knowledge, the

of persuasion
affording knowledge

kinds

two

oUier

the

one

Yes.

Gorg,

Which

of justice
rhetoric produce in courts
persuasion does
the
the
?
the
which
and
and
sort
assemblies, respecting
just
unjust
belief
that
which
without
?
knowledge,
or
produces knowledge
produces
produces belief.
Gorg. Evidently that which
the persuasion of belief,not
the persuasion
then, works
Soc.
Rhetoric,
of knowledge,
respecting the just and the unjust ?
Soc.

of

sort

other

Yes.

Gorg,

The

Soc,

for

Certainly

Gorg,
Soc,

Let

us

what

know
choice

just

the

of

justice and
only persuades
large assembly in such
courts

unjust, but

time, instruct

other
them

great

of

not.

then, what

see,

to say

about

it.

physicians,

or

not

is the

election, whoever

question

relate

docks, will
men

instruct

short

rhetorician, then,

relate

not

and

matters

the

not, in

does

the

respecting
could

he

then,

orator,

assemblies

to

versed

the

the
in

to

the

advisers
choice

of

of

we

When

to

think

assembly
shipbuilders, or any

offer

his

greatest

building
be

are
an

not

opinion

for

of

rhetoric

for

I do

not

for

the

together

is called
other

sort

it is

clear

of

artists,will

that, in every

If the
of art ought to be chosen.
of ports or
walls, or the construction
the rhetoricians, but the eng^ineers ?
If it
master

of

generals,

or

the

military affairs advise, and

operations
the

of

rhetoricians

warfare,
not

will
Or

the
how

APPENDIX.

322

have
experience of
Gorgias, that you
seldom
know
have
must
perceived this, that men
discussions, and
many
which
mark
and
the things about
out
how
they attempt
jointly to examine
off
learnt
and
instructed
themselves, so to break
to discuss
; and, having
them
of
and
if
the
conversation.
one
But,
they dispute on any matter,
not
speaking rightly or not clearly, they are angry
charges the other with

thus

Socrates

think

and

it is said

that

discourse

of

themselves

in

they
bandying

and
envy,
sometimes

what

now

you

such

say

should

you

we

in

are

I will

gladly
refute,

be

refuted,
refute

as

greater

thing

for

if you

think

opinion

said
we

are
you
had
better

we

from

spiritof

so

it

to be

Should

the

off, we
such

wsh

would

the

just

is

there

then,

human

instructions

in

their

the

or

than

say

of

as

person
those
who

continue

us

In

know

by

; for

minds,

in

multitude,

those

describe

you
are

in

present.

any

You

said

would

orator

be

person
multitude

but, perhaps,

ever,
They, howand
Gorgias

undertaken

discourse

your

persuading

belief.

an

but,

which

prises
sur-

receives

who

to

your

producing
that, on the subject of the
more
capable of persuading
; not

who

multitude.
is

much

as

to

as

will

know,

do

say,

be

not

those

among

persuaded

by

who

him

do

better

not

than

physician.
Gorg. Certainly.
Then,
than

if he

is

who

one

Gorg. Undoubtedly.
Not
being himself
No.
Gorg.

Soc.
knows

And,

persuasive than

more

knows

Soc.

physician,

he

is

more

suasive
per-

physician ?

therefore, being ignorant

of

those

things which

the

physician

Gorg.
Soc.

one

but

Soc.

who

of

so

physician.

Gorg, Certainly,
Soc,

you

unhealthful,

make

can

capable

orator

an

knowledge
healthful

that

evil

discourse

present

our

to

will.

Socrates, something

resumed

You

me.

as* it is

evils than

of

no

sort, let

same

would

gladly
gladly be

as

much

so

greatest

which

of

if

would

might proceed
unanimously begged that the argument
be disgracefulfor him, especiallyafter he had
said, it would
all questions, not
to be willing to continue.
answer
Hear,

yon,

who

one

who

and

good, by

that

the

I ?

am

who

from

subject

confute

to

interrogatkig you

on

go

true

but

of

afraid

what

thing which
Now,
against you.

man

greater

person

Gorgias, profess

of

conceive

the

to

not

relieved

leave

consider

is

very
I am

of
this

I say
with

consistent

conlenticn

sort

do

Why

one

ashamed

zeal to find the

like

should
what

think

If, then,

me

it not

does

on

not

reproaching

bystanders

men.

do

what

; and

such

Now,

affirm

the

rhetoric.

ourselves

be

to

person

person

false

treats.

I,

to

another
as

if I

another

refuted

great

the

as

when

lelieve

in

but

ot,

if not,

I am,
person
And
let it alone.

such

are

you

suppose

quest

that

shamefully

make
to

proposed object

the

pursuit of

by

as

appears

previously said concerning

?rou
est

end

listen

to

in

not

words

desired

having

for

Because

^I think,

"

and

and

another,

replied :

Yes.

When,

does

then,

the

not

know

is

who

does

know

Gorg.

This

more

orator

is

more

persuasive than

persuasive among

certainlyfoUowtf*

those

who

the
do

physician, one
know,
../,,"

not

than

APPENDIX.

is, then, in all other

things really are ; but
those
persuasion, by which, among
Soc,

So

know

it

than

who

those

do

The

arts.

do

who

invented

know,

not

his art need

and

orator

have

they

how

more

323

they

not

contrivance
to

appear

of
know

know.

other
leamincf any
art, but
Gorg, Is it not, then, a great privilege,not
inferior
?
to the artists themselves
only this one, to be nowise
Whether,
replied Socrates, the orator is inferior or not inferior to other
shall
At
examine
inquire this : ^Is
by-and-by.
people, we
present let me
with
situated
in the same
rhetorician
the
manner
respect to the just and
and
and
evil, as he is with respect
disgraceful,the good
unjust, the noble
the other
heal^, and
subjects of the different arts ; viz.,himself, not
^
of
lowing what is good or evil,just or unjust, but having a contrivance
who
do
those
be
not
to
to
persuasion, so as
know,
more
appear
among
should
who
that he
than
those
do ?
is it necessary
Or
knowing
really
^ese tnings, and should have learnt them
before he comes
know
to learn
of rhetoric, if you
teacher
And
rhetoric
?
from
you
pray, will you, the
him
teach
find him
of
these
them, but only enable
things, not
ignorant
know
the vulgar to
to
him, not knowing them, to seem
tiiem, and appear
rhetoric
without
a
good man
being so ? Or are you not able to teach him
Or
real nature
of these things beforehand
?
the
he knows
at, all, unless
how
unfold
whole
is it ?
the
And
to
now
said,
as
just
me,
you
p%^
"

"

of the

power

Gorg.
would

art.

learn

Soc,
he

your

instructions

should

Gorg,
Soc,

Gorg,
Gorg,

men

who

be

he

has

has

learnt

has

who

Gorg,

"

Soc,

learnt

music,

learnt

medicine,

anything

gymnast

musician

physician. And,

whicn

is that

the

science

to

he

speak generally,
has

learnt

causes

who

he

be

must

learnt

has

justiceis just

just ?

justly?

acts

man

just man

it
a

must

necessarilywish

justly?

to act

seems.

wiU

just man

wish

never

to

do

injustice?

"

No.
But

Do

said

we

that

rhetorician

must

be

just ?

Yes.

Then

Gorg.
Soc.

rhetorician

just

Then

(rorg.
Soc,

architect

an

Yes.

So

Gorg.
Soc,

And

Gorg,

architecture,

learnt

Yes.

But

Soc,

l^

Then

Soc,

a
rhetorician, it is necessary
any
person
the
unjust, either beforehand, or

and

just

Gorg, Certainly.
Then, by this reasoning,
Gorg, Certainly.

Gorg,

he

me.

make

Soc,

Soc.

things,

Yes.

has

to

these

is not

who

He

who

the

know

to

not

Yes.

He

Soc,

from
to

are

loiow

happened

Yes.

Now,

Soc,

he

likewise

them

If, then, you

that

if he

that

conceive,

rhetorician

It appears
you

ought

never

wish

to

you

said

do

injustice?

not.

remember,
not

will

to

be

now,

blamed

that
nor

expelled

short

from

the

time

ago,
if

State

that,
a

boxer

as

a
or

APPENDIX.

324

wrestler

makes

But

it

discourse

that

the

reproach or banish
to unjust purposes

ihetoric

uses

bad

rhetoric, bvt

of

teacher

for

that

rhetorician

be

cannot

unjust

so.

is discourse
before, that the subject of rhetoric
the just and
the unjust ?
discourse
on

observed

was

numbers,

on

the

thinking
thought

but

benefit

if

but,
inquiry,

ihetoric

be

to

it

not,

we

wish

was

do

to

leave

to

that

have

we

conduct

in what

how

in

the

on

now,

possibly

use

is, would

tms

preceding part of
well-brra
dispni-

respectfuland
could

be^

what

is

he

the

^een

myself,

And

cannot

discover

To

like

continue

to

alone.

it

rhetorician

discussion

and
as

if you,

while

worth

was

injustice.

require not a little conversation

in ; and,
breaks
[Here Polus
could
Socrates
the dialogue how
shall

it

better

admitted

have

unjustly,or

refuted,

said, that

inconsistent,

assertions

two

it

argument,
fuither

orator

an

be an
could
said this, I imagined that rhetoric
not
just
unyou
afterwards
all its discourse
is of justice ; but, when
since
you
orator
might
an
employ rhetoric unjustly, I wondered, and,

When

thing,
said

if

so

Yes.

Gorg.
Soc.

it

seems

seems

And

Soc.

it

now

It

Gorg.
not

to

art,

I did.

Gorg.
S^^:.

of his

use

ought not
who
perverts

we

purpose,
the person

ill

an

back

an
overweening
petulant assailant.]
! said Polus
Wh^
: do
really think on the subject of rhetoric what
you
Do
that the advantage
?
have
not
assumed
over
perceive
you
you
you
say
he
did
like to
not
Gorgias is only owing to his shamefacedness, b^ause
confess
the
truth
?
ashamed
He
not
to
was
profess that a rhetorician
knows
what
is reallyjust, and
that he, Gorgias, if any
and
and
noble,
good,
him
In conseteach
them.
to
quence
comes
one
ignorant of these
things, can
in
of this admission, something
like a contradiction, perhaps, arose
the thing which
Who
do you
his discourse;
always delights you.
suppose

tation,

we

now

see

manner

and

would

if

not,

But

is

it

affirm

asked,

he

that

knows

ill-bred

to

Polus, replied Socrates,

the

unfair

extremely

and

just, and

drive

such

into

one

any

it ?

teach

can

dilemma.
excellent

Most
or

is, that

sons

set

retract

Pol.
Soc.
Pol.

What

Soc.

You

Athens,
Greece,
this, on

you
the

old

grow

if I

have
to

thei

other

and

greater

should

hand

not

were

regard

rectifywhat

allowed

great

fall into

not

freedom

be

if you
make
that is put to

for

the

to

error,
made

iV/.

as

my

of

of

use

you

friends

having

younger

men

and

not
not

has

you

will

we

please .'
friend, if,coming

speeches,

should

may
do

as

good

in any
speech
to participatein it.

long
you,

much

than

away
go
which
discussion

and

been

But

do

I also
to

other

be

listen

consider

not

very

choose
much

you?
commenced,
to

to

cityin

If
and

of the concessions
that
it,take back
any
and
made, and, by questioning
answering, refote and be refut^ \
what
profess to know
Gorgias knows, do you not ?
was

wrong

in

been

for you

say

suffered

allowed

to

ill-used,

extremely

is

question

real

be

I not
be

alone

the

ill-used

have

! shall
would

where

answer

you
wish

we

right. If, therefore, Gorgias and I have

mistake,
any
it : and, if any
of our
admissions
to
appear
you improper,
it, if you will only guard against one
thing.
Whatthin^?
That
which
lengthiness of discourse
you begun with.

us

correct

to

when

I do,

APPENDIX.

you also invite

?
them

Then

Soc,
to

answer

Pol,

Certainly.

Soc.

Then

Pol,

rhetoric

Soc"

Do

PoL

me,

is, pray
ask

you
do.

please ; interrogate,
Socrates,
what
Aoyou

what

me

put questions

to

persons

you

Tell

I win.

So

tell what

you
consider

I consider

art

No

What

Soc,

or

undertake

answer.

be

Gorgias

that

it to

it to

and

to you,

think

since

all,to tell you the truth.

thing, then, do you call it ?
book
which
thing which
you, in a

Soc,
Pol,

into

which

do

325

be

cannot

at

art

latelyread, profess to

erect

art.

an

what

Pol,

And

Soc,

Pol,

Rhetoric, then, according to you, is

Yes, if you have no objection.

Soc,

kind

is it ?

of skill,
of skill ?

kind

Skill in what?

Pol,

Soc,

In

and
gratification,

Pol,

Is

not

the

rhetoric, then,

production of pleasure.
fine thing, since
it is capable

causing

of

gratification?
should

Polus

What,

Soc,

I have

already ask

Pol,

Did

Soc,

Since

tell

you

I do

that

me

such

set

told

yet

whether

me

not

you

it

not
was

value

think

fine thing

it

say

you

ot skill ?

gratification,will

on

that

is, so

kind

it

yob. what

gratify me

you

Kttle ?
Pol,

IwUl.

Soc.

Ask

Pol,

I ask

Soc.

None

Pol,

What

Soc,

Pol,

Skill

Soc,
Pol.

Are

Soc,

No

Pol,

What

Soc,

what

you,
is it

what

in

; but

they

this

but

I call
other

to

there

be

species
with

let him

db

thing

and
of the

the

say

this

truth

think
is the

; I do

that

rhetoric

discussion

of
rhetoric, is a branch
asked
Grorgias. Speak,

to

say

satirizing his
Gorgias professes

am

which

the former

like

not

what

thing

and

d#

he

which
not

is
have

of
with

that

it is

great
men

pursuit,

governed
by art,
greatly fitted
word. Adulation.

not

boldness

tact

and

and

I call

it, in

and
one

but

by
Of

other
is
branches, and cookery is one, which
many
in my
opinion, is no art, but a skill,and a routine.
cosmetics
(the toilet),and the pursuit of the sophist,

are

four
so

to

art,but,

an

rhetoric

thing

pursuit.

same

account.

my
mind

pleasure.

same

clearlyin

out

I call

what

think, Gorgias,
to

the

should

he

whether

What

on

ill-bred

lest

make

not

of

of

be

know

not

it

by

pursuit

thought

is that

account,

could

we

branches

it will

for intercourse

nature

are

pursuit
afraid

very
reluctance

belonging

be.

to

gratification,and
production
cookery and rhetoric, then, the

am

cookery

then'?

admirable.

Soc.

cookery

the

; for
understands

any

is

art

of skill.

it, on
Gorgias's
profession. I do

not

I consider

art

all.

at

kind

In

what

then,

me,

tor

same

pursuit.

different

things.

have

told

him

There

Jf Polus

are

thus

wishes

that I consider

four

branches

to

question

rhetoric

to

of it, conversant

further,

me

be

branch

APPENDIX.

326
adnlatkni,

of
not
a

but

his
yet answered
second, and asks me
what

answered
what
Pol.

ask

I do
Do

Soc.
"iew

it

This

what

think

yon

rhetoric

branch

shall

yon

PoU

An

answer

; for all bad

already nnderstood

as

you

And

Soc.

but Polos

and
is young
sharp,
him
alone, resnm"l

Leave

I will

and

the

be

to

bienot

mind

so,

There
a

There

is such

There

Gorg.

There

an

Rhetoric,

politics.
ignoble thing ?
call

I have

ignoble, since
been
saying.

nnderstand

what

yet explained myself

tell

and

of

in my

"tf

myself

how

nu

yen
aU

at

ranst

mean.

deaily

consider

yon

toric
rhe-

politics.
what

explain

rhetoric

me.

to

seems

such

There

are

of

body'or

are

be

to

me

things

body

as

Politics
and
and

be

to

in

good

of

state

w^ilch

which

the

is not
no

not

are

and

body
really improving
cause

and

body,

readilyperceive that they

could

form

cannot

one,
consist

the

explain my
clearly

more

can

I call

the

gymnastics,
Crymnastics

the

their

one

so.

mind

to

condition

so.

to the

medicine.

of mind

apparently good habit,

an

state, without

mind,

and

as

moreover,

good

mind,
body, I
being itself
to

habit

good

seem

things,

/hen,

Now,

things, body

as

thing

gymnast

in

There

Gorg,

persons

are

apparently

body,

me

are.

thing

is such

reallyso.
Many
but a physician or
Gorg. True.

relates

ask

is.

there

And

Soc.

Gorgias,

to

have

vitk

know,

to

Soc.

Soc,

or

not

will refute

Folus

widi

answer

my

bcanch

what

branch

Socrates,

Gorgias answered,

Soc,

be

of

counterfeit

try, said

if it

and,

have

for I

wonder,

no

liave

me

be.

things

do

By Jopiter

prcssiDg
fine thing, before
on

goes

it is.

ignoble thing

if yon
! said Gorgias, neither

dial

ovcriodked

; if jron
to

nndeistand

of
matter, is the coontetfeit
Well, then, ^o yon call it a noble

Soc,

he

rhetoric

the

of

has

fair, Pohis

is not
I aflkm

answer

I think

whetoer

is.

be

and

question, thoagh

first

of adulation

branch

bnmch

what

not

the

of

subjects

These

meaning.

two

The

arts.

art

two

which

The
art which
Politics, or the Social Art.
call by any single name
but
the culture
of
;
has
which
two
branches,
gymnastics
are,
which
of the art of legislation,
corresponds
of

art

medicine,

as

judicature, which
corresponds to
subject,
they relate to the same

lates
re-

the
and
to

medicine.
have

some

lation
judicature and legisdifferences.
but
have
nevertheless
These, then, are
some
they
;
their
four
the body
and
serve
mind, alvrays having in view
arts, which
but
Adulation, perceiving this, I do not say knowing,
greatest good.
divining it, separates itself into four l^ranches, and, decking itself in the
things

garb ot
paying

in

these

each

with

common

four

other,

pretends

arts,

the

any

physicianand
are

as

cook

unthinking

understood

good
This

to

and

bad

call

diet,
adulation,

it

might

best

be

ph^'sidan
and

I hold

its

the

for

children,

or

it to

starve

be

the

appear

before

of

them

disgraceM

and
if

who

men

for want

the
most

medicine,
body ; and,

which

decided
would

; not

with

hook

of

semblance

the
are

counterfeits

it

but

before

appear
the

which

baiting
good,
tbe
unreflecting, and

greatest

children, that

as

had

that

be

to

regard
greatest pleasure, so as to deceive
of all things. Cookery puts on
valuable
what
kinds
of food
pretends to know
to

likewise

have

as

best
of

ployment.
em-

things

APPENDIX.

it aims

Polns, because

I affirm

; and

good
give

any

consequently,
give

the

enjoins.

If

not

of

account

art

doubt

you
counterfeits

then,

real

this, I

ignoble,

being atricky,
colour

artificial

things
effects

willing
and

illiberal

figure

it

which
a

cosmetics

employs ;
produces.

dress

nor,

I do

what

for

it

Cookery,
you.
coimterfeit
nastics,
gym-

practice, which

and

it CMinot

reason

it with

contest

manner,

it

which

render

cannot
to

skill,because

mere

like

and

smoothness

and

which

am

In

medicine.

of the

cause

that

to

the

of

nature

regarding the greatest

without

art, but

an

explain the

of

name

pleasant only,

it is not

the

it

can

at the

that

327

by

deceives

titious
and, by giving facbeauty, which, is the
;

natural
own
beauty, produces neglect of our
be
in geometrical
Not
will
result of Gymnastics.
to
lengthy, I
say to you,
is
Cosmetics
is
to Medicine, so
to Gymnastics ;
language, that, as Cookery
Cosmetics
to
G3rmnastics, so is the pursuit of the sophist to
or, rather, as
to the
the art of Legislation ; and, as Cookery to Medicine, so is Rhetoric
These
real
art of Judicature.
are
distinc^ons, at any
rate,
; although
their pursuits^ being
not
unfrequently blended
nearly allied, are
together,
of them
is
and
it is not
possible always to distinguish accurately which
if the
not
were
Now,
body
practised by any
particular individual.
Medicine
but
governed itself ; if Cookery and
governed
by the" mind,
to be judged by
not
by the mind, but were
were
surveyed and discriminated
the things
doubt
the body, taking its own
for the standard, no
gratification
which
those
conduce
which
conduce
to the palate,the
to health, and
things
which
and
those which
be
bdlong to Medicine,
belong to Cookery, would
all confounded
what
Rhetoric
therefore
know
I assert
now
together. You
be

to

is to

the

the

of

counterpart

Cookery.

is to

Rhetoric

APPENDIX
TRANSLATION

you
envy

OF

So

Polus,

mind

what

Cookery

when

you

see

Do

In

S,

It is not

like

would
you
State
whatever

killing, or imprisoning,

you

which

P.

PLAT"S

FROM

PASSAGE

in the
man

he

whomsoever
Socrates.

B.

then, Socrates,

accomplish

to

the

body^.

allowed
.

you,

depriving

or

to

nor
01

feel

you
their

perty
pro-

unjustly ?

it is done,

way
to

proper

be

it should

that
fit to

seems

pleases
mean
justly or

ever

not

"

'GORGIAS

the

envy

is it not

enviable

unenviable

nor

the

miserable, but

to

pity

them.
"

! do

P.

What

S,

Undoubtedly.

P,

Does

he

justly,appear
S,

No

P,

Did

S,

Him

who

kills

who
to

think

you

it is thus

kills whomsoever

you
neither

miserable
does

and

with

it

the

seems

whom

person

best

to

justly,unenviable.

him,

and

kills

them

pitiable?

he

enviable.
appear
call him
miserable
P
not, just now,
you
who
kOls
unjustly, I called miserable, and
but

I describe

pitiable too

; him

APPENDIX.

328
P,

Certainly,lie who

S.

Less

P.

How

^S*. By

no

Would

S,

I should
choose

to

not

consent

excellent

to

say

you

good

seems

be

do

an

to

listen

person,

justly.

injured ?

to

full,with

not.

the

State

that

be

to

whatever

to

were

poniard under
my
splendid despotism
should

men

torn

be

and

for, if it
die

will

wounded

great is my

so

will

out

go

arm,
;

die, he

he

wounded,
be

will.

our

a
a

it will

torn,

in

Suppose

me.

one
any
that he should

be

I should
do

everything according

of all these

the spot ; if I will

upon
should
his doak
if that

wer^navoidable,

?
I mean,

obtained

have

that

me

do

injury ?

other

injure.

to

allowed

to

is

it

when

Polus,

"

mean

you

the

or

what

banish, and

market-place

the

than

one

despot

before, being

I said

kill,and

fit ; to

be

to

despot,

but, if

injured than

be

to

as

mean,

^S*. Most
into

is slain

to

greater evil

injured,rather

be

rather

you

think

still

either

prefer

not

If, by being

P,
we

he who

of evils.

greatest

it not

Is

preferto

you

Would

S^

tlum

so

means.

P.

I should

the

injury is

do

to

greatest ?

The

P,

less

so?

^S*. Because

P,

slayer,and

his

than

so

miseraMtf.

anjnstly is pitiableand

is killed

power

in

to show
being incredulous, I were
you
would
this
You
by
probably
that,
answer,
poniard.
account,
body
everymy
be
must
might set fire to any
powerful ; for, in this way, any one
vessels
in
all
the
and
the
docks
harbour, if he thought "t.
housey'^orto the
in
consist
not
But
being able to do what we think fit.
to be powerfuldoes
this manner,
P, Not
certainly.
m
is your
?
S,
Now, can
objection to this power
you tell what

this

And

State.

P,

Surely.

S.

What

P,

That

S.

And

that,

suppose

you

is it?
a

Certainly.

S.

Then

it

what

again

is

we

fit,we

inevitablybe punished.

must

evil ?

an

to

appears

think

thus

acts

punished

be

P,

doiog

who

person

to

that
you,
what
do

be

to

powerful

is for

our

this, it is
by being powerful ; without
Let
consider
further
in this
us
impotence.

an

but

manner.

thing

the

do

to

P.

banish,
Undoubtedly.

S,

This

P.

We

and

S,

Tell

In

S,

If

you
and
when

Could

S,

P,

persons

to

kill,and

fiscate,
con-

in ?

not

me,

There

child

very
free

me

refute

from

other

otherwise

that

say,

when

it is done

justly

it is

worse.

what

thankful

what

question yourself.

listener,I
is

in

to

error.

you

the
Do

now

assert

child, and
not

.be

equally
tired

of

so

to

doing

if you
service to

you,
a

refute.
is

occasion

no

happened
are

this

answer

unjustly,it

be

and

say it is better, and

the line.

you

Socrates,
piefer to be

shall

friend, but

What

"

not

agreed

us

draw

you

you,

P,

do

cases

Do

refute
a

what

P,

better,

of

is what

is not
power,
It is sometimes

talking about^

were

we

; and

are.

where

me

both

are

we

which

^and sometimes

"

only when,
this

evil,and

is meant

better

is good

benefit

happ)

only
.

the

to

other

go

day

in order
far back
refute
to
veiy
is sufficient to prove
that many

you.

unjust

APPENDIX,

330

unjustly,may

acts

S.

that

I say

Next

will

it is not

person

S.

But,

P.

Yes.

S.

In

if he

do

; but
if he
than

P,

my
Yes.

S,

Will

That,

S.

Not

P,

How?

bdng

who

and

the

to

than

of the

witnesses.

P.

aim
unjustly
Certainly.

S,

Then

to

neither
is

escapes,
said that

either

of

of

is the

happier
is

refutation, when

in

case,

any

ment
punish-

from

escape

punishment.

than

his

Yon

have

the first.

and

the

end

of

refresh

t3rranBy, and,

the
his

burnt

eyes

children, the

crucified, will he

or

da3rs,envied

his

out,
most
utter-

be

more

attaining despotic

this

Is

refuting,

not

refuted.

be

cannot

wife

impaled

as

my

memory

who

is

power,
felicitated

and

what

you

little while
are

say
ago

it is

you

supposing

you

he

neither
for

and

enterprise, and,

and

them,
happy

is in
injustice,

truth

by foreigners

now,

What

refute

to

and

last

to

and

happy

aiming unjustly at
in pieces, and
has

But, pray,
the tyranny

at

more

wretched.

more

mode

the

is at

State

by his countrymen
impossible to refute ?
S, You
are
inveighing

is

wretched.

suffer

for the

hewed

in his

both

calling

dispute.
brought to

be

too

in himself

succeeds

master

if he

difficult

and

most

unjust

be

not

you

is detect"l

rack,

be
he

justiceand

to

impossible;

contumely,

if he

if he

more

man

suffering, both

insult and

in

point

one

happy,

commits

and

unjust

second,

truly,is still

put

were

is

be

If

continues

punishment,

miserable

more

would

he

case

suffer

not

but
difficult,

after

happy

that

refute the

yon

P,

the

wlui

brought
first opinion, "ive

refuted

injustice be

conunits

opinion, he

my

miserable

is

possible. This, then,

who

justice and punishment

P, By no
means
: in

him

is

Ido.

P,

and

know,

nnjns^

not

or

who

is not,

who

is, and

ignorant ; for it is, in short, to know,

think
Yon
that a
happy.
person
be happy.

be

to
disgracefiil

of

; but

is

escapes
? do you

laugh ?
asserted, to laugh,

he

nor

persons,
and
attains

who

he

this, Polus

anything

punished,

miserable

two

who
be

it cannot

tyranny,

Is this

is

another

instead

of

swering
an-

it ?
P,

Do

think
you not
world
would
say
Soci a tes replied; lam

in the

by lot

be

the

questions

and

I, and

one,

and

which

all men,
to

be

of

politician,and

no

the

Council

3'ou say
of the
any

Ask

yourself ?

except

when

last

year,

what

person

no

by-standers.

when

it fell

tome

Five

the turn
Hundred, and when
for my
tribe
it was
the
take
to preside, and
to
came
duty
votes, I was
my
how
for.
do
it.
Do
take
at
not
to
laughed
knowing
not, therefore, bid me
the votes
of the by-standers ; but, if you
tion
cannot
produce a better refutaof what
I assert
than
take my
this,let me
turn, and
try to show
3^u
how
what I consider
witness
to be a refutation
to
produce one
; for I know
with
whom
I am
in proof of my
assertion, viz., the person
speaking ; but
I let alone.
take
the
how
I know
of one
the large number
to
vote
son
perbut with
the many
I do not
Let
us
converse.
see, therefore, whether
;
yourself to refutation by answering
are
willing,in your turn, to submit
you
to

member

yourself answered,

are

consider

unpunished

of

asked
it
than

to

of

you

greater
be

for

my

evil

to

punished.

opinion is, that

an
injury than

do

both
to

you
simer

APPENDIXi

P, And
Would

I say, that neither

I,

yourself,rather

S^

you,
And
you,

P.

No

S.

Then,

P.

Yes

S.

such

P.

To

S,

Which

other

any

injiiredthan

be

that

is of

person,

opmion.

injure ?

one.

every

thing.

will

answer

you

greatly desire

for I
;

Suffer

then,

me,
Do

interrogate

to

think

you

what

hear

to

it

you,
greater evil

will find

you

beginning

say.
the

injured,or

be

to

to

from

mencement.
com-

very

injure?

to

injured.

be

Answer

too, and

nor

III

do

the

think

you

ignoble,

more

be

to

injured, or

injure?

to

me.

P^

To

S.

Then,

P,

By

injure.
if it be

no

ignoble,

more

it is

evil.

more

means.

and
Noble
S, I understand;
consider
Good,
do not, it seems,
you
Ignoble and Evil, to be the same
things ?
P,
Certainly not.
S, Listen, then.
When
caP. any
thing noble, as a noble counteyou
is it you
look to in
air, or figure, or voice, or conduct, what
or
nance,
of
that he
noble
for
affirm
?
Do
a
calling them
instance,
not,
man,
you

has

noble

either

person,

subservient, or
Can
assign any
you
of

P.

I cannot.

S,

And

other

all

not

are

which

pleasure

some

of

account

on

P.

Yes.

S.

And

what
but

account,
So

P,

define

noble

and

voices

appears
Pleasant

Then

ignoble

necessity,
therefore, of

it excels

P"

Certainly.

S*

And

other,
P,
S.

the

when,

it is

oUier

of

Let

define

you

No
Let

S.

noble

the

so,

other

no

on

well, when

you

defined

be

contraries

the

by

of these. Pain

noble

two

in

things,

fragrance,

ignoble things, the

by exceeding it either in pain,

so

is the

one

usefulness,

or

is

one

more

evil,or

or

or

nobler,

in both

it is

ignoble than
in both

so

the

us

now

call
you
?

mind

to
not

what

say,

that

said

was

to

be

respecting Injuring and

more
e\dl, but to
injured was

I did.

S.

P,

see

Yes.

P.

than

is

it ?

forth, called

and

Then, if to injure be more

ignoble
more
painful, or more
evil, or both ?

than

so

both

utility,or

some

S,
be

and

persons,

two

Did
Being Injured.
injure, more
ignoble
P.

who

Good.

the

must

"$. When,
because

or

And

and

his person

those

Of

P"

the

it is

me.

the

which

to

action, is called noble

useful, or agreeable, or both ?

in conduct

because
to

by

Evil

pleasure

some

is noble

either

it

it

S,
and

of

account

on

produces

to

reason

either

use

some

it

to be

injured, it

must

either

doubt.
then

us

be

consider,

injured ? Does
be who
undergoes it
Certainly not.
to

than

It does

in

the

the
person

first
who

place. Is
does

not, then, exceed

in

painfulness?

an

to
injure more
injury suffer

more

painful
pain

APPENDIX.

33*
P,

No.

S,

If

not

P,

So

it

S.

Then

P,

It appears

in
seems.

so.

injure is

S.

Then,

P.

It is evident.

S.

It

to

admitted

was

Yes.

S.

And

P.

It has.

S,

Would

be

to

less

is

Do

so

P.

1 would

S,

Would

to

choose

would

one,

greater

; for

argument,

to

as

and
will

you
a

evil,

more

receive

no

physician, and

it would

rather

said,

than

do

to

appear
that

suffer

to

not.

neither

nor

I,

injury ;

for

you,

an

nor

any
it is a

evil ?

P.

It

S.

You

other.

ignoble

more

answer

one

any

According to
argument,
I spuke truth, then, when

S.

of

prefer it.

not

this

P.

is

which

nobly give yourselfup to the

admit
or
deny my proposition.

either

yourself,and
injured ?

be

to

evil ?

more

fear

not

of

in behalf

ignoble than

but

hurt,

seems

so.

this mode
see, then, the difference between
had
the suffrages of all the world, except

You
with

your

appeared

you,

more

that
you, then, prefer)

which

that

to

by

ago
injure is

to

injured ?

be

to

time

some

it has

now

evil than

more

general,that

in

P.

in evil ?

exceed

it must

mankind

in both

painfulness,certainlynot

the

sufirage
have nothing

vote, I

and
to

the

to

me

tented
con-

am

you alone, and, having taken

So much
Let
for this.
others.
us

testimony
say

; bat

the

and

of refutation

of

consider
the
commit
other
to
now
injustice,and be
question. Whether
punished, is, as you thought, the greatest of evils,oi*,as I thought, a less
evil than
commit
injustice,and be punished, is the same
impunity. To
thing as to be punished justly,is it not ?
P,

It is.

S,

Can

P.

It

S.

And

there

it be

say.
that it is

me

S,

And

if

acts

the

not

For

acted

one

example,

is

in

just is noble,

far

so

as

it is

so.

this,likewise
which
be something

Certainly.

if

anything acts, is

is acted

upon

if you

in

it not

necessary

that

upon
the

in which

manner

same

strike,there

be

must

the
which

something

P.

Yes.

S,

And,

strike hard, the

if you

P,

Certainly.

S.

Then

which

the

suffers

the

that

thing

I admit

S,

Now,
upon

P.

Of

S.

Of

which

which

thing

which

is struck

is acted
acts

is affected
upon,
affects.
the
Whatever

is struck

in the

agent

same

hard

manner

in

patient

acts, the

same

P.

acted

whatever

consider

should

is struck

and

to

seems

P.

other

that

denied,

Consider,

just ?

it.

whether

is to

suffer

punishment

mode

being
being

acted

upon.

acted

upon,

then, by

some

agent ?

of

acting,

or

being

APPENDIX.

Certainly,by the punisher.

he who
pimjshes rightly,punishes justly?

P,
S.

But

P,

Yes.

.S*. Then

he

Certainly.

S.

Then

have

he

We

S,

Then

the

who

agent

punished

what

does

punishes
is noble

what

suffers

\ihat

if he

suffers

mean

either

pleasant

P.

Of

necessity.

S.

Then

P.

So

S,

But,

must

he
it

S.

Then

P,

Yes.

S,

In

is
P,

But

what

is just,

we

is noble, and

the

pitient

Then
Yes.

S,

Does

it

None.
In

who

he

not,

None.

S,

Is

of

rid

the

P,

There

S,

And

rid

good

better

of the

of

greatest

vice

possible

any

of

state

if

mind,

of

all e^dIs

badness

or

vice

in

the

mind

Let

look

us

pecuniary

our

dition,
con-

poverty

bodily condition, is there

deformity, and
not, also,

there

in

by becoming

disease, and

P*

is

what

suffers

punishment, gets

then, get

there

Is

our

and

noble

suffers

he

S,

; for

I suppose

way

except
P,

is good

what

punishment,

is benefited

he

thus

suffers

he

noble,

'

suffers

who

puntsJiedjustly
It is probable.

S,

is

useful

or

seems.

what

P,

and

punished justly.

Yes.

P.

at

is

punished,

have.

P,

is

is

who

is noble

agreed,

who

justly?

acts

P,

be

333

vicious

possible
any
forth ?

defect, except

ness,
weak-

so

of the

state

mind

is.
does

this consist

not

of

injustice,and

ignorance,

and

cowardice,

forth ?

so

P.

Yes.

S,

Then

the

estate,

enumerated

have

you

body,

the

and

mind

the

three

characteristic

and

these

are,

vices

poverty,

the

of

disease,

and

injustice ?
P.

Yes.

S,

And

and,

And,

if it is the

P,

How

so

S.

The

S.

or

the

vice

is

most

ignoble,

ignoble

most

from

our

is either

the

Certainly.
injusticeand, generally,
be

to

P.

Yes.

S.

Then

both

ignoble

most

mind

Is it nol

injustice

the

it

it is the

worst

most

must

ignoble
be

painful, the

most

detrimental,

most

or

previous admissions.

But

us

the

of the

results

as

vices

far.

By

S,

P,

these

generally speaking,

P,

both

by

of

which

the

vice

of all kinds

either

the

most

of the

of vice

mind,

have

been

granted

painful,or

the

most

pernicious,

APPENDIX.

334

It must.

P.

Now, is injustice,or
excruciating than poverty

intemperance,

S.

apprehend

P.

S.

Then

the

estate,

to

sutpass

them

P.

So

S.

Bat

or

cowardice,

or

ignorance,

or

more

not.

vice of mind

must

the

surpass
in

extraordinary degree,
in painfuhiess ?

an

it

sickness

vices

of

the

if

of

and

body

mischievoosness,

the

does

it

not

seems.

which

that

all things

surpasses

mischievousness

in

be

the

vice of

the

must

grea'est of evils?
P.

Yes.

S,

Then

injustice,and

is the

mind,
P.

greatest

it appears.
What
is
art

of business
It is.

S,

And

what

Undoubtedly.

S,

And

what

immediately

art

the

P,

To

S.

And

P,

You

S,

Ic

P.

Yes.

S.

And

They
The

it

look

us

medicine

and

of the

man

injustice?

it in another

at

disordered

hand

we

be

whom

To

way.

this

If

not

do

we

those

over

who

and

unjust

are

lawless

magistrate.
?

punishment

punish rightly, do

the exercise

by

so

of

justice?

business, then, rids us of poverty ; medicine

legal justice rids us of injustice and intemperance ?

the
;

of

man

of these

Then

three, then,

is the most

noble

far.

it either

the

produces

greatest pleasure, or

the

greatest benefit,

Yes.

P,

"S. Is
P,

No.

it

S.

But

P,

Yes.

S.

For

pleasant thing

it is useful

it

of

and

cures

us

But

whether
has

who

not

Certainly

P.

to

never

S,

But

of

which

mind,
is

the

have

latter
had

or

he

of the

it is for

physician ?

our

good'

to

suffer

who

happy

undergoes

medical

treatment,

or

all ?

; for

happiness

is not

to

be

got

rid

of

evil,

an

it.

two
persons
is the most

cured,

that

so

hands

most

ill at

the

under

great evil ;

is he
been

be

to

health

receive

pain,
Undoubtedly.

S.

and

that

seems.

S.

but

do

of

art

Justice, by

he

Is it not

Is it not

of wickedness

are

the

who

Which

P.

poverty

do.

S.

the

let

suffer

to

P.

or

us

to

of disease
So

cures

whom

those

5.

of disease

bodies

mean,

P,

us

of

us

physician.

to

order

P,

cures

cures

obvious,

whose

over

both

iU?

art

P,

hand

it that

P.

rids

the

word,

So

S.

'

in

and,

intemperance,

of evils ?

who

who

have

miserable, he
undergoes

malady, either of
who
undergoes
no

medical

the

body

medical

treatment,

and

or

of

the

treatment,
continues

APPENDIX.

P.

The

S,

But

worst

of

P.

It

S,

For

suffer

to

for

medicine

Yes.

He,

happiest

is

then,

who

is cured

of

who

He

and

greatest success,
is the
P.

For

S,

should

who

state

child,

the

not

is,

and

is like that of

from

freed

the

cutting and

of

the

of

is

all
and

; the

the

diseases,

worse

by physicians

punished

next

and

orators

afflicted with

medical

mind

undergoes
is not
cured, has the
greatest crimes, with
punishment ; as you

the

despots

person
be

burning,

just, and

more

reproved

reproof, and
other

is

commits

all

escapes

vice

injustice,and

who

he

them

who

as
never
manage
his body, by undergoing

so

like

has

to

of

vicious

think

be

to

it, viz., he

Archelaus,

with

case

it appears.
their xase

So

makes

and
men,
of the mind

afflicted with

is
that

all ; and

life of

vice

the

happiest

who

is he

punishment.

say

admitted,

we

was,

chastens

punishment

P.

the

punishment

evils, viz., wickedness

S,

worst

miserable.

most

was.

of

kind

last is the

535

for

the

treatment,
being afraid,
it is painful. Do
not
you

because

so

I do.

P.

which

excellence

from

appear,

ignorant, it would

being

.S*.And,

to

the

admissions,

to

belongs

our

painfulness of it, but

it is

Avretched

more

with

They, therefore,
body.
punishment and
escaping from
acquiring
friends, and
admissions

do

correct,

were

from

much

with
aid

may

follows,
or

shall

sound
un-

an

them

by collecting money,
of
But,
persuasion.

power
what

see

you

how

not

than

which

the

and

punishment
the
they see

know
mind

means

cure,

the

situation

unsound

all

health,

of

fly from

and
utility,
an

use

who

similar

the

to

afflicted

be

in

value

the

those

body,
be

blind

are

to

of

seem,

and

in
taining
ob-

if

our

it

state

we

particularly?
P,

If you

S.

Is

the

no

the

it, impunity

of

cure

the

objection.
doing
injusticeand

have

not

the
of

permanence

^11 evils, except

of

greatest

injury
one,

to

greatest of evils,punishment
it, to be unjust and be punished
be

unjust

with

impunity,

the

greatest of all ?
P,

it appears.
be the

So

of
what, then, is the great use
that
it
incumbent
of
most
is,
admissions,
all,
our
appears,
to guard himself
against the evil of injustice ?
one
P.
Certainly.
S.

this

If

case,

rhetoric

from

S.

But, if he,

or

any

in

one

whom

he

takes

upon

interest, should

It

every

commit

a
injustice, he ought voluntarily to court
speedy punishment, and go to
do to the physician, as
the magistrate, as he would
last as he can, in order
become
inveterate
that
the
disease
not
tution,
by age, and taint his constimay

and
admissions

incurable.

be

What

S,

Rhetoric,
of

ourselves
not

su0er

to

this

not

necessarilyfollow

from

our

former

P.

that

Does

else

can

friends,

our

in
conceal

the

we

then, is

say
cf

?
no

use

to

We

country.
iirst instance, and

our

punishment^

or

us

our

next

transgressions,
and

be

restored

but

to

for

defending

ought,
bring

health

the

on

relatives

our

them
not

our

own

injustice,or

contrary,

and

our

to

accuse

friends, and

to
light, that we
may
caring for the pain, but,

APPENDIX.

336
if we'Have

stripes,giving ourselves up to the stripe; if imprisonment,

for the
rhetoric
death
if
and,
to
death,
employing
;
;
who
of those
of ourselves, and
dear to us, that their guilt
accusation
are
made
be
manifest, and
they may be freed from the greatest of evils,
may
?
that of injustice. Is it not
so
to
It appears
P.
me
previous
our
extremely parodoxical; but, from
admissions, it cannot, perhaps, be escaped from.
merited

the

to

prison

APPENDIX
OF

TRANSLATION

Ion,

I excel

Homer,

of

all

as

poets, I

other

be

may

the

all

men

who

deserted

am

PASSAGE

IN

this

of

It is

power.

for

tell you,
O Ion, what
to
to
me
appears
It is that you
of
master
not
are
powtr.
it is a divine
Homer
which
influence
; but

1 will

of

resides

which

that

people

the

by

in

for

the

only

not

called

stone

this stone

does

the

possess

And,

the

and

attain

not

possessed by

sacred

who

rhythm and
who,
Bacchantes,
from

have

the

and
us

thing
worth

which,

from

meadows,

laden

plumes

bees

of

with

of

state

this

when
for
in

the

sweetness

to

poems
of any

until

to

of

world

flower,

and

rapid imagination, they speak

calling poetry

in

the

to

he

and

sacred,

becomes

they

their

They tell
wandering

the

enthusiasm

truth

for
he

Like
and

the
milk

they

find

tell us,
these
souls,

poets

as

that

the

over

the
as

excited

are

senses,

us

utter

it were,

lyricalpoetry
insanity, like

honey

poets,

admire

as

men.

draw

chain

we

art, but

of
honey-flowing fountains
of melody;
and, aj rayed

etherially light, winged,

creates

which

reason,

come

souls

the

through all the links

communicating,
capable of sharing

supernatural possession,

they
the

other
rings, and
fluence.
other, by this in-

of
composers
of divine

their

like

Heraclea

of

state

the

you,

and

inspiration,and,

the

Thus

own.

flower

and
the

rules

for

moves

enthusiasm

great

the

any

of

cause

art

Muse,

all others

they communicate
harmony which
when
possessed by the God,

simple water;
peculiar ministration

like

in

verse

their

but

this

flying

through

and, duiing

rivers, in

the

nothing

those

of

the

so

first

that

of

of theirs in
songs
lose all control
over

dance

the

to

each,

inspired, to

authors

of

spiritnot

Corybantes,
the

of

first

has

circulates

stone

to

influence
the

melodies

admired

those

create

each

excellence

to

beautiful

their

the

; for

succession

do

she
the

inspiration,

the

of

power

attaches

whom

those

through
in

the

as

series, and

this

the

of attracting
power
of attracting other

th'em
the
communicate
to
rings, but it can
power
sometimes
see
a
long chain
rings ; so that you may
and
the
to
iron
suspended, one
substances, attached

to

be

by Euripides,

magnet

iron

of

what

consider

to

you

inequality of

illustration

ION*

of tliis distinction.

cause

Socrates.
this

PLATO'S

but of this I am
conscious
to mySocrates;
you,
self
in the copiousness and
beauty of my illustrations
have
heard
will confess
me
; and, with
respect to

refute

I cannot
that

C.

gardens

Muses,

they

Poet

is

return

in

the

indeed

are

thing
compose
any
inspired,and, as it were, mad, ox
nor

can

338

APPENDIX.

To

Ion,

Do

their

taking

Bo

Socrates.
which

chain

rostrum

by

overcome

for,

laugh,

the

on

and

me,

them

should

they

described

have

You

and

poet

is

the

he

selects,

first

and

auditor

your

held

as

rhapsodists

mind

that

perceive

not

you

magnet

if

diey

must

weep,

going

weep,

the

are

through

all

conduct

this

middle

link

that

of

the

of

power
of

Imks^

God

the

these

last
the

through

together

actors

the

is

which

influences

the

whichever

"

the

truth

by

the

by

number

by

Homer.

and

are

If
at

that

of

poet

eloquent

with

abound

thu",

science,

They

passages
are

xiiu

that

is

taken
The

to

from

passage

him

when

poet.
no

excellent

thus

and

And

this

in

the

for
and

or

Coryand

other

no

the

mspires
not

barren

are

explains

praise,

your

art

inspned,

are

poet,

grow

you
any

care

Homer,

drowsy,

compositions

As

they

other

influenced

from

and

expound

you

and

whom

one,

greater

get

the

possession.

alone,

songs

other

are

by

by

are

excited,
derived

no^

inspired

the

you
of

any

are

and

his

for

Homer,
you

you

Ion,

poet,

hear

is

of

every

other

thoughts

Homer

Muse,
expresses

some

but

Musaeus,
You,

any

inspiration

eloquent

tion
ques-

you

with

through

inspiration.

divine

from

of

melodies

wherefore

from

but

[The

are

of
when

your

gesture

regard

It

eloquence.

say

the
and

asked,

you

works

divine

from

Ion,

with

words

you

verse

you,

say

by

thus,

one

are

enthusiasm,

Homer.

by

by
really

word

interpreters,

are

some

but,

roused,

what

acutely

feel

bantes

to

are

but

knowledge,

the

recite

what

you
for

Orpheus,
inspired

and

you

loss

are

this

with

filled

and

teachers,

influenced

are

and

who

Others,

by

possessed

are

poets

possessed,

and

poets,

some

them

held.

are

the

another

Some

call

other

chorus-dancers,

of

series

the

to

one

power

long

Muse.

we

they

links,

hangs

so

the

for

first

some

stone,

another

by

some;

as

from

disciples

and

they

the

from

rings

of

on

agitate

to

so

if

standing

earnestly

also

it.

without

as

need

money

moved
I

frequently.
fixed

eyes

have

audience

your

and

with
I

not.

perceive

them,

among

declamation.

my

coold

we

often

weeping,

them

langh,

p.

truth,

you

Many

Ion,
see

the

say

Socrates.

the
the
from

'

Grorgias

analyses
the

Ion

'

not

are

of
'

Pl^to
is

from

strictly
from

to

be

called

dialogues

SbeHe/s

translations.
mentioned

translation.]

on

SERIES

FROM

BACON

TO

11.

THE

PRESENT

DAY

PREFACE.

The

series

present

ordinary

exhibits

that

route,

in

word

omission

The

great

so

of

explanation

disproportionate

length

might

be

regarded

as

this

respect,

it

otherwise

have

sinned

in
it

as

should

exceed

not

it

quantity,

unless

had

its

in
work

at

the

determined
and

History

but

given

have

the

Descartes,

Spinozist;

no

various

but

Locke,

his

it

is

such

only

chosen.

school

Lockist;

no

this

As

been

sive
repulof

nature

have
of

none

space

facts,

Philosophy,

schools

but

account

selection.

of

of

Annals

the

not

the

first

my

the

of

skeleton

that

An

treble

selection,

portant
Im-

exceeded

brevity.

principle

the

represent

as

Thus,

to

had

occupied

with

myself
Driven

rigidity.

with

have

If

Philosophy

half-a-dozen),N

to

run

fulness

would

contented

once

names

have

treated,

system.

Modern

it

if

(for

the

caprice.

upon

of

fluous.
super-

are

or

been

account

unite

to

moderns

names,

negligence
has

be
and

articles

some

volumes
well

as

was

the

all

the

two

might

consideration
of

that

was

which

the

from

not

may

familiar

several

at

divergence

Spinoza,

but

Kant,

no

Kantist.
With

regard
I

treated,
to

all

length

determined,

was

topics),

fundamental

accessible

to

volumes

that

at

which

laid

secondly,

general

subject

importance

stress

great
and

the

each

the

first, by

the

(hence

exposed

be

the

to

reader

the

ideas

the

and

mation
infor-

of

means

he

that

so

of

been

Methods,

upon

by

has

might

find
*

in
out

these

difficulty

Stewart's

in

but

it dpcs

some

"

is,
in
ngt

not

find

prefixed

to

the

believe,

profess

It

to

be

find

not

could

cases

English.

could

he

^Dissertation,'

Britannica,'
Philosophy

which

the

is
a

as

only

History,

at

all.

and

Dugald

'Encyclopaedia
of

account

entertaining

with-

elsewhere

as

is

it

rather

Modem

is

erudite
a

collec-

PREFACE.

342

tion

of

it,

than

adversaria
must

one

treated

systems
that

knowledge*
little

very

Spinoza

Bacon

Berkeley's

despair

by

logical

against
one

of
to

an

these

with

mingled
the

office

steady

purpose

showing

by
to

attempt

construct

1846,
y

hitherto,

which

be

science

been

this

have

History

to

this,

been
work

in

up
not

in
show

what

by

at

In

have

of

those

given

to

made

exposition.

what

The

render

to

students.

arrived

con-

Hegel.

Transcendentalists

the

were

gives

found

no

given

devoted

endeavoured

Historian,

Argument,

impossibility.

January

the

of

have,

have

have

and

be

gives

consequently,

have

trust,

perhaps,

may,

and

Schelling,

of

but

English

and

opinions

objection

criticism

which

form,

process

Some

will,

opinions

the

intelligible

more

Fichte,

French

most

words

have,

to

German;

and

sophical
philo-

reader

of

length;

some

the

the

Bacon
I

at

of

nothing

omitted

has

own

latter

presented

only

his

intelligible

speculations

knew

relish

To

helps

rarely

'Idealism.'

Kant.

to

these

on

Stewart

Spinoza
in

care

chapters

and

theory

siderable

he

opinions.

knowledge

he

Berkeley's

of

treated

of;

Moreover,

of

exposition

with

prepared

come

of

exposition

an

the

sinning

though

prompted
its

shows

Metaphysics

the

by
viz.

unity,
by

of

amount

That

that

Facts,
"

is

to

attempt

INTRODUCTION.

PREPARATIONS

DESCARTES

AND

BACON

FOR

.-

SCHOLASTICISM,

and

Bacon

Descartes

the

are

of Modem

Fathers

Philosophy.

title is not

alone ; and
unfrequently given to Descartes
with justice, if by Philosophy
understand
Metaphysics ;
we
historians
all
which
what
of
Philosophy understand
is,indeed,
by it in the
by the word, and what has also been understood
The

of this work.*

course

It

period

the

at

was

in which

Bacon

and

Descartes

flourished

antagonists. Metaphysics and Physics, first stood

other : consequently it is at
openly, manfully against each
up
of the
this epoch of our
nature
history that the ambiguous
When
most
term
Physics were
Philosophy becomes
apparent.
received
metaphysical explanations,
jumbled with Metaphysics, or
that

the

two

there

speculationsby

impropriety

no

was

the

of

name

designating
When

Philosophy.

anxious

took

in

indicate

were
place, men
Accordingly, it sounds
language.
English ears to speak of the science

to

the
*

to

of

science
Vide
this

if it

were

Series

restricted
a

of

I., Introduction,
use

caprice
the

the
; in

Morals

of
of

the
ours.

restriction

word
We
;. and

same

p.

xv.

way
We

Philosophy,
must

again

declare

the

separation
separation even
somewhat
harshly in
of Metaphysics, or
it sounds

as

have

heard

and

therefore

man's

that

in their
most

all

have

again

that

many
been

inaccurate
objections
blamed,

express
it is forced

our

as

approval
dis-

us
by
Let
practice of our
one
example suffice :
pr^ecessors.
in
five
reduced
to
sciences, united
Philosophy may,
general, oe
by
close
bonds
: Psychology,
Logic, Metaphysics, Theodicy (Theology),and
Ethics"'*-7^WAinf, par Ch, de Rdmusat, Paris, 1845.

the
'*

invariable

on

INTRODUCTION.

344

to

German

Even

speak of the Physical Sciences as Philosophy.*

is usually qualified : thus
ourselves
the word

to

amongst

philosophy, natural
philosophy, "c.
stood
History of Philosophy is always undera
History of Metaphysics, ^low, properly

speak of chemical
The
fact is, that

we

to

mean

speaking, in

such

work

have

speculationsnor his method

those of Philosophers. The
left untouched.

by him

generations
title

that of

he

leave

to

within

from

Bacon

exercised

is that of

"

out

Philosophy

are

over

ceeding
suc-

Philosophy" Father of Positive

is no
gainsaying this. And

There

of

with

common

steady opposition to all

the sphere of physics. His

glorious title

his great and

"

influence

been

comprised

speculations not

in

anything

his

Neither

place.

no

great problems

The
has

has

Bacon

Father

of

mental
Experi-

Science.
it would

yet

seem

history,the

our

posterous
pre-

more

so

as

him.
Mr.
Whewell,
predecessors have
always included
in his
him.
History of the Inductive
Sciences,' has excluded
the
Moreover,
peculiar object of om: work being to trace the
*'
various
the human
Methods
mind
enabled
to
by which
was
for itself,
in the long struggle of centuries, its present
conquer
of
certain
modicum
Ihe
knowledge,'' we could not pass over
our

of

great attempt
and

Bacon

Bacon

Descartes

initiators of modem
both

threw

in

that

and

trammels

science

as

stands

Descartes

Deductive, dpriori^ movement,

To
metaphysicians as their leader.
title of

of the word

sense

these
has

of

which

and

great

new

open

Hegel,

ranked

are

forced

deserve

men

them

to

of

by

the
of

men

of

the

is claimed

by all
therefore, belongs
that

adopt.

with

amongst

some

the

scorn,

the

But

restricted

although

"

notices

the

fact

gtt2Xtsi philosophers

applying the epidiet ** philosophical

laboratory and observatory.
t

head

new

titles which

;
"

our

but

the head

Philosophy, in

Modern
we

him,

They

proud
posterity
although they really did separate
upon
from
the
of their day, and
did
reigning dogmas
of
which
paths
inquiry,on
they travelled far beyond

two

bestowed

themselves

Father

at

the

as

opened

is claimed

and

pure

the

regarded
Metaphysics.!

their age, and

stands
the
at

of

each

their leader.

be

modem

Bacon
department.
Inductive, d posteriorlymovement,
era

Method.

therefore

must

Science
the

off

found

to

Descartes, however,
his great

province

is

has

claims

also

metaphysics,

to

that

and
to

the

in

he

is
Newton
England
jastlyenough ridicul'ts

instruments

used

in

the

the title of Fatl^er of Science

INTRODUCTION,

346
studies.
those

The

leisure

Cousin

remarks,

philosophy,

modem

inclination

or

the

only

Mysteries

in

who,

persons

studies.

for such

convents

the

as

the

almost

were

days, had

M.

as

clergy

Thus,

formed

the

cradle

formed

that

of

of

Greek

philosophy.
Scholasticism
its

during

fortunes

divides

it

into

subordination

of

first

Cousin

M.

the

was

but

absolute

of

increased, until it ended

There

are

the

only

to

scholasticism.

Philosophy.
in each

names

only mention

shall

we

him

in Modem

illustrious

many

first

mention
of

various.

were

The

epochs.

15th century,

the

to

the
was
philosophy to theology. The second
the beginof philosophy and
ning
theology. The third was
a
separation, which, though feeble at first,
gradually

alliance

In

period

that

three

8th

the

from

extended

Scotus

"There

epochs.

Erigena,

enunciation

his clear

quote

these

of

of

and

we

the nature

studies," says
he,
of religion; true philosophy

not

are

two

philosophy and the other

is true
religion,and true religion is trae philosophy/* In this
spiritthey all wrote.
The
second
formed
by the introduction, through
epoch was
of Aristotle.
the
It has long been
a
Arabians, of the works
to
Cousin,
deplore that philosophy
commonplace,"
says M.
**

of

one

"

"

should

have

years,

and

proves

how

under

been

the

know

little we

place, inasmuch
Aristotle,and Plato
left

was

place, if they had

rejected him ; for

authorityof

the

induction

Plato

doctrines

would

of the

have

so

of

dared

then

about

which
form.

it

was

of

then

had

was

occupy

necessary

Strictlyspeaking,

philosophy
with

the

so

it it had
the

immense

word, it perfectedthe
to

and

induction

bottom,

at

of

pendent,
original,so indeliberty of thought, that it

form

the

second

dialectics

The

dogmas.

inadmissible

Aristotle
In

men

; but

the

Platonic

The

choice

become

have

with

accordant,

only

inevitably have

would

1
the

more

been

admissible.

which

Socrates

pr^o vocative

then

unknown,
no
In
the
Plato.

face

to

decomposed

church

I hilosophy

being

the

and

Plato

and

The

church, face

the

This

almost

what

many

history. In
only in possession

then

and

only imagine

so

of

Plato, they would

doubtless

was

them

for

yet extinct.

not

were

Aristotle

known

have
infallibly

would
of

of

to

was

between

them

men

as

Aristotle

real science

the

of

the first
of

is

commonplace

that

of

yoke

themselves
to

there

"

known.

advantage of
only thing about
the
only thing
themselves,

occupy
was

been

no

viz.

philosophy

in

INTRODUCTION.

it
; for

sdiolasticism

347

condemned

was

nothing

be

to

than

more

form
in this state
But
of theology.
of
simple means
a
the farm ameliorated
things,that which ameliorated
philosophy,
illunderstood
he
became
the great authority
as
Aristotle,
was,
of reasoning, as the Bible was
in all matters
the great authority
a

in
to

"

The

universities

the

they would

follow
him

teachers

bitterlycomplains

thon

in the

aloud

is

epoch

opened

Roger
Lully
off
shake
the
to
tendency
of

in his

own

either

whether
as

In

the

to

Melanc-

And

of

Aristotle

yoke

Dialectics.

of

former

been

read

in that

department,

Positive

Science.

had

precursor

study Physics,

growing

the

see

questioned
dissolving an effect

so

and

Tauler, Gerson,
the
whole,
on

mysticism of
third
epoch,

the

it may

But

tendencies

these

we

be

the

In

rest.

truth,

characterized

was

the

tution
substi-

the

by
to

mond
Ray-

see

we

Lully is

attempts

the

this

that

made

extraordinarymen,

two

Exhortation

of

in many
oath

having

Ethics

Bacon's

towards

tendency

excellence.

Robert

In

Ramus.

and

method

new

by

Bacon.

and

of

equal sway.

such, that

was

sage

Aristotle's

of

almost

said

be

may

assemblies.

sacred

third

The

epoch with

Philosopher par

the

as

Bible

required to pledge an
guide. An attempt was

were

other

no

the

and

Grecian

felt for the

reverence

canonize

of this

whole

the

ruled

have

Aristotle

faith.

of

all matters

by

its

by anything else.
three
but one
these
epochs there was
Throughout
subject
of
philosophical dispute the rest were
wholly theological.
Nominalism
This
the old dispute of
and
one
was
Realism,
which
have
The
doctrine
of
already characterised.*
we

mysticism

than

rather

"

lies at the

philosophy. In
the scholastic
dispute, although the subject was
philosophical,
made
portant
to have
a
theologicalbearing ot a very imyet it was
Realism,

we

as

saw,

kind.
understood

to

Nominalists

the

but

then
how

you

be

can

is

no

be

based

the

all

general

makes

"

that

If,

as

ideas

if what

are

of

but

are

called

we
general names
give to
can
generals, universals,abstract

external

no

words.

this

If

in

reality except
*

be

independent

Trinity
and
the

classes

things ;

Series I., p. 207.

was

the

tions
abstracideas

abstract
of

viduals,
indi-

ideas

(call them
existence
they
"

admitted, it follows

individual

See

the

Roscelinus

which

will)have
but

it.

upon

mind

than

dogma

pretended,

which
are

less

No

of Plato's

root

and

in

that

there

that

case

INTRODUCTION.

348

things

many

regard

we

simply

be

only

can

unity which

the

others

amongst

unities

as

is the

basis

before

the

tions
abstrac-

of the

Holy

Trinity.
Roscelinus

ordered

was

to

appear

There, in peril of his life,he

Soissons.

retracted

Council
his

of

opinion.

treatise

against him, in which

Realism
in its extreme
maintained
he
form, declaring that
the
universals
were
only real existences, and that individuals
in so
far as
versals
existence
had
they participatedin unionly an
but fragments of humanity.
were
; men
fruitful of dissensions
in later
This
dispute has been
very
has
Ages which
times, and is the sole dispute of the Middle
philosophical value.
any
which
another
the
With
epoch commences,
15 th century
Scholasticism
from
of transition
be regarded as
to
one
may
The
the
modern
taking of Constantinople, and
philosophy.
revival of ancient
letters,hastened
materially the development
of the human
it to dethrone
mind, by effectuallyenabUng
became
scholasticism.
The
works
of Plato
known, and were
s
tudied.
school
Marsilio
A
of Platonists,with
enthusiastically
A
school
Ficino
their head, was
of
at
quickly formed.
William

de

Champeaux

Aristotelians

rose

their

amongst

wrote

against it :

up

and

members;

both

the

rest

remarkable

counted
of the

men

15th century

was

occupied with their disputes.

The

of

result

of

Sceptics,

and

was

became

men

of

ancient

systems

into

of those
imitation
Some
systems.
eager
other
Platonists,
Aristotelians,others Epicureans,

that

Europe,

introduction

the

Mystics. However
they might
all
united
differ amongst
in
their
themselves, they
exaggerated
admiration
and
of
whilst
hand
the
the
antiquity ;
on
one
the
Ciceronian
of
turn
literarymen
striving to catch
were
Horatian
curiosa
phrase, or the Virgilian and
felicitaSythe
speculative thinkers were
busily endeavouring to reproduce
as
others

the

of the

errors

Philosophy
accept
But

the

had

it

was

was

Greeks.

ceased

allegiance to

Antiquity
highly important
of

impossible

the

Church,

only

to

to

pass

at

change.
once

from

As

M.

Cousin

scholasticism

philosophy, and suddenly cast off all authority. It

be
that
therefore
philosophy acregarded as fortunate
cepted
may
of
species
a new
authority; one
altogether human^ yet
in
habits
and
of the nation"the
thoughts
having no root
to

modern

ancient

authority

this

remarks,

others

WTRObtlCTlOM.

having no

external

V(bry flexible,and
the

was

authority which

very

bridged

the

over

The

6th

be

may
the

at

people,
in

Plato

quickly

result,
divined

the

hands

thrown

While

to

it

transition

the

which

"

the

ground.

concerned,

was

Bible

the

Eeformation.

the

in

hands

the

placed Aristotle
Authority, already feeble,

of

students.

and

philosophy

as

placed

of

various

these

far

as

revival

the

as

for

Luther

brought

century

once

this

fortunate, because

served

consequently

chasm.

immediate

The

all durable

at

not

in itself"

divided

and

power,

340

had

letters

elements

discord

of

of
and
was

working

were

the

Science
of the old philosophy, Positive
was
gradual dissolution
also
Galileo
had
considerable
advances.
making
popularised
in 1609 had
invented
the telescope, which
and
Copernicus;
him
enabled
satellites of Jupiter. Kepler was
the
to discover
him.
in those
immortalized
have
discoveries
which
engaged
The
Algebra of the Greeks, introduced
by the Arabs, was
and
above
all, by
strikinglydeveloped by Tartaglia, Cardan,
Vieta.
the
Gilbert
published his speculations on
magnet;
mathematics
were
sedulously cultivated, and had already been
and
mechanics,
applied to astronomy,
physics ; thus effectually
the Schoolmen.
Those
ruining the authority of Aristotle and
who

familiarized

have

classification

with

themselves

luminous

the

and

found
pro-

sciences, operated by Auguste Comte

in his great work,* will at once
seize the historical importance
of the
speaking of; to those who are not
epoch we
are
now
in that condition, we
can
only say, that in this epoch there
the

were

preparations

there

were

of

these

would

And

which

men,

and

of

these

the

what

from

the

See

Cours

de

default thereof, see

of

very

of

as

the
a

influence

the

age

adopted

real

of

difference
of

nature

them.

Method

A
age ?
the method

the

ripe

was

age

"

Bacon

arises
science

perfect method.

Positive, i. pp.

analysis of it in

the

the

Descartes,

far towards

Philosophie
our

Widely

views

one-sided
go

of

special want

method

the

and

"

effective.

speculations

appeared
trifling
; but

men

it

ripe for the appearance

earlier,his

them

furnished

Elements

Descartes.

age
their

rendered

great

the

was

principallyfi:om
but united^ they

the

made

wanted

age

men

and

Bacon

for

comparatively

been

"

these

differs

work

two

have

for them

and

at

either

Had

of the

last

86-97;

chapter

also

p.

112.

of this series.

In.

FOtJNDATION

OF

CHAPTER

Francis
Basil

said
the

Bacon

the

Montagu,

laborious

flourishes
This

Bacon

about

BACON.

the

22nd

illustrious ;

retiringto
different

is somewhat

(we

wishes

Bacon,

of

Mr.

January, 1561.

affectionate

and

and

ancient

was

OF

on

idolatrous)biographer
family

some

born

was

I.

LIFE

THE

METHOD.

INDUCTIVE

THE

and

the

from

to

us

had

almost

believe

favours
halls

"

the

with

us

of his

that

tors."
ances-

Bacon's

story of

of Bury.*
grandfather having kept the sheep of the abbot
illustrious ancestry^
for Bacon
But
no
although we candftim
must
not
.:His father, Sir
we
forget his eaccellent parentage.
as
Nicholas, was generallyb^c"Qsiskred
ranking next to the great
Hisi("90llier".'Ann^,
.daughter of Sir
Burleigh as a statesman.
;

"

Anthotijfi^G^I^^'^^iraiK^ii^itigmihedf^^^
and
as
a .linguist
theologian.

Ste

in Greek
(Sftrresponjfcid

from
tfafi^utexiAis^Apolo^a
neither '^hef^-d^i'^^iBishop
Parker
'

and

alteratibn^"^
It is not

frequent

that

such

men

of

sedentary

but
little,

that

Latin

could

Bishop JeweU
so
correctly,that
single
a
suggest

,^

health, however,
with

him

made

often

His

son.

the

as

with

little

and

remarkable
was

very

intellectual
reflective.

displays the

delicate, as

eminence.
Of

This

his youth

reflective

such

have

parents

is

not

a
un-

delicacy
we

know

tpp,deucy of his

otn^^nctaspoints,
this question cxf lineage,and
See
a
great many
the 'lives of Bacen,l"^"fdb^^A'"niEry
settled in aii aKicle
on
satisfactorily
January, 1836.
t Edin,
Rev,i July, 1 837, p. 9. This is the brilliant article on Bacon,
It is reprinted ia
by Mr. Macaulay, which has excited so much attention.
his
Essays ; but not having these at hand, we shall always quote from
*

'

the J^Aviror.

'

Tun

mind.
a

the age of twelve

could tell the
card

At

juggler

first ascribed

it to

BACOt^.

OP

LIFE

he

discussed

of

which

examine

the

of

cause

the

which

echo

an

point as to how
thought : he at

man

the law
servants, till he at last discovered
also of his
We
hear
the trick depends.
to

the

confederacy between

35*

juggler and
mind

of the

the

which

on

leavinghis playfellows
he

had

in

observed

vault.
thirteen

At

pursued there, and

It
*

doubtless

to

inveterate

said

of

course

Aristotle

for

scorn

study

and

his

'

that

he

there

his contempt
for that in vogue.
wide
difference
the
between

of

because

for the

profound contempt
an

is

Trinity College, Cambridge,

at

Novum
planned his
What
did was
he
but this is highly improbable.
scheme
of philosophical study,
sketch some
new

followers.

Organum

entered

was

imbibed

he

where

he

There

ever,
how-

must,

skefch of ft boy,
the wise
for reigning opinions, and
prompted by contempt
maturity of his greatest work, the fruit of a life'smeditations.
he was
On
leavingCambridge,,he visited Paris, from whence
be

recalled
from

travaile,"says

study of

the

Dr.

in which

that

made

death

he

(ashimself

*'

his father.

of

"

Rowley,
law, which

common

profession;
he

sudden

the

on

Being
himself

applied

he
he

took

obtained

to

great

said)but

as

him

upon

to

to

the

be

his

excellency, though
and

accessory,

an

returned

not

as

his

principalstudy."
before betaking himself
But
to

but

Government

for

this

to

study he made
claims

His

office.

an

Burleigh for an opponent, and

however, rapidlyinto business, and

he had

rose,

within

called

The
talents and
He

the

such

energy
waited.

soon

have

the

Bacon's
writes
was

ever

here

sat

also he
of

was

in Parliament

distinguishedas

an

had

of

by

ascent, yet

easy

be

could

He

being
leigh.
Bur-

to such

able.
insuper-

for Middlesex.

He

debater.

We

and

orator

hopes

frustrated

was

member

as

defeated.

was

obstacles

his, few

as

no

great ;

were

as

that
testimony of an admirable
us
judge to assure
Ben Jonson thus
oratory was worthy of his other powers.
There
happened, in my time, one noble speaker, who

"

full of

could

but

path of ambition

1593 he
became

In

bar;

cation
appli-

an

spare

gravity in his speaking. His

or
nobly
pass by a jest,was

spoke

more

suffered

less

member

of his

bearers could

neatly,

emptiness, less

more

cough

or

idleness,

look

censorious.

pressly,

speech but consisted

not

language,

of

aside

his
from

No

he

man

weightily,or

more

in what

where'

he
own

him

uttered.

No

graces.
without

His
loss.

He

commanded

oP

LIfM

THR

35i

spoke, and

he

when

^ACOM.

judges ingfy

his

had

of

pleased at his devotion."*

Of his political
bearing Mr.

Macaulay thus speaks : *' Bacon

in politics. He, wished
tried to play a very difficult game
to
favourite at court
be at once
and popular with the multitude.
a
If

talents

calm,

this attempt,
of
a
man
so
rare, of judgments so prematurely ripe,of temper
of manners
so
plausible,might have been expected
could

man

any

so

and

Nor, indeed, did

succeed.

to

he

indulged in

burst

in

succeeded

have

of

wholly fail.

he

patriotism,which

bitter remorse,
and
which
he never
asked
for large subsidies and
court

cost

ventured

to

The

spiritof

the

all

The

repeat

speedy payment.

speeches breathe

of Bacon's

Once, however,
him a long and

the

mains
re-

Long

Parlianxent.
"

The

ministers

her

and

Queen

resented

this

outbreak

of

The
in the highest manner.
descended
public spirit
patriot conyoung
the most
to make
abjured
abject apologies. He
the Lord
and

Treasurer

ally.

show

to

favour

some

himself

bemoaned

He

the

to

his

to

Lord

letter which

Keeper, in a
unmanly of the

the most
keep in countenance
may
epistleswhich Cicero wrote
during his banishment.
thrown

not

was

It is here

that

we

epithetin Pope's
*"

the

In

that

despicable a

greatest

of

man

of
justification
descriptionof Bacon
of mankind."

him

made

baseness

malignantly trample

but

instances

in both

which

paltrinessof the
selling his soul for the

age

which

made

on

fallen

gives this baseness

colour, is the
his

last

"

that immeasurable

to

ihe

motive
smiles

the

"

of

court

It is sometimes

of great men.
to the exclusion
lesson

is to be

drawn

from

their

glory

make
*

same

tions
abjure his conviccreatingdispleasure at court, we see

them

found

simply abjure,

not

friend ; and
so

the

the

see

manliness, which

kindred

baseness

to

greatest, brightest,meanest

of

he

begin

antithetical

The

want

when

him

in

offended

never

lesson

The

again.''

manner

Bacon

away.

servant

poor

them
Ben

the
may

said that

Certainly we

admiringlyand

should

of their great
drawn
from the

make

the

In

of

upon

upon
if ever

the

faults

their faults
a

striking

it is to

men,

be

perhaps the light of

deeper, but they thereby

men

shadows

of him.
affectionately

dwell

dwell

not

examples

It is not

Underwoods.

not

qualities.But

examples of great

distincter.

Jonson:

should

we

pleasant to behold
the

Discweries^

Ben

intellectual
also

speal(9

^^^-^

^-^^

354

Bacon's
what

have

we

England,

and
to

his fearful

did

what

now

For

he

vility.
ser-

about

was

him.

departed from
been

part x)f the story has

This

repentant

in Ireland

had

favour

piece with

in
man
perhaps the foremost
of his disgrace, his rebellion,

his conduct

Queen's

Bacon

eve

his

to

respect

been

the

on

end.

The

with

it is of

; but

excuse

having

from

was

answer.

before

noted

Essex,
all

is without

conduct

BACOH,

OF

And

admirably

so

readers
but
be
cannot
Macaulay, that our
We
believe that
gratefulto us for presenting it in his words :
Bacon
Essex, as long as he
sincerelyexerted himself to serve
Essex
without injuringhimself.
thought he could serve
his friend and the Queen ;
He
attempted to mediate between
for that
and, we
believe,honestly employed all his address
narrated

Mr.

by

"

the

But

purpose.

and
of

had

He

to

young
; and

At

the

pass
peevishness of

gentle, had
health,

to

and

for

been

so

he

had

sovereign

whose

is

hard

and

resentful
the

rage

tions
humiliaof soothing

purpose

temper,

an

never

very

irritable

morbidly
It

calm

wrongs

for the

by declining
and of exacting
flattery,

by long habit of listeningto

implicit obedience.

to

cult,
diffi-

dexterous

equally proud,
spirits

Whitehall

rendered

too

was

and

wary

by multiplied

to
a

undertaken

had

House

Essex

hero, incensed
then

he

two

manage

ungovernable.
a

which

perilous,even

delicate, and
agent.

task

to

two

serve

masters.

scarcely possible for him to

of his emboth
not
to
ployers
as
or
give one
shape his course
so
For a time he acted as fairlyas
to complain.
reason
in circumstances
so embarrassing could
reasonably be expected.
that while he was
tunes
At length he found
the fortrying to prop
in danger of shaking his own.
He
he was
had
of another
Situated

as

Bacon

it

was,

was

he wished
reconcile.
Essex
to
disobligedboth partieswhom
Elizabeth
thought
thought him wanting in zeal as a friend
him as
him wanting in duty as a subject. The
Earl looked
on
"

spy

of the

Queen

"

reconciliation

which

hopeless. A
his, announced
shaped his

thousand

the
he

Queen,

had

as

laboured

to

signs,legibleto

that the fall of his

accordingly.

of the Earl.

creature

effect
eyes

patron
When

The

appeared utterly

far less keen

was

Essex

at

hand.

than

He

brought
before the Council
in Ireland, Bacon,
for his conduct
to answer
himself
after a faint attempt to excuse
for taking part against
himself
the
his friend, submitted
to
Queen's pleasure, and
appeared at the bar in support of the charges. But a darker
The
behind.
nobleman, made
was
unhappy
scene
young
crimind enterrash and
reckless
on
a
by despair,ventured
course

was

THE

prise, which

LIFE

rendered

OF

him

BACON.

liable

355

highest penalties of

the

to

the law.
"

What

course

conjectures

Bacon

was

which

show

wealth,

man,

power,
appeared of

have

gratitude,and
side

of

what

Such

trial

the

at

would

"

scaffold

would

"

from

guard

to

friend.

danger

of

did

for the

prosecution.

verdict.
not

not

what

to

by

the

"

neither

would

man

preserve
In that

incurred

have

the

the

disgrace of assaiHng him.

neutrality: he appeared as counsel
nor

situation

he did

self
him-

confine

not

amply sufficient to procure

his wit, his rhetoric,his learning

have

been

employed all
conviction, for

ensure

conviction

even

would

He

stood

succouring Essex,

Bacon

to

been

have

ordinary

An

have

have

spent all his power,

in solicitinga mitigation of the

'

amity

safety,would
to
friendship,

would
daily visitor at the cell
the last injunctions,and
the last embrace
the
on
have employed all the powers
of his intellect
insult the fame
of his generous
though erring

received

have

man

those

high-minded

opposed
would

of

one

personal

even

would

"

might, authority,and
sentence

was

To

are.

when

account,

no

This

men

court-favour,

honour.

Essex

take

to

inevitable

"

the

but

circumstances

such

were

that

deprive the unhappy prisoner

of all those
which, though legally of no value, yet
excuses,
tended
the moral
to diminish
guiltof the crime ; and
which,
therefore, though they could not justifythe peers in pronouncing
an
acquittal,might incline the Queen to grant a pardon. The
Earl
urged as palliationof his frantic acts, that he was
rounded
surby powerful and inveterate
enemies, that they had
ruined
his fortunes,that they sought his life,
and
that their persecutions
had
driven him
This
and
Bacon
to despair.
was
true,
Well

was

it

knew

be

But

true.

be

his
"

much

for

ungrateful friend

to

in

too

was

forward

come

old

under

be affected

to

treat

it

as

an

idle

who
compared Essex to Pisistratus,
by pretending
in imminent
and
of
ing
assassination,
danger
by exhibit-

self-inflicted wounds,
This

to

He

pretence.
to

to

"

times
his

own

tyranny

at

Athens.

He
prisoner to bear.
interrupted
the
bid him
of
advocate
quit
part
tell the lords, whether
witness, and
Bacon, had not
repeatedly asserted

the
to

as

he, Francis
hand

established

had

the

truth

of what

he

now

treated

as

idle

pretexts.
"

It is

painful to

go

on

with

this lamentable

story.

Bacon

question ; and as if
the allusion to Pisistratus were
not
offensive,made
sufficiently
another
allusion still more
unjustifiable.He compared Essex
returned

shuffling
answer

to

the

EarFs

THE

356

OF

LIFE

BACON.

of Guise, and
the rash attempt
the city to
in
Henry Duke
had
in Paris.
the day of Barricades
to
recourse
Why Bacon
such
It was
quite unnecessary
a
topic it is difficult to say.
for the purpose
of obtaining a verdict.
certain to proIt was
duce
the
of
the
mind
impression on
a
haughty
strong
Earl's
and
the
pended."
fate dewhose
jealous princess on
pUasure
to

We

attempt

presented

to

Why

us.

The

abundant

of this

solution

advocate

interrupt for

to

venture

of

problem
did

character,
overdo

Bacon

principles of human
Firstly,it is the tendency

the

known

causes.

narrative

the

moment

to

strikingly

so

of

part

nature

an

suggest

of all persons

sciously
con-

the
misdemeanours
of
to
doing a wrong
exaggerate
those they are
having, in the very
wronging. Secondly, Bacon
of accusing his friend, abjured all ties of friendship and
act
the turpitude of
to
screen
gratitude,would
naturally endeavour
the higher duties
of justice and
his conduct
behind
patriotism;
and thus, by making Essex
make
the ingratitudeof Essex's
worse,

friend

appear

The

less.

greater the crime

the

expectation that his friends would

to us, therefore,that the fatal step
seems
first : accepting the
of counsel
office

Having

done

once

that

"

and

done

of

Essex, the smaller

his cause.
espouse
taken
was
by Bacon

the

the

prosecution.
the paltriest
motives
from
justice,nor
a

for

it from

It

of
from
stem
not
sense
a
self-interest,
was
deep feeling of patriotism all the rest of his conduct
into account
also take
the
natural
Thirdly, we must
enough.
into
which
mind
a
subtle,so quick in perceiving
so
exaggeration
stored
with examples, would
inevitably
analogies, and so richly
be
of
led
the
rhetoric,
especially
display
more
during any
We
all
moral
when
unrestrained
delicacy or firmness.
by any

of

"

know
and

how

for

moment

with

warmed
lose

all

their

command

own
over

efforts,are led away,

themselves, being

in such
how
state
a
enthusiasm,"
that
their imaginationsare
kindled
a
metaphor
by a word, so
has to them
however
the force of a fact, and
analogies,
remote,
seized
if
the
of
the
are
as
feeling
intensity
by
momentary
upon
This is a fact familiar to all.
demonstrative
truths.
they were
We
have only to apply it to Bacon, who
was
a
great orator, vain
of his oratory ; and
in that particular,
had
instance
who
base,
but strong, motives
of the accused
for exaggerating the crime
;
and
shall
loss
understand
the
be
then
to
at no
criminating
we
the
Pisistratus
allusions
and
of
his
to
speech, nor
tendency
then

in

orators,

state

of real

"

"

^and

of Guise.*

Henry
familiar

THE

LIFE

With

respect

BACON.

OF

357

these allusions

to

also,any

of the extreme
writingswill be fullyaware
Bacon
for such analogies. Indeed
always exhibited
of the
that the reliance
one
on
analogies was
may
say
fruitful causes
of his scientificand speciilative
errors.

cowardice, then,

conduct.

It

him

made

the

was

primary

his

desert

fallen

deserted

was
him, the rest of his conduct
and
his
intellect.
We
position,
peculiar

his

of

cause

most

Bacon's

friend ; and

but

one

having
of

consequence

do

say his

not

con-

intelligible.
Bacon
was
convicted,"
Macaulay.
made
effort to save
no
him, though the Queen's feelingswere
such that he might have pleaded his benefactor's
possibl/
cause,
with success,
certainlywithout any serious danger to himself, f
duct

ness
fond-

with his

Moral

one

defensible

was

*'

far from

continues

Essex

The

it

it ; but

unhappy

nobleman

**

His

executed.

was

was

Mr.

fate excited

strong,

perhaps unreasonable
feelings of compassion and indignation.
with
The
received
Queen was
by the citizens of London
She thought it expedient
gloomy looks and faint acclamations.
faithless
The
of her late proceedings.
to publish a vindication
friend

who

had

murder

to

selected

the

write

to

'

He

of the

Robert

by

life

the EarPs

fame.

Declaration

printed by authority.
word

taking

EarFs

committed

and

attempted

in

assisted

of

the

in defence

and

Treasons

Essex,* which

succeeding reign
of this performance

In

ployed
em-

accordingly

was

Practices

Earl

now

was

was

had

Bacon

not

performance
would have
abounding in expressionswhich no generous
enemy
had
who
employed respecting a man
so
dearly expiated his
it by command
offences.
His only excuse
that he wrote
was
a

to

say

"

"

that

he

considered

himself

as

secretary

mere

that

"

he

had

he
in which
to
treat
particularinstructions as to the way
was
furnished
part of his subject and that, in fact, he had
every
only the arrangement and the style."
into this
who
has looked
Declaration,' will proAny one
nounce
it
written
of
the charge
having
infamy enough to be
"

'

day
on

It is

curious, and,

of their
a

friendshiponce
different

very

Twickenham

account.

tells

estate, Bacon

Guise, who

was

all his estates

had

but

in the hey'
believe, unnoticed, fact that Bacon
Duke
Essex
of
the
to
Guis%,
compared
though
the
Earl
When
with
the
presented him

we

only

called
into

the

that

us

greatest

usurer

obligations ; gleaning

bound

of

numbers

he

likened

him

in

France,

because

that

persons

to

he

had

him.

"

to

the
he

left himself
Sir

Duke

had

Francis

of

turned

nothing,
Bacon*s

Apology,
t

He

must

eloquence
mercy,

to

should

have

get
have

been
the
had

Earl
the

bolder

man

than

convicted,

and

Bacon, who,
to

audacity to plead

show
for him

that

after
he

using

all his

deserved

no

THE

358
borne

by

indefensible

the

as

this

his conduct

of

rest

BACON,

OF

although

But

man.

one

LIFE

Declaration

his

and

"

is

as

feeble

very

him
apology, printed in his works, in no way
^yet we
in
he
but regard it as what
some
cannot
to
was
degree bound
and
assailed
perform. He had taken up the Queen's cause,
could
refuse
his friend.
to justifythe
He
not
now
Queen and
absolves

"

himself.
Yet

has

Bacon

exis^tsin the
of Mr.

with

Macaulay,

every

and

logic.

this time

accession

Bacon's

of

in 1607
Court, and
Attorney-General.

he

On

to

Solicitor- General, and

of this favour

much

How

the pages
aifd refuted

improve.
favourably received

very

was

became

he

continued

doubt

any

to

is examined

excuse

fortunes

James

them

refer

readers, we

our

where

wit

abundant

From
the

of

minds

eulogists. If

apologistsand

found

he

in

owed

at

161

the

to

of

Advancement
eulogies of James in the
Learning,* which
difficult
be
to say ; biit we
was
published in 1605, it would
may
that a king of James's scholarly habits could
be sure
have
not
*

remained

insensible

good fortune

But

trial of Oliver
in

the

had

and

talents

less of

with

ending
have

the

blackened
Mr.

Bacon.

played.
dis-

therein

sycophant. The
disgracefulproceedings

all,the

above

would

than

him

made

Peacham,

of torture,

less infamous

transcendent

not

John,
of

case

use
one

St.

the

to

Basil

still

the

graceful
dis-

more

fame

Montagu,

of any

usual,

as

his critic in the Edinburgh

points, ind
his arguments.
Review
triumphantly demolishes
had
Bacon
early perceived that Villiers would
eventually
become
the favourite ; and while less discerning courtiers were

defends

still

his hero

fawning

Somerset,

upon

with

crowned

hopes

were

Essex

had

of the

Court.

; and

been

Privy Council
Brackley,

these

on

was

administration

Buckingham,

In

procured

Sir Francis

appointed

but

became

for

his friend

Bacon

was

1617, ^^
Keeper of

anything

Villiers.

upon

Buckingham

in March

; and

was

fawned

success.

soon

161 6

he

pure.

the
the

sworn

retirement
Great

He

the

was

Seal.
the

His
what

favours
df

the

of Lord

His
tool

of

his own
altogether unscrupulous. On
account,
too, he accepted large presents from
engaged
persons
his
in Chancery suits.
His enemies
reckoned
gains in this way
in those days,
thousand
at a hundred
sum
pounds : an immense
he
Meanwhile
continued
and probably exaggerated.
ous.
prosperfame
had
His works
He
throughout Europe.
spread his
Baron
and
been
created
had
also
Verulam;
subsequently
who

was

THE

Viscount

St. Alban*s.
this title

valued

LIFE

We

higher

OF

BACON.

have

every
that of

than

359

the

believe

to

reason

author

of

that

he

Instauraiio

Magfia ; but as Mr. Macaulay remarks, posterity,in defiance of

Royal letters patent, ias obstinately refused to degrade Francis
into Viscount

Bacon

St. Alban's.

of this

at hand.
prosperity a terrible reverse
was
and
He
His
accused
corruption
impeached.
was
remorse
of
mind
dreadful
and dejection
were
During several dayg he
remained
in bed, refusing to see any human
being. He passionately
told
leave
his attendants
him
him"
to
to
forget
never
his
that
there
remember
to
had
again to name
name
never
in
such
him
the
world."
The
been
man
a
were
charges against
that
him
the
advised
to
to
such,
him,
save
king, impotent
plead
did
The
he
received
He
sentence
guilty.
so.
severe
was
: a
in
and
be
fine of forty thousand
the
to
imprisoned
pounds,
the
Tower
He
declared
king's pleasure.
was
during
incapable
of holding any
office in the State, or of sittingin Parliament,

height

the

In

of

**

"

"

and

banished

was

This

sentence

the Tower
His

for life from

; but

fine

remitted

was

himself

present

the

at

was

remitted.

and

was

He

was

summoned

attend

to

of the

end

by

Court;

at

executed.

not

was

at

the

the

He

and

in

libertyto
next

was

the

Parliament.
let

us

House

did

He

hope,

his

of

shame

to

released.
allowed

soon

rest

sit in the

indeed

sent,
he was

day

He

1624

Court.

was

second

Crown.

infirmity,and

; age,

of the

the. verge

to

sentence

of

Lords,

ever,
not, how-

prevented

him.
retirement

his

In

he

himself

devoted

literature ; and

to

treatise De
Augpublished his wonderful
mentis
Advancement
which, though only an expansion of his
work.*
of Learning,' is nevertheless
to be
regarded as a new
The
great apostle of experimental philosophy," says Mr.
occurred
It had
destined
to be its martyr.
to
Macaulay, " was
that
him
snow
might be used with advantage for the purpose
substances
from putrefying. On
of preventing animal
a
very
his
coach
cold day, early in the year
1626, he alighted from
into a cottage,
He
went
near
Highgate to try the experiment.
it with snow.
with
his
hands
stuffed
own
bought a fowl, and
much
thus
While
chill,and was
so
engaged, he felt a sudden
to
Gray's
indisposed that it was
impossible for him to return

amongst

other

works

'

"

"

find

comparison that more

are
a
slight interpolation
of Learning,' the remainder
being
Literature
iii. p. 169.
of Europe
"

upon
version, with

than
or
new

two-thirds
from

omission,
matter."

"

of
the

Hallam,

this
*

treatise

ment
Advance-

History of

LIFE

THE

36o
After

Inn.

illness of about

an

mind

the

end.

his death.

In

"aster-day, 16^16.
strength and liveliness to
which

had

caused

wrote,
pen, he

with

fingers which,

Such
one

his

For

glory.

painful

Bacon's

but

have

so

we

the difference
was

infamy

to

now

often

quoted,
the soaring angel

between

type of the

are

we

difference

between

Bacon
the
Philosopher, and
Attorney-General
and
Bacon
seeking for the Truth
seeking for the Seals.
who
only one half of his character may speak of
survey

the

Bacon
Bacon

Those

"

admiration

unmixed

with

him

picture is

The

the writer

as

*'

creepingsnake

the

steadily
a
of
the
experiment

ths^t the

man.

witnessed

admirably observes,
and

the

Bacon

have

We

character.
to

ever

hold

not

is one
of great intellect with moral
baseness
of
instructive
pleasing, but most
examples of human

least

turn

he

union

the

the

its

forget the fowl

letter that

last

ing
morn-

retained

excellentlywell."

Francis

was

the

said, could

he

as

did not

He

the

on

to have

appears

mention

to

succeeded

had

snow

omit

not

week, he expired

His

of

did

BACON.

OF

with

or

unmixed

But

contempt.

only judge of him correctlywho take in at one view Bacon

in action.
in speculation and
Bacon
They will have no diffi-^
and
the same
should
one
man
culty in comprehending how
those

far before

been

have

and

boldest

his

all

rare

ambition

"

confer

could

an

of

no

were

In
render

ought
which

things

to
can

Far

gift.

all

the

Master

which

crowd

crowd

was

there

was

had

no

situation

the

forth from

came

'

of Sentences

different

he

that

suffer

often

"

be

to

of

his

study and
fiUed the galleries
no
man
equally

be
"

the
to

his

to

necessary

obtained

be

integrity. To
of improvement
the career
intellectual dynasties a more
be
revered
to
to
empire

leader

found

prosperous
the latest

of
on

the

ruins
a

benefactors

within

But

all this availed him

mankind

"

in

race

of

ancient

enduring

more

generations

on

"

sacrifice of

the human

and

the

of

happiness
the

only by

illustrious

among
his reach.

library

of

But
great and lastingservices to mankind.
there was
not
set on things which
a heart
more

and

honour

his

In

"

in his

in all that crowd

man

abuses.

line the

one

line the most

the

The

great

qualifiedto
no

foulest
under

peerages.

Whitehall.

in

"

innovators, in another

the

philosopher when
laboratory to mingle with
the

it

"

no

reversions

far behind

honest
guidance
an
of
sincere
love of
a
enlarged philanthropy
drew
him
from
the
temptation
right
away
could
fees
Duns
Scotus
Aquinas
no
pay

Tho;nas

course.

of

powers

of

There,

truth.

rich

most

and

age

useful of

champion

obstinate

his

as

all

the

most

this

nothing while

was

some

36a

POSITION.

HISTORICAL

BACON'S

of science, facts and

ideas,
of ideas : and these two requisites
science
not
was
a
question why
being fulfilled,it becomes
solidlyestablished.
back
We
was
again, therefore; to the question, What
come
"

the radical

in the

fatal defect

philosophical schools

Greek
"

and

To

this I

answer

their

possession facts

to the

facts.

peculiar

"The

endeavoured

to

appropriate
when

forth

the

that

ideas, by
scientific

class

which
and

ideas

Ihem

speaking of
be

the

that

facts
these

the

have

distinct

and

formally

subject.

set

the

In

in conceiving
difficulty
there is some
special set of
be included
in general
can
have

probably
facts

as

fullyand

more

philosophy of
of

though they had in

not appropriate
were

ideas, which

scientific

of

will

reader

that

was,

ideas, the

the

to

of

truths

and

by
express
the facts,must

for each

means

defect

characters

come

we

time

mean

to

the

The

physical speculationsof

no

which

ideas,

may

be

thus

possessed with entire distinctness

and
that they may
be
clearness, in order
successfullyapplied.
the want
ideas having reference
It was
of- such
material
to
ancient philosophers with very few
phenomena, which rendered
physical
exceptions helpless and unsuccessful
speculators on
subjects.
be illustrated by one
"This
of
One
two
must
or
examples.
Aristotle endeavours
the facts which
to
explain is this : that
the
sun's
be
when
the
light passes through a hole, whatever
of the hole, the bright image, if formed
form
able
considerat any
termed

be

appropriate^must

distance

the

from

hole, is round, instead

of

imitating the

resemble
their objects. We
figure of the hole, as shadows
shall easilyperceive this appearance
be a necessary
to
quence
conseif we
of the circular figure of the sun,
conceive
light to
be diffused
the luminary by means
from
of straight rays proceeding
from every point. But instead of this appropriate idea
of raysy Aristotle
to
explain the fact by saying that
attempts
the Sim's lighthas
it always tends
circular nature, which
a
to
And
manifest.
this vague
and
loose
conception of a circular
instead
of the distinct
quality^ employed
conception of rays,
which
is really applicable, prevented Aristotle
from
giving a
this
of
true
account
even
simple optical phenomenon." *
very
With

this

all due

submission

explanation seems

question by

to

Dr.

Whewell

nothing
question itself,put

the
"

to

Hist,

us

of Ind.

more

in

we

than
another

Sciences,' i. p. 79.

must

that

say

answering
form.

It

the

is

simply saying

that

science

POSITION,

HISTORICAL

BACON'S

failed in their, attempts to

fit-scientific ideas ; that
not

Greeks

the

had

because

3""3

they
could not
correctly explain phenomena, because
in possession of the correct
explanations. This

they

struct
con-

they
not

were

looks

like

very

truism.

The

question

ideas ?
their

failure.

The

readily admitted
by simply stating,in
be explained.

such

asked

by

their

explanation
circumlocutory

is

ideas
Dr.

of

apparent

was

it will

And
cause

manner,

very

be

given

be

can

the

in

himself

Whewell

failure?

no
a

appropriate (true)

Greeks

not

fact to

Scarcely; his
decisive ; the only possible ambiguity
In his subsequent
appropriate ideas."

misunderstood

have

we

of

cause

that

Can

the

question

the

was

Had

they had

fact that

The

What

was,

not,

was

Dr.

Whewell?

plain and
must
phrase
The
work,
Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences,' he is at some
pains to explain what he understands
by the phrase. He says
be obtained
could
ever
genuine advance
very justly that "no
in mechanics
by applying to the subjects the ideas of space
in chemistry by the use
and
of mere
time merely : no advance
mechanical
conceptions: no discovery in physiology by referring
chemical
and mechanical
facts to mere
principles." This is very
does
imagine, in
true, and adapted to his purpose
not, we
; but
his
Greek
remarks
bear
out
on
philosophy.
previous
any
way
that the Greeks
In
the first place, it is by no
true
means
when
in error.
always applied "inappropriate ideas," even
Their
the
too
gefieraiisations
were
hasty, and here mainly was
still
of their errors.*
have
In the
second
to
cause
place we
learn the reasons
them
which caused
to apply inappropiateideas,
language
be

in the

"

'

if

would

we

intellectual

learn

the

their

of

cause

lailure.

of

Men

vast

of
discerning the real connections
question is,why did they fail ?
phenomena.
The
Greeks
believe, because
failed,we
they sought false
mefAod
and
science
/becaiuse they made
employed 2^ false
objects^
when
for
of
science
science's
and
a
metaphysics ;
pursuing
part
method.
sake, they employed a wrong
They did not acquire
"

reviewer

is asciibed

light ;
to

and

W.

Mr.

rectilinear
is

not

He

givt
not

rays^

Live

but
from

read

Aristotle

mentions

never

Aristotle
he

does

the

gives

explanation
given, and

an

himself.

deducible

have

we
"

"

hini.

to

he

could

Newton

this

writing

Since

Whewell's

fail in

powers
The

not

much

this idei."

"

of the
which

no

following confirmation
by Dr.
explanation as that which

such
the

circular

phenomenon
would

have

of

the

sun*s

it is manifest
dons

discredit

appropriate idea of
that
the phenomenon
he
prove?
Rev., Jan. 1842.

only applies
more,
Edin.

not

nature

which

the

BACON'S

364

METHOD.

with
such objects,
and with such a
appropriateideas," because
And
the few
scientific
methody they could not acquire them.
*'

due
either to mathematics
to an
they did acquire were
or
empirical,consequently an unscientific method.
is no novelty of ours
This
which
the best
answer
; it is that
have
thinkers
careful inspection of
given ; it is that which
a

ideas

theories

ancient

easilyassign

must

at

If it be correct,

suggest.

once

shall

we

his historical

position ; if it be incorrect,
if Dr. WhewelVs
and
opinion be accepted, it will be difficult to
fills in the historyof science
place Bacon
: he certainly
say what
leave
did
mankind
rich inheritance
not
of
a
appropriate
Bacon

to

**

ideas ;

*'

"that

being by

but

left mankind

he

these

the rich
aids

inheritance

of

method

and

appliances freed and

defended
from
lend
wanderings and impediments, men
may
their hands
also to the labours
which
remain
be
to
performed."
did
He
teach
not
men
appropriate ideas, but he taught them
how
they might acquire them.
our

CHAPTER

in.

bacon's

method.

'

purely expository ; and as the exposition

has
been
method
of Bacon's
given by Professor
Playfair, in
the
his 'Dissertation
Progress of Physical Science,' so
on
shall
clearly and so fully as to leave nothing to desire, we
simply abridge it.
the rules of his method
Bacon
Before laying down
proceeds
chapter will

This

the

enumerate

to

in his
had

so

be

of

causes

error

figurativelanguage, or
accustomed
long been

enumeration

likelyto return,

Idola

bow.*

to

divides

into four

he

terms

which

them,
mind

the

considered

the

this

idols

same

were

of science.

classes, viz.

Idols

Tribus

to

He

more

even

idols he

These

false divinities

that
necessary,
after the reformation

the

as

the IdolSy as

"

"

of the Tribe.

....

of the

Specus

"

Den.

"

Fori

of the Forum.

Theatri

of the

Theatre.

....

Mr.

writers

made

was

the

first to

point

out

the

mistake

which

all modem

used
as
meaning
but
idol^
mean
[ndiaXov)
false appearance
Lit, of Europe^ vol. iii. pp. 194-6.

respecting

does
not
; which
in Hallam*s
passage

Bacon
the

Hallam
have

the

of

the

jrd

Idol,

by
See

METHOD.

BACON'S

The

1.

human

Idols of the

Tribe

the

are

in

"

The

3*5
of

causes

founded

error

mind,** he observes,

on

is not

general.
plane mirror, which reflects the images of things exactly
of an
surface, which
uneven
as
they are ; it is like ^themirror
combines
its own
figure with the figures of the object it
represents."
the idols of this class we
reckon
the propensity
Among
may
there is in all men
which
plicity,
to find a greater degree of order, simis actually indicated
and
vation.
regularity, than
by obserThus
as
as
men
soon
perceived the orbits of the
into themselves, they immediately supposed
planets to return
in those
circles to
them
the motion
to be perfect circles,and
these
uniform
and
be
to
/
hypotheses the astronomers
; and
of all antiquitylaboured
mathematicians
incessantlyto reconcile
like

nature

**

their observations.

propensity which Bacon

the spiritof system.

The
called

here

has

characterized

be

may

The

Idols

peculiar
error

of

character
to

common

dark

whose

shrine

Some

minds

things,others

the

all

mankind,

the

to

catch

best
at

of

is often

adapted
the

the

Besides

individual

each

which

obscurity

truth

are

individual.

into

spring

which

those

are

of

in the

and

Den

den,

or

cavern,

admitted,
at

the

the
which

the

from

of

causes

has

his

own

light is imperfectly
a
tutelaryidol lurks,

sacrificed.
to

mark

resemblances

the

of

dififerences of

things. Steady
carefully,

profound understandings are disposed

proceed slowly,and to examine the most minute differences ;
sublime
active are
and
while those that are
ready to lay hold
of the slightestresemblances.
of these easilyruns
into
Each
the
one
by catching continually at distinctions,the
excess;

and

to

attend

to

other

affinities.

at

those which
of the
arise out
of the Forum
are
also which
arise from language.
of society,and those
intercourse
it
their words
believe that their thoughts govern
Men
; but
kind
that
of reaction
their words
also happens by a certain
pernicious
frequently govern their thoughts. This is the more
that words
divide
of the multitude
being generally the work
conspicuous to vulgar apprethings according to the lines most
hensions.
words
Hence
when
are
examined, few instances
are
in which, if at all abstract, they convey
found
ideas
tolerably
3.

Idols

The

preciseand
The

from

the deceptions which

of the Theatre
are
dogmas of different schools.

Idols
the

defined.
have

arisen

BACON'S

366

METHOD.

existed, so
worlds
been
had
brought
imaginary
Theatri,
of Idola
the name
They
As

S3rstems

many

iaaperceptiblylike
and

acquire them,
and study.

his

of

Book

Second

they

other
are

the

often

Organum

to

the

upon
do

three;

preliminary discussions

these

After

the

representations of

many

as

the

enter

not

result

of

Bacon

proceeds
and

mind

labour

must

man

describe

Hence

stage.

great

to

learning
in

the

exemplify the

of induction.

nature

first

The

object

be

must

to

history of the
modificationsand
not
only all such

prepare

explained, in all their

This
varieties.
history is to comprehend
facts as spontaneously offer themselves, but all the experiments
instituted for the sake
of discoveryor for any of the purposes
with great care
It ought to be composed
of the useful arts.
;
and
facts
the
related
their
distinctly arranged;
accurately
those
that
rest
doubtful
on
authenticity diligentlyexamined;
evidence
though not rejected,yet noted as uncertain, with the
last is very necesThis
sary,
grounds of the judgment so formed.
because
incredible
for facts
often
only
we
are
appear
and
marvellous
when
ledge
knowto
cease
ill-informed,
our
appear
phenomena

to

be

is further

extended.

record

This

of

facts

is Natural

History,
History being prepared of any class of phenomena,
is
the next
to
discover,by
a
comparison of the
object
of these
different
Bacon
facts, the cause
or
phenomena,
as
The
form gf any quality in a body is somecalls it,the form.
thing
convertible
with that quality ; that is, where
it exists the
in bodies
be
the thing
quality exists : thus if transparency
wherever
inquired after, the form of it is something found
Thus
there is transparency.
in this
form differs from cause
Natural

The

only

we

call it form

quality; we

call

it

or

cause

essence

when

when
the

the

effect is

effect is

permanent

change

or

an

event.

other

objects, subordinate
to formsy but often essential
the
of them, are
also occasionally subjects of
to
knowledge
These
latent
the
latens
investigation.
are
proprocess,
and
the
latent
IcUens
schemaiismus.
The
cessus
schematism,
;
and
is the secret
invisible progress
former
sensible
by which
in Bacon's
brought about, and seems
changes are
acceptation
the principle since
called the law
involve
to
of continuity^
small
be effected
according to which no change however
can
Two

but

in time.

To

know

the relation

between

the

time

and

the

J^ACON^S

METHOD,

in it would

change effected

367

perfect knowledge of
In the firingof a cannon,
the latent process.
for example, the
of events
the applisuccession
cation
during the short interval between
the expulsion of the ball, constitutes
and
of the match
of a very remarkable
and
latent process
a
complicated nature,
with
trace
can
now
some
which, however, we
degree of
accuracy.
latent
The

schematism

be

have

to

is that

invisible

bodies

of

structure

their

When
properties depend.
we
internal
into
constitution
into
the
of
the
inquire
crystals,or
matism.
of plants, "c., we are examining into the latent schestructure

which

on

so

order

In

of

many

inquireinto

to

the

form

anything by induction,
ing
to begin considerare

of

all the

facts,we
having brought together
what thingsare thereby excluded from
This

forms.

conclusion

Thus

if

in

of transparency

cause

is transparent,
well

as

as

dense

these

qualitywhich

the

fact

the

from

the

causes,

is the
mond
dia-

the

that

duction.
in-

of

process

rarityor porosity
being a very

diamond

or

those

where

is

the/"fw

wanting

to

be

collected.

glass when

That
fact

possible

body.

Negative instances,
also

bodies

the

immediately exclude

we

fluidityfrom

solid and

inquiringinto

of

number

first part of

is the

are

we

the

the

when

collections

form

of

; also

that

facts

thus

The

transparency.

should
affiri^ative,

negative

for the

sake

of

to tables.

exemplifieshis

Bacon

not

negative and

reference,be reduced

is

transparent

transparency is inquired into

have

of vapours

collected, both

is not

pounded

subject of Heat
; and
of treating
though his collection of facts be imperfect, his method
is extremely judicious,* and
them
the whole
disquisition
highly interesting.
After

few

great

we

as

did
"

; and

cause

try if it will

to

are

the

to

have

every

by

account

the

on

exclusions

many

principles common

assumed

method

case,

process

appear

perhaps be

competent

to

to

from

determine
the

beyond

the

form

first consideration

the power

of

made,

and

of these

one

left but
is

man,

or

to

Bacon

angels
essence

that

he

be

says,

gences
intelli-

superior
tions
directly,by affirmaor

of the subject ; but it is certainly

it is only given to
to whom

A
different opinion from
that of Prof. Playfairrespectingthis
gation will be hereafter quoted from John Mil].
"

to

reasoning from it synthetically

for the phenomena.
So necessary

this exclusive

It may

been

investi-

BACON'S

36S

proceed

firstby

at

after
affirmatives,
of them

Some

in the

in the

negatives, and
exclusion

the

is, however,

There

METHOD.

show

in

difference

thing sought

the

in

end

everything else."

of

great

place to

last

the

in the

for

of

value

facts.

highest degree,
uncombined, in

it

simple and
others
it appears
with a variety of circumstances.
confused
facts are
Some
easily interpreted,others are very obscure, and
of the light thrown
understood
are
on
only in consequence
them
This
led
of
his consideration
Bacon
to
by the former.
of facts as
Prerogative Instances, or the comparative value
of discovery. He
different
enumerates
means
twenty-seven
ourselves
with giving only the
content
species; but we must
most
important.
I. InstanticB solitaries .' which
either examples of the same
are
quality existingin two bodies otherwise different,or of a quality
In the first instance
differingin two bodies otherwise the same.
the bodies
differ in all things but one
;Mn the second
they agree
in all but one.
Thus
if the cause
or
form of colour be inquired
in crystals,prisms, drops of
found
into, instantice solitaricB are
dew, which occasionally exhibit colour, and yet have nothing in
with
metals
the stones, flowers,and
which
common
possess
colour
itself. Hence
Bacon
permanently, except the colour
concludes
that colour
is nothing else than a modification
of the
by the different degrees
rays of lightproduced in the first case
of incidence
second
of the
constitution
or
by the texture
; and
some

lowest

of bodies.

surface

these

fixingon

may

be

examples,

for

He

afterwards

Newton

The

II.

found

instantice

body passing from

greater
the

from

or

considered
it

migrantes

to

less ;

to

greater

colourless,but
with

case

III.

water

The

migrans is
pulverized becomes

unbroken

Instantice

particularproperty
when

or

another, either from

perfection in

its

it,or
If the

is itself of

weight
or

the

such

of air

dixt

highest

it is either freed from

white.
into

force

were

barometer,

as

facts

state

of

which

entirelyto

an

of whiteness

The

entire
is the

same

which

power

enquired into, the

affords

second.

foam.

the

impediments

the

less to

glass,which

in

found

dashed

ostensivce
in

that

of

property

some

arriving nearer

instantia

an

in

fortunate

of them
by means
composition of light.

exhibit

condition

one

very

was

the

out

as

first case, or verging towards

in the
extinction
the cause
Suppose the thing enquired into were

in bodies
is

exhibit

; some

show
and

energy,

usually
repress

some

act
counter-

those

Torricellian

ostensive

pediments
im-

periment,
ex-

instance^where

THE

370

did

He

himself

content

not

BACON'S

OF

SPIRIT

WORKS.

tellingmen

with

to

make

vations
obser-

and
experiments : he told them how observations
himself
did not
He
content
experiments ought to be made.
method
of investigationto be that of
with stating the proper
and

induction

founded

improper

inductions

"

of

have

to

from

distinguishedproper

"interrogation"

the

"

he

pation
"antici-

the

from

Nature.

did

He

facts

upon

he

this,and

two

parts

the

did

His

more.

that

one,
that

method

said

be
may
of rules

precise system

just

and
wise
pre-eminently scientific
spoken of; the other,
This latter has given
spiritwhich breathes
through his works.
wise and
form
those
us
weighty aphorisms which
perpetual
It is this,more
than his rules^
for philosophicalwriters.
texts
which
the magnificence and
reveals to us
profundity of his
It is this which
views.
show's
how
us
completely he saw
how
of his day, and
justly he is
through the false methods
entitled the father of positive science.
These
have
aphorisms form, as we
said, perpetual texts.
is treated
in which
method
They are quoted on all occasions
We
of by scientific men.
however, resist quoting a
cannot,
of them
half-dozen
of their exceeding value, and
here, because
^

illustrations of his greatness :

the minister and interpreterof Nature,

of their fitness
I.

Man,

as

in

understand
observed

"

far

as

order

the

he

as

of

has, either in fact

Nature;

he

more

or

act

can

in

thought,

neither

can

and

know

do.

nor

The

II.

is this

real

and

cause

of almost

root

falselyjnagnify ifig and

seek not
its real helps.

that

mindj

we

III.
truth

There

the one,

from

ways
sense

general axioms, and

most

their unshaken
is the
and

two

are

truths finds
in

method

use

particularsby

arrives
hitherto
IV.

at

the

most

; but

all the

extollingthe powers

searching after

of

evils in science

and

of

the

discovering

particulars,rises directlyto the

and

restingupon

these

intermediate

out

the

other

raises

and
principles,

axioms, and
axioms

from

this
sense

gradual ascent, till at last it

is the true way, but
general axioms, which
continued

and

untried.
The

understanding,when

takes
the first of
itself,
these ways,
for the mind
delightsin springing up to the most
general axioms, that it may find rest ; but after a short stay
there, // disdains experience,and these mischiefs are at length
increased
by logicfor the ostentation of disputes.
V.
The
natural human
reasoning we, for the sake of clear-

left to

THE

SPIRIT

OF

tiess, call the anticipationof nature,

thing -. and the reason
duly exercised

interpretationof
VI.

things, since
relation

all

to man,

to

and

rash

hasty

call the

objects,we

upon

that human

assert

perceptions, both
and

not

understanding
things,which, mixing

human

distorts and

being

as

371

nature.

is false

It

WORKS.

BACON'S

relation

with

is like
its

of

and

sense

to the

universe

nature

with

the

with

are

but

the

to

of

measure

mind,

unequal mirror

an

own

is the

sense

the

rays

of

of things,

nature

them.

perverts

these
half-dozen
only consider
aphorisms to see
the positive tendency of his speculations ; but the greater the
his writings, the
attention
is this fact
bestow
we
on
more
pressed on our notice. This indeed is the scope of his writings.
His mind
to all metaphysics. Neither
the ingenuities
was
averse
the passionate earnestness
of logicians,
of theologians, in
nor
that age of logicians
and
theologians,could lure him from his
lived in an
path. "He
age," says Mr. Macaulay, "in which
disputeson the most subtle points of divinityexcited an intense
interest throughout Europe, and nowhere
than in England.
more
in
He
He
was
placed in the very thick of the conflict.
was
of the Synod of Dort
for months
at the time
must
power
; and
with talk about
have been
election, reprobation,
daily deafened
We

and

need

final

his works

perseverance
from which

Calvinist

or

with

noise

the

an

yet

it

can

Arminian.
of

do

we

be

remember

not

inferred

While

the

that
world

disputatioustheology

and

he
was
a

line

either

was

in
a

resounding
disputatious

philosophy, the Baconian

school,like AUworthy seated between
and
Thwackum
neutrality, half
Square, preserved a calm
with adding to the sum
scornful, half benevolent, and content
of practicalgood, left the war
of words
liked it."
who
to those
It may
how
be
at once
not
eminently scientific a
apparent
in Bacon's
spiritis shown
separation of science from theology ;
that at such
but a slightreflection will convince
an
us
epoch
such
The
conception v/as wonderful.
persecution of Galileo
a
fresh in every
one's
his recantation,were
by the Church, and
that religionwas
still conand
sufficient to show
are
sidered
memory,
is this
the
arbiter of philosophy and
science; nor
notion
The
gists
objections raised against the geoloyet extinct.
still operate
the
universal
to
a
powerful obstacle
as
acceptation of the science; and
only a few years ago Mr.
*

This

is Dr.

horainis, non

enough,

but

ex

Shaw's

translation.

The

which
analogia universi,'*

difficult to render.

original is **sunt
is intelligible and

ex

analof^^.
expressive

SPIRIT

THE

37a

celebrated

Crosse's

by
the

assertion

will

not

that

; but

Bacon

he

But

this

the

did

not

to

far

greater

and

as
reason

by
men
"

objections will always be

this distinction,and
one
great
it.

enforce

step

one

faith

down

long

As

between

himself

merely separate
but

was

and

other

was

put

insects

of

such

"

clearly saw

of his method

aim

science

religionand

be

to

Atheism."

to

distinction

the

production

the

on

endeavonred

"led

they

understand

between
made

experiments

electricity
were

of

means

WORK^.

BACON^S

OP

towards

the

positivism.
he

step when

from

sicians
metaphyHe

look

emphatically proclaimed

so

sciences."
of all the
the
mother
physics was
be gathered
of his age
That
this was
greatly in advance
may
that
from
the fact of its to this day remaining a heresy ; and
in spite of Dr.
Amott,
Auguste Comte, and John Mill, the
and
notion of morals
methods, and
politicshaving the same
treatment
physics,is looked
as
being susceptible of the same
"

that

upon
Now

as

fanciful,if
let

us

not

listen

absurd.
to

of

Speaking

Bacon.

the

of

causes

"

second
A
cause
preceding philosophers, he says :
is that through all those ages wherein
of very
great moment
of genius and
men
learning principally or even
moderately
the smallest
floturished,
industry has been spent
part of human
natural
as
philosophy, though this ought to be esteemed
upon

in

errors

from
the great mother
of the sciences ; for all the rest, if torn
for use, but can
this root, may
perhaps be polished and formed

receive

littleincrease
let

promotion of

sciences,
especiallyin their effective part, unless natural philosophy be
drawn
out to particular sciences ; and again, unless these particular
sciences be brought bcuk again to natural
this
philosophy. From
mechanic
defect it is that astronomy,
optics,music, many
arts,
moral
and
civil philosophy, and
and, what
seems
stranger, even
their foundations, and
logiCyrise but little above
only skim
the varieties and
surfaces
of things, viz.,because, after
over
these
and
divided
particularsciences are formed
ofif,they are
longer nourished
no
might give
by natural philosophy, which
them
if the
strength and increase ; and therefore no wonder
sciences thrive not, when
separated from their roots."*
in consequence
of his having so profoundly penetrated
It was
that Bacon
of science
able
the very nature
to lay down
was
of experimental inquiries,
before
the rules for the conduct
any
"

But

none

expect

any

great

the

"

such

inquirieshad

yet been
"

*Nov.

instituted.

Og.,*

I.

Aph.

The
79, 80.

power

and

com*

pass

of

mind

trace

which

merely

not

ramifications

OF

SPIRIT

THE

of

the

could

BACON'S

form

outline

sciences

such

but

which

WORKS.

plan beforehand, and

of

many

did

373

the

minute

most

be an
exist,must
to all succeeding ages."*
object of admiration
from metaphysics and
In his separation of science
theology,
the
in his conception of physics as
mother
and
of all the
the
eminently positive spirit of his works ;
see
sciences, we
him
and
He
this makes
indeed
entirely a modern.
was
so
the first to expose
was
thoroughly opposed to antiquity, and
of reverence.
The
the fallacyof a supposed
debt
opinion
entertain
which
of
idle
is
said
he,
antiquity a very
thing,"
men
and
almost
incongruous to the word ; for the old age and
should
accounted
in realitybe
length of days of the world
be
attributed
to our
times, not to
own
antiquity; and ought to
it enjoyed among
the
which
the youth of the world
ancients,
ancient
it
with
and
for that
be
to
us
though
respect
age,
and less."
new
greater, yet with regard to the world it was
of Bacon's
The
reader
can
now
scarcely entertain a doubt
of
the
Father
title
of
claim to
Experimental Philosophy ; but
while endeavouring to indicate the spiritof his works
must
we
also to show
this spiritwas
endeavour
that
at that time
neiv
animated
it was
that
radically opposed to the spirit which
not

yet

"

**

"

earlier speculators.
What

the

was

error

of

the

ancients

We

declared

before

pursuit of an object impossible to attain :

a
knowledge of things in themselves^ and of course
beyond the
of
when
scientific
human
they made
sphere
apprehension. And
false
method.
investigations,they were
guided by a
understood
this well.
Bacon
He
bore
testimony to the
genius of several of the ancients, while he declared that their
them
genius availed
nothing, because
wrongly employed ;
in
his
in
usual
the
adding,
a
right way may
cripple
manner,
in
the
fleeter
the racer
the
beat
a
racer
is,
one.
Nay,
wrong
that

to

error

be

the

'

"

who
"

We

has

missed

once

have

an

his way, the farther he leaves it behind."

example," he says, " in Aristotle,who
corrupted

philosophy with Logic,

being all along more
and
how
defend
themselves
men
might
by answers,
advance
than
be positivein words
to
something that should
his books
It is true
at the inward
truth of nature,
come
of animals, problems, and
other
of
frequent use
pieces,make
without
their
but
then
he
first pronounced
experiments ;
did
and
not
assistance,
duly consult
experience in forming

natural

solicitous

"

Playfair.

BACON'S

OF

SPIRIT

THE

374

WORKS.

degrees and axioms ; but after he had passed judgment

humour, he winds
experience round, and
according to his own
Another
leads her captive to his own
opinions.
great
his

of the

reason

slow

progress
proceed well

impossible to
rightlyfixed
the

sciences

inventions
works

and

defined.

is

other

and

new

the

in

than

is

genuine

end

Hfe with

human

Fruits

it is

that

end

the

and

true

enrich

to

is this

where

course

the

sciences

Now

powers.
vouchers

the

as

are

no

of

not

of
new

discoveries

and

of

securities

and

for

the

of

truth

philosophies of the Greeks; and

for the space
their descents
through particular sciences, now
of so many
be produced
a
single experiment can
scarce
years
of man,
that
improve the state
tending to accommodate
or
doctrines
be justly attributed
of
to the
speculations and
may
their
the
of
Therefore, since the end
philosophy.
has
hitherto
well
been
defined
sciences
not
by any one, we
need
wonder
if men
have erred and wandered
in the things
not
end.
subservient
the proper
to
Again, if this end had been
have
chosen
and
a
rightly proposed, yet men
very
wrong
And
with
it may
strike any one
impassable way to proceed in.

philosophies.

from

But

the

...

astonishment
hitherto

who

have

considers

duly

taken

to

care

it, that
and

open

should

mortal

no

a
prepare
way
well-conducted

the

for

and
a
sense
understandings from
rience
expeshould
all
be
the
darkness
but
that
either
left
to
things
;
of argument,
of tradition,the giddy agitation and whirlwind
or
of accident, or a vague
formed
uninelse to the uncertain
and
waves
what
the
experience. Let any one
soberly conoMer

human

way

is

inquiry
that

the

which

have

men

discovery

and

of

of

themselves

accustomed

anything,

invention

he

and

will

to,

doubtless

in

the

find

n^v^ is simple
commonly
and
unartful
other
than
when
on
no
: or
this,vi?*
a
person
and
out
an
inquiry, in the first place he searches
goes
upon
what
said
has
been
it by others ; in the next
peruses
upon
his
adds
own
place,
thoughts thereto ; and lastly,with great
invokes, as it were, his own
struggle of the mind, solicits and
tute
spiritto deliver him oracles : which is a method
entirelydestiof foundation, and
rolls wholly upon
opinions. Others
call in the assistance
of logic ; but this is only a nominal
may
assistance, for logicdoes not discover the principlesand capital
axioms
which
arts
are
built,but only such as seem
upon
able
agreemanner

most

thereto
to

procure
refers them

3 and

when

men

discover

proofs,
to
faith, or
and

are

puts

curious

and

principles
them

off

or

with

earnest

first

this

with

axioms,

it,
it

trite and

SPIRIT

THE

common

answer

OF

that

"

BACON'S

WORKS.

artist

every

must

be

the

idea

375

believed

in

his

art."

own

Dugald Stewart* well

physical science (which

that

"

says,

of

the

object of
work
ground-

be

justly regarded as the

of Bacon's
Novum
what
from
Organum) differs essentially
entertained
was
by the ancients,according to whom
Philosophy
If
indeed
is the science of causes.*
by causes
they had meant
antecedents
forerunners
of events,
the
or
merely the constant
would
coincided
with
definition
have
the
statement
nearly
have
it
is
evident
which
I
that by causes
given. But
they meant
such
connected
antecedents
with the effects,
as
were
necessarily
the eflfects might be foreseen
and from the knowledge of which
And
it was
of the
and demonstrated.
owing to this confusion
and
metaphysics that,neglecting the
objects of physics
proper
of their senses,
observation
of facts exposed to the examination
they vainly attempted, by synthetical reasoning,to deduce
as
from
their supposed causes
the phenomena
consequences
necessary
may

and

Stewart

Dugald
that

of nature."

laws

know

to

and

cause;

also

the

physical

observes,

^Xki physical
efficient
the

theories

is also

cause

this

from

that
csM'SitSi

traced

history of

declaration

express
know
to

disposition

be

rsi^y

in the

recorded

Aristotle's

quotes

the

the

efficient

confound

to

greater part of

philosophy.

It

is this

given rise to the attempts, both in ancient and

for all the
of moving
modem
times, to account
phenomena
bodies by impulse ; and it is this also which
has suggested the
of minds
by the agency
simpler expedient of explainingthem
which

has

with

united
theories

the
also

may

of

Bacon's

fame,
scope
method

He

as

to

teach

the

men

of their faculties ; and

these faculties
whereon

thus

not

the

of

only

stands

"

In

phrases borrowed

of

real
to

by

logy
ana-

beings.
it has

as

object

furnish

might

be

clearly out

long-agitatedantagonism

of

them

been

science
with

his
and

during
en-

the

proper

successfullyemployed.
history as the exponent

in
to

all

the ancient

and

of the rapidlyincreasing
thinkers,but also as
exponent
tendency towards positivescience.
All his predecessors, even
is essentiallymodem.
in
the

scholastic

He

class

of

endeavour,

constant

last

physical
explanations
nature's
sympathies, antipathies,

other
"c.,
vacuum,
the attributes of animated

was

this

the

and

from
It

causes

To

matter.

referred

be

by such

phenomena
horror

particlesof

the

chap.iv.

excellent

sect,

i,

chapter

on

Indnctipn,

'Philos.

of

Mind,' vol, ji,

attacks

boldest

their

BACON*

OF

SPIRIT

THE

376

ancient

upon

WORKS,

themselves

philosophy,were

Ramus
spiritof that which they opposed.
is the child of Aristotle,though he raised his hand
against his
modem
in culture, in object, and
in
But Bacon
father.
was
He
attacked
the ancient
method.
philosophy without having
he saw
that a
it : he attacked
it because
thoroughly understood

closely allied

which

method

conclusions

conducted
those

as

Whence

**

the

to

in vogue

then

physicalsystems

which

absurd

such

necessarilybe

must
"

arise,"he asks,

can

in all the

intelligencesto

great

such
have

sterility

and

vagueness

hitherto

false.

existed

in

the

certainlyfrom any thing in nature

itself;for
the steadiness and
regularityof the laws by which it is governed
them
out as objects
of preciseand certain knowledge,
clearlymark
of abilityin those
it arise from any want
Neither
who
can
of whom
have been
of
have pursued such inquiries,many
men
the highest talent and
genius of the ages in which they lived ;
It is not

world?

'^

it

and

arise

therefore

can

nothing

from

of methods
insufficiency
a world
sought to make

which

and

ness

have

else

their

perversepursued. Men

been

have

the

but

conceptions, and
from
their own
minds
all the materials
which
to draw
ployed
they emconsulted
; but if,instead of doing so, they had
rience
expehave
had
and
facts and
observation,they would
not
might have ultimately arrived
about, and
opinions to reason
at

knowledge

the
"

things are

As

positions^which
round

so

at

fixed

many

things are

ill suited

accounted

own

which

the material
world.
govern
sudden
transition is
conducted
a

particularfacts

objects and

are

revolve.
all

present

sensible

from

made

of the laws

from

principles,and

general pro*
round
which, as

poles, disputation and

the

From

to

argument

tinually
con-

propositionsthus hastilyassumed

derived

by a process compendious and precipitate^

to
discovery, but wonderfully accommodated

to

debate.
"

The

way

requires that we
things to those
others

is the reverse
of this. It
promises success
should genercUizeslowly, going from particular
that are
but one
step more
general ; from those to

that

of stillgreater extent, and

By such

so

on

arrive

to

such

as

are

universal.

principlesnot vague
and
and
Nature
well defined, such
obscure, but luminous
as
herself will not refuse to acknowledge."
In this pregnant
he
has
clearlyenough pointed out
passage
the positionwhich
his philosophy was
to occupy.
Many other
philosophers, as Professor
Macvey
Napier remarks, "both
ancient

means

and

we

may

modern,

hope

had

to

referred

to

at

observation

and

cxperi-

METHOD

coirs

BA

f^AS

37"

his greatness, for his remarks

first written.

when

often

are

the

Hence

OWNf

HIS

applicable now

as

quotations from

of

frequency

as

observes, are
quotations,as Dr. Whewell
even
by metaphysical, ethical, and
frequently made
more
of works
on
theologicalwriters, than they are by the authors
these

; and

Bacon

For

Physics.

generation, then, whatever

present

assertion

has

it

that

asserted

have

is useless.

Method

works. Bacon's

of Bacon's
writers

the

attention.
they demand
to Bacon's
The
objections made
It
It was
nothing new
I St.
\ 2nd.
investigation; 3rd. It was already

abroad, and

then

modem

Method

useless

was

in the

latent

by

kinds

of three

are

this

and

plausible,that

so

elicited

been

have

must

Some

alwa3rs useless;

was

supported by arguments

been

the value

guide to
scientific spirit
as

some

sooner

one

later.

or

"It

nothing new."

was

We

select

de

Maistre

chapter

and

to

that

prove

very

and

Mr.

written

has

former

Induction

Bacon's

of Aristotle

The

Macaulay.

Mr.

Induction

the

frequent objection.
Joseph
worthy antagonists,the Count

of the most

two

is

This

long

is

than
nothing more
Macaulay, who
adopts

show
several
vivacious
to
opinion, devotes
pages
M.
de
that everybody unconsciously practisesthis Method.
is a vehement
de la PhUosophie de Bacon^
Maistre's
Examm

the

same

Bacon, written with the celebrated

upon
than his usual arrogance
vivacity,but with more
there

As

of
at

things in
the prejudices and

are

loss

no

find

to

in the

excites

dispassionate reader
him

analysed it before
of

not

ever

true

only

truth, and
Bacon

smile.

of

treats

First,

his ments
arguhad
Aristotle

What

are

That

secondly. That

Induction

what

Induction

that Aristotle
that

it

was

asserts

told

us

Bacon

analysed it,as

he

pronounce
it

he

when

is

only

one

syllogism.

It is true

is

Method?

against Bacon's
form

ridicule ; but

he only
Spiritas contemptible puerilities,

and

Method

Bacon's

errors

for

matter

and

passion.
either hasty, inexact, or partaking
of his age, his antagonist is

Bacon

many

usual

author's

attack

to

served
not

be

half

Induction

Method

the

him

as
so

to

one

much

of

of
the

has

done

inquiry :
means

; but

was

did he

; nor
on

it

the

trary,
con-

ascertaining
the Syllogism.

of

be

employed as
the only Method,

his

of the

and

has

no

syllogism which
catch
the
things slip through." In
may
might as well declare
short, as Dugald Stewart observes, we
that the ancients had anticipatedNewton
because
they too used

words

too

strong

to

express
assent, but

scorn

lets the

'^

BACON'S

WAS

word

the

M.

But

anticipated Bacon

Aristotle

Totoi)T05

is

Syllogism are
Aristotle clearly
term
(cort Sc 6

and
?

the middle
syllogism without
t^s vpwrrjs Kal avicov
orv\Xoyi"y/xo5

it : It

379

Induction."*

"

that
Induction
says
bottom, what is Induction

At

same.

saw

OWNf

Maistre

de
"

the

speaks of

too

HIS

that

"attraction," as
he

because

METHOD

"

AnaL

Trporacrco)?.

priorii. 1 2.)
"

What

it

signifywhether

simple being is
indestructible by nature
fore^
a
simple beings there; now
my
I say directly My soul is simple^therefore
"c. ; or whether
In either case
it is the syllogism which
is
it is indestructible.
virtuallyin the induction, as it is in the enthymem."
be thrown
into
Now
it is quite true that every induction
may
the form
of syllogismby supplying the major premiss ; and
it
conclude
that inducled Archbishop Whately
tion
to
is this which
of ratiocination,and
itself is but a peculiar ^se
that the
universal type of all reasoning is the syllogism. We
cannot
Mill
in holding precisely the
with John
but agree
reverse
opinion, and believingthat ratiocination itselfis resolvable into
does

say
soul is

every

"

"

Induction.t

this

Be

illustration of

an

in the

passage
induction

very

If every

by supplying

who

one

Syllogism is
from

that

difference
has

afforded

Aristotle

and

us

Bacon

into the form

read

seek

must

we

Inductive
h

between

syllogism
this major

way
real

difference

Methods:

that

that

and

i^posteriori.

priori and

knows

Bacon

the

of

his

for the

scorn

of

ratiocination,but as
duce
investigation. He
objects to proceeding to deaxiom
not
accurately and inductively obtained,
in the axiom,
which
very well be contained
may
relation to the truth of things.
The
axioms
no
not

of

means

has

major premiss,it is in the

the

is the

difference

Maistre

de

between

be thrown

can

Syllogisticand

the

between

M.

quoted.

is established

premiss

Every

the

it may,
difference
as

an

consequences
but yet have

for it

scorn

as

form

"

experience and a few obvious

particulars,are
generally applied in a corresponding manner;
wonder
Again : ** SylloJ
no
particulars."
they lead not to new
gism
consists of propositions,
propositionsof words, and words
in

the

are

to

derived
being^

use

signs of notions

Philos.

we

See

of

the

consult

notion

from

Nov.

Mind/

slender

therefore, if

vol. ii. chap. iv. sect.

whole

It contains

our

2.

notions^the
The

reader

basis

will

refutation

chapter.
triumphant
are
examining.
System of Logic : Ii^ductiveand Katiocinative,' vol. i. pp.

Org.,' Aph. 25.

do
of

of
well
the

372, 3,

confused, and

(illi
are
that

BACON*

PVAS

38o

genuine
Nothing can

upon

difference

between

well
very
him and
say

and

he

upon

sophistry. He
he was
warning
to

out

them

the

was

be

can
^"^

Induction,

be

hastily taken

aver-

them

is built upon

HIS

METHOD

OWN

from

firm ; whence

our

things, nothinjg
only hope rests

explicit. Bacon

well
knew
the
very
his Method
and
that of the Aristotelians
;
To
this
round
difiference.
turn
expressed
more

is itself but

all Induction

giving a

not

Syllogism, is mere
logical analysis of the mind

against long-standingerrors, and

men

pointing

of truth.

path

To
of a diflferent stamp.
us
are
Macaula/s
arguments
only ingenious and plausible; and so ingenious and
they seem
followers.
They are mostly true
plausible as to gain many
so
the real
far as
to
to
to us
as
they go, but do not appear
go
shall select the main
point. We
parts of his opposition:
method
has
since the
inductive
The
been
practised ever
human
by every
stantly
beginning of the world
being. It is conpractised by the most
ignorant clown \ who
by this
is led to the conclusion, that if he sows
method
barley he shall
A plain man
of order.
finds his stomach
out
not
reap wheat.
Bacon's
heard of Lord
he proceeds in
But
He
name.
never
the rules laid down
in the second
the strictest conformity with
*
Novum
book of the
Organum,' and satisfies himself that mince
I ate mince
pies have done the mischief.
pieson Monday and
and
by indigestion all night.'
was
Wednesday,
kept awake
intellectum
convenienThis
is the comparentia ad
instantiarum
I did not
tium.
I was
eat
on
Tuesday and Friday, and
any
is
the
in proximo
quite well,' This
comparentia instantiarum
data
I ate very sparingly of them
on
privantur,
guos natura
and
in
But
the evening.
was
Sunday,
vesy slightlyindisposed
almost
ill
I
dined
Christmas
that
on
day
them, and was
on
so
is
in some
This
the
I was
danger.'
comparentia instantiarum
It
secondum
minus,
be the
cannot
I
magis et
brandy which
with them
for
have
drunk
took
for
I
without
brandy
;
yeaps
it.'
This
the
for
is
the
We
worse
being
rejectionaturarum.
have
might easily proceed, but we
already explained our
Mr.

"

"

*'

'

'

meaning."
The

this

is, that induction

have
long as men

being the type of

reasoned
so
reasoning, of course
they have
correct
reasoned
inductively. But there is correct
induction, and ininduction
in ordinary cases
nien
; that is to
say, even
induction
the
enumerationem
simplicemt
frequentlypursue
per
answer

to

"

"

Nov.

Org.,* Aph.

14.

tf^AS

itisteadof the
almost

all

the

Those

who

object
Mr.

off much

taking

the

to

"

Hallam,
from

human

are

their

which

nature

of Bacon's

importance

wrote,
vitiated

that

mankind

precepts in

practised
rather
confirming their utility
in any
fair sense
of
originality,
is built

Every logical method

term.

creation

i,U

method.

immemorially,

of them

of

otvNf

his

method; and at the time Bacon

philosophical and scientific speculationswere

philosophy," says
many
than

Method

correct

by the incorrect
"

BACON^s

have

on

have

the

exercised

been

ties
facul-

common

since

the

in

truth from
falsehood,
discerning, better or worse,
from
the known.
That
and inferringthe unknown
might
men
have done
this more
correctly is manifest from the quantity of
into which, from
what
of reasoning well on
want
error
came
fallen.
before them, they have habitually
In experimental philosophy,
Bacon
the more
to which
are
special rules of Lord
of that very progenerally referred, there was a notorious want
cess
of reasoning which he supplied."*
Nothing can be more
than that Bacon
rests
certain,"as Professor
Napier observes,
the whole
hopes of his philosophy on the novelty,oi his logical
sophers,
philoprecepts ; and that he uniformly represents the ancient
particularlyAristotle, as having been wholly regardless
in their physical inquiries. Bacon
of the inductive method
does
the
ancient
indeed
not
philosophers never
employed
say that
in observing Nature
he
that
themselves
maintains
there
; but
is a wide difference between
observation
as it was
employed by
and
the
of
for
of philosophical
the purposes
art
them,
observing
discovery."!
in Bacon's
time reasoned
Men
like the facetious judge in Mr.
who
in the habit of jocosely prowas
Macaulay's anecdote,
pounding
after dinner
that
the
of the prevalence
a
cause
theory,
the
of
three
He
of Jacobinism was
practice
names.
bearing
side Charles
Brinsley
quoted on the one
James Fox, Richard
Home
Sheridan, John
Tooke,
John Philpot Curran, Samuel
Wolfe
These
instanTone.
were
Taylor Coleridge, Theobald
tics convenientcs.
He
then
proceeded to cite instances absentios
in proximo
William
Pitt, John Scott, William
Wyndham,
Burke.
Samuel
He
Edmund
might
Horsley, Henry Dundas,
have gone
secundum
minus.
The
instances
to
on
magiset
prac"

"

**'

"

f
See

*Hist.

of Lit. of

'Dissertation
iEklsoa

on

Europe,* vol. iii.p. 182.

the

Scope

splendid passage

pp. 113, 114, which we

aandSy or ought to be.

do

to

not

and
the

Influence
same

effect

quote, because

of Bacon's
in

Writings,'

Herschel's

the work

is in

"

p.

13.

Discourse^'

everybody's

^ACON*S

Pf^AS

38a

METHOD

giving children three names

growing practice,and Jacobinism

been

has

of

tice

Oli^Mt

HIS

has

is

giving children three names

than
In England
England.

of Lords

House

obvious.

rejediones are

Americans

the

; but

Wolfe

and

Burke

in.

king and

still a

republicans.

are

Tone

The

common

more

have

we

time

some

growing.

been

also

practice of
America

for

were

The

both

the
is not
cause.
being an Irishman
inductive
In this way
philosopher arrives at what Bacon
our
is the
that having three names
calls the vintage^and
pronounces
of Jacobinism."
cause
prised
surThis is a very good theory for a jocular one
are
; but we
writer as Mr.
acute
at so
a
Macaulay speaking of it in
is an induction
he does :
Here
the terms
corresponding with
Bacon's
absurdity. In what
analysis,and ending in a monstrous
; therefore

Irishmen

the

"

us

to

of

our

of

this induction

does

then

the

conclusion

presence

of

the

sun

for which
author

learned

destroyed.
Grenville

The

tables

to

us

at

Paine

sufficient

been

can

The

cause

ence
differ-

in the number

possibly be given.
larged
Jacobinism had en-

his system
little,

of Tom

especially dissent

rule

theory about

the

of

have

precise

no

names

would

seems

is the

leads

that

either of the

which

the

that

which

induction

the

is to say, the difference is not in that part of

in a
has given precise rules, but
Bacon
for which

the process
circumstance

We

from

light by day than by night ?

having more
evidently is,not in the kind of instances but

instances

If the

ditfer

from

variance

the

with

William

and

to

would

the

do

have

Windham

work."

printed in

clause
all sound

been

induction.

italics,
It is

theory which
whole
The
theory is a gross example
m^kes the theory absurd.
casual
causation
of
inferred from
conjunction, without any
properties of the supposed
presumption arising from known
is the characteristic of the empiricism.'* Although
agent, which
certain superficialelimination
has
in this theory there
been
a
factory
employed, yet that is obviously too incomplete for any satisWhat
number
result.
Mr. Macaulay subsequently asks

preciselythe

kind

of

instances

in

adduced

the

"

"

of instances

how
After
justifybelief?
many
in believing vaccination
Jenner have been justified

is sufficient

to

experiments would
We
that
to be a safeguard against the smallpox ?
answer
of instances
the number
depends on the kind of instances, and
In proportheir collection.
the theory which
presides over
on
tion
the
the facts adduced
theory which
as
are
complex, must
would
explain them be consistent with all other known
truths,
before

the facts themselves

can

have

any

significance.Thus

fVAS

J^A CON'S

HIS

METHOD

383

OWN?

brought forward to support the theory of clairvoyance

been
collected
by
although they have
are
utterlyinsignificant,
Thus
be decisive.
.One or two
hundreds.
simple facts would
of coma,
the
it is pretended that during the state
patient can
his eyes
read with
completely guarded from the light. To
tied across
books
and
his eyes, and
this,bandages are
prove
reads
He
letters are
these, and
presented to him.
people are
decisive
Now
would
amazed.
we
suggest a very simple and
experiment. Do not bandage the patient'seyes ; let them be
read in spite
If the patient can
but let the book be shut.
open,
?
of the bandage, he can
surely read in spite of the book-cover
is that neither the person
The
holding
only precautionnecessary
the book, nor
the patientreading it,should
have any previous
knowledge of its contents.
Bacon's
is in no way
affected by proving that all
originality
tively.
at all times,when
correctly,reasoned inducmen
they reasoned
had
Moreover, in Bacon's particulardepartment, men
of
method
not
aware
notoriously pursued a wrong
; they were
in all investigations,
i\^ necessitywhich he declared there was
Bacon
to proceed upon
a
grctduated and successive induction.
** the
of this ; and, as Dr. Whewell
them
first made
aware
says
is to find this recommendation
circumstance
truly remarkable
observation
of a continuous
advance
from
by limited steps,
gradations of generality,given at a time
through successive
in general had only just begun to perwhen
speculative men
ceive
in
from
that they must
begin their course
experience some
and
in
In catching sightof this principle,
other
or
way
ihe facts

ascribingto
am

cite this

We

of

we
''

will

do

to

support

coincide

not

in its admiration
which

is

an

presently in treating of

shown

as

unrivalled."*

assertion

our

graduated induction,"
be

and

far

sagacity,so

importance, Bacon's

wrought unassisted

aware,

but

it its due

of

Bacon's
of

originality,

Bacon's

principle

imperfect process, as
of Bacon's
the utility

method.
the

After
that the

foregoing

reader

is

testimonies

prepared

to

admit

we

the

shall

take

for

of
originality

granted
Bacon's

method.
the method
question now
presents itself. Was
usefiil as a guide in investigation?
Many persons have declared
it to be useless.
is of the same
Mr. Macaulay
opinion. He
to the
discovery
By stimulatingmen
says, with great truth,
the inductive
stimulated
of new
them
to employ
truth,Bacon
The

second

"

"

Philos.

of Inductive

Sciences,'vol.

ii. pp.

395, 396.

W^-45

384

BACON'S

OWN

HIS

METHOD

truth can
be discovered.
by which
nished
the
to
discovery of useful truth, he furwith a motive
them
to
perform the inductive
process
and
had
been
His
well
anticipatorsof
carefully.
predecessors
with first principles,at which
nature.
They had been content
slovenly induction,
they had arrived by the most
scanty and
this?
their philoIt was,
sophy
conceive, because
we
^.nd why was
because
it
itself
to
was
merely
end,
proposed
no
practical

method

the

method

only
By stimulating men

an

"

exercise

machine

or

patientlyand
; but

mind.

of the

medicine

new

who

man

has

no

who

man

has

accurately, and

declamation

merely

wants

to

us, the very merit

We
told that
are

method

of

truth
?

anticipatingNature?

and

therefore
of

not

of

eminent

to
men,

Who

of

also

discover
his

of

the

we

are

Bacon

only

the
But

who

pointed out the futility

exposed the "sca^

schoolmen?

the

simply that

lands, but

new

wherewith

compass
several

is

Who

method,

discovered.

be

Bacon.

"

slovenly induction"

merit

could

Bacon.

"

to

inductive

the

employ

new
by which
originated the method

new

motive."

such

in this passage, as it seems

is conceded.
claiming for Bacon
men

observe

to

ment
experiment after experitheme
for disputation
or

try

Now

stimulated

motive

strong

to

contrive

to

wants

stimulatingmen
affording them
new

lands.

predecessors and

His

^Bacon.

"

covery
the dis-

to

chart
There

and
were

contemporaries,

against the ancient systems, and stimulated

to the discovery of useful truth ; but these men,
men
although
them
observation
all of
and
constantly insisted upon
ment,
experihad
confused
no
glimpse, or only a very partial and
of
method.
when
inductive
the
So that
Mr. Macaulay
glimpse,
"It
not
was
by furnishingphilosopherswith rules for persays,
forming
the inductive
but
them
with
well,
by furnishing
process
motive
for
it
vdst
a
performing
well, that he conferred
so
a
benefit
is
believe
he
contradicted
all
sides
on
society," we
on
The
motive
had
been
by history.
indeed, one
given by many
liad been
that
it
the
the
rules
of
a
was
tendency
may
say
age ;
devised
These
but himself.
by no one
rules, it is true, were
far from
perfect; but they constitute the beginning and .form
the basis of the more
which
have
successors
perfect structure
Mr.
erected.
receives
its force solely
Macaulay*s argument
from what we
but regard as
his misconception of the^
cannot
Baconian
Induction.
Induction
That
he declares to be daily
but
this is confounding ordinary
performed
by every
man;
who

all

rose

up

"

Induction

with scientific Induction.

It is

confounding

simple

WAS

386

sense

which
be

to

deductive.

also

not

bestowed

He

was

insufficiencyof

the

his

all

attention

of mathematical

want

OWN?

HIS

deeply impressed with

method
of the
alone,
he knew
he saw
his contemporaries pursuing, and which
the
of the failure of his predecessors, that he
cause

tivCfand
a

METHOD

BACON'S

so

deductive

inductive

the

on

had

knowledge

also

His

method.
share

small

no

in

this.
be justly said that
however, it may
Deductive
th^
Method, it is
exemplify
sufficiently
who
that
Those
he
to
entirely neglected it
say
forget that the second
Organum
part of the Novum
his intention
In the second
completed.
part it was
Deduction, as is plain from the following passage :
for
The

parts.

first relates

and

interpretationof

the

the

second,

novis

mentis

as

admit

not

the

axiomatibus

ab

two-fold

the
did

he

publish

remark
of

department

(de

Axioms

from
eocperitnents

of

been

").*

carried

it cannot

of

treat

to

cations
indi-

The

"

general
ence
experi-

two

that

he

inasmuch

Organum^
in

prehended
com-

we

may

extensive

very

doubted

be

that

easily,but

more

less

never

was

; but

perhaps

not

on,

this

assert

frequent appeal to experience than the rules of the

Novum
would
to
require. In all physical
seem
Organum
mathematical
reasoning has been
employed,
inquiries where
been
established
after a few principleshave
by experience, a
the
of truths, equally certain
multitude
with
vast
principles
from
them
cation
applithemselves, have been deduced
by the mere
of geometry
and
The
strict method
algebra.
of Bacon
where
the thing to be
is, therefore,only necessary
have
no
knowledge, or next
we
explained is new, and where
of the powers
t
to none,
employed."
with

"

not

from

see

method

part of his

not

correct

deriving of new
derivandis
experi-

here

Playfair,that

science

or

aut

We

of the

second

Prof.

physical

investigationhas

ducendis

nature

the

deducing

the

to

nature

raising of Axioms

the

to

include

did

he

Although,

repeat, it

We

ledge which

caused

with

deduction

was

Bacon's
him

to

induction.

deficiencyin

mathematical

know-

equal importance of
will quote
this subject we
a

overlook
On

the

"

Bacon
know
of:
has
highest authoritywe
that
media
ctxiomata
science
the
of
judiciouslyremarked,
every
its
constitute
The
lowest
value.
principally
generalizations,
into the middle
UBtil explained by and resolved
principles,of
have
which
cmly the imperfect
they are the consequences,

passage

"

from

'Nov.

the

Org.,* II. Aph,

"

lo.

'Dissertation,* pp. 58, 61.

BACON'S

WAS

empirical laws

of

accuracy

METHOD

too general, and

include

the

387

OWN?

general laws are

to give sufficient

most

circumstances

in individual

of what

indication

while

few

too

HIS

the circumstances
where
happens
cases,
almost
In the
are
always immensely numerous.
which
Bacon
in
science
assigns
to
importance, therefore,
every
the

middle

it
principles,

But

I conceive

him

arrived

have

to

mode

respectingthe

is

impossible
been

in which

although there

not

with

agree

radically wrong
these

is

to

axiomata

him.

in his doctrine
media

should

proposition in his
he has been
works
so
extravagantly eulogized. He
rule that induction
enunciates
universal
should
an
as
proceed
from
the lowest
to the middle
principles,and from those to the
that
order, and consequently leaving
reversing
highest,never
for
of
tion
the discovery
new
no
room
principlesby way of deduc-

be

at;
for which

at

all.

It

is

to

not

be

one

no

conceived

that

man

of

Bacon's

sagacitycould have fallen into this mistake, if there had existed

in his time, among
of successive
the sciences which
treat
nomena,
phesuch
deductive
as
science,
mechanics,
one
single
sciences
In
those
acoustics,
now
are.
"c.,
optics,
astronomy,
the higher and
middle
it is evident
that
principlesare by no
derived

means

from

the

lowest, but

the

reverse.

In

some

of

those
earliest ascerthe very highest generalizationswere
tained
scientific
with
exactness
example (in
;
as, for
any
of
Those
laws
motion.
had
not
general
mechanics), the laws
them

universality which
acknowledged
they
been
after
to
having
successfullyemployed
explain
acquired
of
which
classes
to
not
were
phenomena
they,
originally
many

indeed

seen

first

at

be

to

in

the laws of motion

were
ployed
emapplicable; as when
conjunction with other laws to explain deductively

the celestial

truths
those

the

Still the

remains, that the propositions

afterwards
which were
recognised as the most
general
of the science, were,
of all its accurate
generalizations,
phenomena.

earliest arrived

fact

at.

merit, therefore, cannot

consist,as we are
the
vicious
in
method
did,
exploding
so often
sued
purof
the
to
the
ancients
flying
highest generalizationsfor
by
middle
the
and
it,
principlesfrom them; since this is
deducing
neither a vicious nor
an
exploded method, but the universally
that to which
accredited
of modern
method
it
science, and
of ancient
its greatest trium^jhs. The
error
owes
speculation
did not consist in making the largest generalizations first,
but
in making them
the aid or warrant
without
of rigorous inductive
deductively without the needful
methods, and
applying them
Bacon's

greatest

told that it

of that

use

METHOD

BACON'S

WAS

388

HIS

of the

important part

OWNt

deductive

method

termed

verification."

of
certainlylays bare the weakness
passage
does
believe, for the first time.
so, we
; and

This
method

Bacon's
But

we

in the concluding paragraph* It is clear

entirelyconcur
did not
the real importance of
that, although Bacon
to us
see
the futility
of the deductive
the deductive
method, he did see

cannot

that
employed before his time ; and he saw, moreover,
of
verification
^in the want
of
the cause
lay in the want
methods
this
of rigorous inductive
the aid or
warrant
:
think his imperfect
think
his greatest merit
must
^as we
we
method

'*

"

"

"

"

"

of

conception

Deductive

the

his

Method

greatest imperfec-

tion.
is also

There

method

Logic

should
and

;
*

another

the

potent

wherein

passage

to

from

again borrow

must

we

contributed

have

not

this is exhibited

tive
induc-

merely

the

why

reason

coveries
dis-

great

any
the

'

of

System

"

surpriseof philosophers that the detailed

little use
turned
to
so
logic has been
by
system of inductive
subsequent inquirers, having neither continued, except in a
few oi its generalities,
to be recognised as
a theory, nor
having
scientific
in practice to any great
But
conducted
results.
this,
has
received
though not unfrequently remarked,
scarcely
any
indeed
have
preferred to
some
plausible explanation ; and
It has

'^

excited

the

"

Bacon's

that

to

be

rules

fact,as

soon

assumption, so contrary
cannot

In

another

have

useless, rather

grounded

are

more

passage,

too

seen

entirely

All his rules

causes.

to

pose
sup-

insufficient

an

upon

than

Such, however,
process.
is
considered
it
that Bacon
as

pluralityof

overlooked

are

will be

inductive

analysis of the
the

induction

of

that all rules

assert

all

we

than

long

tacitlyimply the
nature, that a phenomenon

of

know
one

cause."

for

extract, the

f
same

author

in Bacon's
view
of the inductive
capital error
tion
philosophy, viz.,his supposition that the principleof eliminawhich
he had
the immense
(thatgreat logicalinstrument
merit
of first bringing into use) was
applicable in the same
in the same
to the investigation
unqualified manner,
sense, and
oi co-existences^
to that of the successions
as
of phenomena,X
In conclusion, it may
be said that Bacon's
conception of a

points

out

scientific method

of certain

consequence
"

Mill's

magnificent,as

was

System

of

far

deficiencies,owing

Logic,' ii.,pp. 524-6.

J lb. ii.,p. 127, et seq.

as

it

went

; but

principallyto
f lb, ii.,
p. 373.

in
the

Mcon^s

Htas

of any

Want

established

remarks, you
method

method

have

cannot

laid down

he

science

as

model

Aristotle

an

OW^f

his

before

influence

miiids

the

on

great discoveries.

make

writingswere
knowledge,"

"The

those

If it did

exercise

who

not

import-

an

afterwards

were

to

way
in the

powerful agents

Bacon's

that

prove

advancement

to

physical

of

Napier, is to prove that they prosays Professor

duced
effects (viz.,
the overthrow
of existing methods
"

these
stimulus

of

the

Homer*),

useful.
only indirectly

was

Craik

Mr.

(for,as

produce great discoveries, it certainlydid

tant

389

"

given

experimental inquiry and ingenious views

and
principlesrequisite for such inquiry); and the proof that
such effects were
necessarily
actuallyproduced by them, must
be

derived

to

from

"

the

testimony of

earlyexperienced,
operation." And

who

those

otherwise

acquainted with their

the greater part of his admirable
Essay is devoted to this proof.
It is to be regretted that this Essay has not been republished,
since it is not generally accessible
in its present shape ; f and
limits obviously forbid our
our
own
extracting any of these
force.
their
their
proofs, because
multiplicityconstitutes
sive,
that the proofs are
and decinumerous
Enough if we remark
gathered not only from the English and French writers,
became

or

but

Italian and

also from

And

much

latent
as

the
and

tendencies

of

does

invention

here

knowledge
it

What

what
no

others

one

itself.Was
question 'presents
in the scientific spirit
of the age ?
invention
of the steam-engine was

the last

now

Method

was

lyingready

to

found

see

It

was

by

some

his

How

therefore

would

Yes, by
could

see

invented

find it ?

alone

Because

somewhere,
endeavour

to

thing found

sooner

or

who

had

later
eyes

in fact, by some
immediate
cessors
prede-

alone

he

finding

the

the

one

some

it that Bacon's

was

in the

Watt

to

have

not

just as

method
to

him.

competent

was

find it.

to

It is very
*

'Sketches

that

true

in his

of Literature

by the way, the

adopted, and the influence

where,
an

fellow-men

man

and

latent

hidden

it not

were

Yes

means

by declaring that

found,
one

It

mean

idleness

What

in which

age

Bacon's

not

contemporaries did not detect this latent

there lying as open for inspection to them
as

did he

Why

be

to

the

seeking :

his fame

of

man

what

other great
and

it.

find

great

still

are

could

rob
been

German.

eleginttribute is
f 'Transactions

paid

or

the

and

day

and

Learning

previously great
in

England,'

opinions of Bacon's
exercised is questioned. On

extreme

he
to

Bacon's

greatness

as

thinker

Royal Society of Edinburgh,'

disco-

ill.,
p. 217
antagonists are

vol.

the
and

1818.

other

hand,

writer.

BACON'S

HTAS

390

veries

bad

been

against

argument

constructed
of

those

the

method

and

is

truth

truths.'*

paucity

extreme

Bacon

to

Pla3rfair

says,

he

Bacon,

do

have

would

genius

science

which

We

method,

and

his

to

of

indicate

in

because

history.

We

have

mind

which

it, and

it

armies

seems

no

the

toy

has

Paribanou

powerful

solely

hand
sultans

His

of

might

lady

alone
in

repose

we

that

of

Ahmed.
:

this

have

compared

Prince
a

asthe

place

neither

his
done

fame,

excellences

felicitously
to

have

method
a

errors

exhibit

to

his

claims

manifold

gave
the

built

attract

as

We

which

his

so

of

system

one

position.

he

and

for

been

is

upon

of

whose

man

and

upon

alone

dwelt

not

fairy
a

of

it

Macaulay

Mr.

the

by

situation

the

subject,
has

grountis

wondrous

the

upon
which

here

out

exist.**

great

Piiilosophy,

Experimental
us,

to

as

points

delineate

to

historical

its

the

out

engaged

dwelt

is

object

our

point

him

begun

yet

marvellous

materials

did

Bacon

time

the

at

poor

placed

the

moment

knowledge

that,
what

Bacon

but

but

father

shade.

human

enable

not

cease.

great

nothing

would

had

must
as

the

done

such

process

ascertained

"

prophetic

tent

of
said

be

can

with

what

of

were

scientific

science

admiration

much

history

it

in

like

seeing

by

any

for

be

to

science

by

consider

we

our

so

of

no

dence/*
evi-

not

previously

truths

enhance

''the

whom

of

nobody

if

and

is

faculty,

of

not

of

learnt

only

known

had

we

this

are

rational

are

have

ascertained

of

him

see

if

true;

it will

wrote,

sagacity,

tive

is

This

method

observance

never

ascertained

be

to

should

we

upon

But

achievements

conscious

the

made

''Principles

our

agency,

be

them.

of
of

earlier

The

without

made

laws

natural

work.

at

theories

and

The

other

in

originality.

''

friari.

every

agent

Mill,

could

only

implied

was

Bacon's

Mr.

says

tbey

as

method

the

method,

true

and

made,

OWN?

HIS

METHOD

to.

the

Fold

spread
beneath

it, and
its

l"poc|r.

Sbeconi
FOUNDATION

CHAPTER
LIFE

the

Just

at

bom

in

named
a

close

Touraine,
R^n^

disease

That

boy

was

boy, whose
early

an

creeping
like

short

grave,

His
his
from

it the

of

the

has

which

works

He

was

evils

praise

having

of

was

and

quickly,

learnt
Such
M.

and
food

the

was

Thomas

the

gives himself;
first."

declared
that

contempt

And

that
of

so

he
a

of

never

supplied
''

the

second

with

is

there

systems

philosophers

of
of
to

to

college
He

of

and

see

of

his

utter

is

the

pupil;

apt

an

was

no

it nutritious?
for

on

the

education

but

in

from

ignorance,
in vogue.

problems

and

nary
ordiwhat

destroymg

leaving

benefit

the

use

physics, logic,

consists

who,

philosophy
solve

make
Fl^che

La

education

an

other

no

refuse

can

learning.

there

ing
astonish-

one

mathematics,

generally

Descartes
derived

no

by the Jesuits. Was

genius

of

conviction

for the

ready

tired

criticised.

and

This

Jesuits.

languages.

man

had

door, but

in

remarks,

; for

man

its

instructed

was

the

the

the

after

promise; and in
philosopher,
young
questioning.

to

ever

trious
illus-

pupil of

In

ancient

the

to

been

of education.

Descartes

rhetoric,

laid

the

announce

centuries

studied, quoted,

confided

was

to

world's

the

three

would

be

to

one

Few

that

supposed
of

was

companions

seemed

paleness

life

lose.

to

his

have

become

to

whose

many

value

young

than

and

shortly

education

to

the

dry cough
and

path,
would

his

twenty,

ill afford

had
eighth year
gained the title of
his avidity to learn, and
his constant

body

he

colts,

of

age

sickly child

The

mother.

his birth,

after

days

could

the

on

continue
appearance
him.
loved
masters

His

As

world

young

was

leaders;
their

the

off his
till the

and,

one

galloped along

was

sickly child,

feeble

few

there

1596,

century,

parents,

lungs carried

him

saw

sixteenth

Duperron.

always
who

the

of

DESCARTES.

Breton

Descartes

sickly boy;
despaired of.

to

grew

of

I.

OF

the

of

METHOD.

DEDUCTIVE

THE

OF

Flfeche,

La

his
a

The

studies

profound
petence
incom-

they occupied

LlM

392
with

themselves

anarchy which

the

"

bESCARTES.

OP

reigned

in

scientific

the

thinkers
could
fundamental
two
no
world, where
agree
upon
of the conclusions
which
to
some
points the extravagances
him
seek
to
no
more
accepted premisses led, determined
"

his thirst at their fountains.

slake
''

And

is

that

why,

he
preceptors,*'

my

to

soon

as

as

says,

my

permitted

age

entirely gave

"

quit

study of

the

up

to

me

other science than that which

letters ; and resolving to seek no
I could
of the world,
find in myself, or else in the great book
I

and

courts

remainder

the

employed

youth in travel, in seeing

in frequenting people of diverse humours

camps,

of

my

conditions, in collectingvarious

and

all in

endeavouringto

what

For

more

truth in the

saw.

and which
affairs,

seemed

it

to

would

each

should

man

with

meet

in his

makes

from

own

be

upon

many

years

those

that

me

reasoningswhich
if wrong

above

profitable reflection

some

reasonings which
speculationswhich

in

than

draw

experiences, and

speedilypunished by failure,
the philosopher makes
in his

produce no effect,and which

of no
to him, ekcept perhaps that he will be
are
consequence
vain of them
the more
remote
more
they are from common
he would
then have been forced to employ more
sense, because
*
ingenuityand subtlety to render them plausible."
study,

For
in

the

in

solitude,now
his

gave
answers

preparing his
"

When

led

roving

making

now

army,

purpose

he

tour

now

serving

studying mathematics

now

Method.

in

his winter

life ;

One
conversing with scientific men.
constant
ing
unity to these various pursuits. He was elaboratto the questions which
perplexed him; he was

only three-and-twenty he

reformation

unsettled

philosophy.!

He

conceived
was

at

that

the
time

design of a
residingin

His travels
Neuburg, on the Danube.
and at the age of thirty-three
afterwards
he
soon
commenced,
retired into Holland, there
in silence and
solitude to arrange
his thoughts into a consistent
remained
whole.
He
there
eight years ; and so completely did he shut himself from the
from
his fiiends the very place of his
world, that he concealed
at

quarters

residence.
When

the

results

of his

meditative

solitude

were

given

to

Discourse
world, in the shape of his celebrated
on
Method,' and his Meditations*
(to which he invited replies),
the

'

'

"

Simon.

de la M"thode,'
Paris, 1844.

Discours

Compare

Bacon

at

p.

college.

6, of the convenient

edition

of M.

Jules

T^^

394

OF

METHOD

DESCARTES.

CHAPTER
THE

have

There
Father
of

of

11.

METHOD

disputes as

been

DESCARTES.

OF

to

Experimental Science, but

Descartes

the

to

title of

claim

Bacon's
no

the

title of

disputes the claim

Modern
Philosophy.

one

of

Father

to

his Method
pursued upon
;
most
his speculations are
and
to
still proudly referred
by
continental
thinkers as perfect,or almost
perfect,examples of

Ontology

and

still

Psychology

are

the

which

that method.

Throughout

epoch

he
preluded that in which
progressive tendency towards

lived, there had been a slow but

In Abelard
the separation of Philosophy from
we
Theology.
declared
he
the
this
of
see
commencement
constantly
tendency;
believe we
what
that Reason
Faith
that
to
we
explain
ought
;
In
he fell a victim.
To
this doctrine
ought to comprehend.
Descartes
the same
we
see
tendency at its climax ; and in him
the existence
of philosophy is a thing established
troversy
beyond conalone
the proto solve by reason
; he boldly attempts
blems
which
his

In

says :
existence

"

"

hitherto

dedication
I

of the

faith.

by

solved

Meditations

and

the

of the

nature

the

to

he

questions of the

two

soul,

Sorbonne,

the chief of

were

rather
ought to be demonstrated
by philosophy
theology: for although it is sufficient for us, the

which

than

by

faithful,to believe
the

been

always thought that the

have

of God,

those

with

had

body,

it

in God,

and

that

certainly does

the

soul

does

not

perish

to
possible ever
persuade the infidels to any religion,nor hardly to any moral
virtue,unless we first prove to them these two thingsby natural
reason."
Extraordinary language,which shows how completely
philosophy had gained complete independence.
But if philosophy is to be independent
is to walk
if reason
she walk?
alone, in what direction must
Having relinquished
the aid of the church, there were
but two
: the
courses
open
tread
in the path of the ancients, and to
to
once
more
one,
endeavour
Methods
else
to attain the truth ; or
by the ancient
to open
Method.
The
former
a new
was
path, to invent a new
with
barely possible: the spiritof the age was deeply imbued
Methods
a
feeling of opposition against the ancient
; and
Descartes
himself had
been painfullyperplexed by the universal
not

seem

"

aiiafchyand
was

therefore

uncertaintywhich
chosen.

prevailed.' The

second

cours^

THE

METHOD

OF

DESCARTES.

395

What

cism
wasjthe disease of the epoch ? Uncertainty. Sceptithe
confident
.not
most
was
only abounding, but even
of
This want
dogmatism could give no criterium of certitude.
leading in Greece
reanisniiy
Stoicism, the New
Academy,
a

criterium

Alexandrians
dilemma.

from

and'

premisses
could
He
told

by
he

found

the
"

irresistible Fact,
Firm
of

the

doubt

ground

of

of doubt

reason

the
was

The

Certainty. Hence

vital
it

to

ground in

firm

ing,
; mistrust-

by doubts
to

to

so

rasa,

examine

to

nothing

to believe

assent

tabula

resolved

He

evidence

make

but

the
upon

convincing, that

it.

He
has
history of his doubts.
that he could
plausibly enough doubt of
He
his own
existence.
pushed his scepticism
he
of self-annihilation.
There
stopped :

in

his Consciousness,

irreversible

world, and

Consciousness

determined

of

God,

existence

found

he

at

last

an

Certainty.

discovered.

the existence

else existed.
own

an

was

external

But
sort

of

v^ge
there

in Self,

there

the

the detailed

everything, except
to

the

answer

no

find

to

from

understanding; mistrusting the

effort refuse

any

given us

how

of

get

; distracted

knowledge.
conclusion, and

evidence

escape
long been

had

Unable

own

he

to

could

his

not

has
us

of his

of every

the clearest
he

day.

senses,

reconstruct

faith

criterium

prevalent systems
pf his

of

Descartes

his

of

the conclusions
evidences

province

question of

doctors

the

the

philosophy.

of

x"f the

any

into
The

question

Scepticism, Epicuand finallyleading the

to

saw

we

could

He

treat

and

it

as

the

doubt

He

phantasm.
the belief

treat

existence

as

could

tion.
supersti-

thinking,doubting mind, no
possible. He, the doubter, existed,if nothing
existence

of his

that

revealed

was

primary Fact, the

his f^moMs
Co^ito,ergo Sum
was

the

to

him

in his

first indubitable
:

fore
think, there-

am.

It is somewhat

curious, and,

as

an

illustration of the frivolous

instructive,that
this celebrated
have
been
frequently
Cogito,ergp Sum, should
for its logicalimperfection. It has-been
attacked
objected,
from Gassendi
I think,thereforeI am,"
downwards, that to say
is a begging of the question, since
has
existence
to be proved
identical
with
had intended
thought. Certainly,if Descartes
his own
to prove
existence
by reasoning,he would have been
attributes to him, viz. :
guiltyof the petitioprincipii Gassendi
thinks exists,"is assumed^
that which
that the major premiss,
not
proved. But he did not intend this.
his'object? He
It was
has
told us.
What
to find a
was
verbal

disputes of philosophers,

not

"

''

little

M^TkOD

TH"

3^

which

starting-pointfrom
certainty.
consciousness.

And

Doubt

existence, because
which

doubts.

to

reason

where

did

as

my

You

DESCAHTES.

OF

; it

he

doubt
very
call this
may

point out the fact to you as

logic; which
logic can neither

confiite

doubt

fact

This

other.

none

ask

for

exist.

The

of my

existence.

Had
would

have

claim

experience
view

him

that the
it ; but

of
well ; he
I exist.

have

would

of

is

only that of

of all truth

Here

the
:

have

we

Know

is

can

be
to

assurance

this

out

fact, he

so

fed

that

discovery in pointing out

this

exist,because

part it plays in his system

makes

be
and

Method,
but

sciousness
con-

it

stated

consciousness

the basis

ousness,
possible. Interrogate consci-

replieswill

indeed

was

his

was

have

not

would

clown

Any

given

form

another

Science.
a

duced.
Philosophy, intro-

new

shape

of the old

formula,

thyself,"so differently
interpreted by Thales, Socrates,
:

thing

it be

himself?

to

tell

it gave

; but

it had

before
to

man

success.

been

of

that formula

always
himself.

know

By looking inwards

the nature

had

no

other

none

new

the Alexandrians

could

would

I know

certainty. The

its clear

It

and

the

me

of his existence

starting-point.It

there

and

"

is to

irresistible.

and

matter.

clown

said

irresistible

an

the

assurance

Descartes, therefore, made

as

sophism

no

epigrammatic

an

"

common-sense

told

fact

such,

as

notice

to

of universal

statement

have

which

but

It is in vain

point

than

more

will ;
beyond all

writers
the

the

no

own

certainty, if there

existence

own

here ; and
are
we
surprised to
this Cogito^ergo Sunty as constituting
looking upon
in
it
is
his
feature
only a
Surely
great
system.

no

find many

to

done

Descartes

is

truth ;

is self-evident

of my

consciousness

his

if you

and

above

versible
Irre-

something

me

basis of all science.

is the

of that which

proof

doubt
to

an

of my

disprove;
certainty,and,

such

This

principle.

this clear

In

nor

prove

darken

can

this?

assumption,

an

irreversible
an
always remain
basis of philosophy,*
fitting
No

find

reveals

must

I exist.

find

I cannot

may,

to

was

We

wanted.
How

all do

his

that.

fication
precisesigniOf
is he

little use
to

know

ing
By examin-

thoughts ? That had been done

By examining iki'^process of his thoughts ?
the logic of Aristotle
accomplished, and

without
That
was

too

the

result.
*

his

See
"

his

replies to

Meditations.'

the

third

and

fifth series of

Objections, affixed

to

The

needed

formula

DESCARTES.

OF

METHOD

THE

397

preciseinterpretation
; and

pretation
inter-

that

Consciousness, said he, is the basis

of all knowledge ; it is the only ground of absolute
certainty;
it distinctlyproclaims must
be true.
The
whatever
process
its
and
is simple: examine
clear
then
consciousness,
your

Descarteggave.

replieswill

is

ideas

and

The

to

step

I. Never

of all

determine

to

was

ideas ; and

these

science, the

the rules for the

these

rules

laid

has

he

"

that

true

as

as. true,

what

but

nothing

itself

presents

taken

accept anything

to

admit

to

so;

be

of

follows

as

calls the foundation

he

of truth.*

detection

proper
down

whatever

axiom

measure

next

his system lies in this axiom

: aU
is clearlyand distinctly
conceived

portion of

true:

are

This

true.

rule

vital

the

Hence
dear

Science.

be

clearly

so

there

be

can

is

what

but

evidently
distinctly

and
no

to

reason

it.

doubt

II. To
as

question into
every
possible; that each part being
divide

the whole
III.

be
may
conduct

To

as

separate

many

tions
ques-

easilyconceived,

more

intelligible.^Analysis.)

more

"

examination

the

with

order, beginning by

simple, and therefore the easiest to be

objects the most
and
ascending little by little up to knowledge of the
known,
most
complex." (Synthesis.)
such
such
spections
circumTo
IV.
make
exact
calculations,and
that of

confident

be

to

as

essential

nothing

that

has

been

omitted.

being

Consciousness
of which

clearlyand

you are
everything which

the idea of it

^acon

true

exists,if

Method
the

had

Descartes

exclusive
led

was

the

consciousness, we
psychological half.
of

consideration

(in controverting

done

more

of

It

was

this half

Condorcet's

either

than

have

Galileo

experimental philosophy) to say that Condorcet

been
the truth if he had pointed him
out
nearer

Father
*'*"

must

thing

or

towards

ivould have
ihe

be

conceive
distinctly

in this view

rules, and

that

certainty,
every

distinctlyconscious

existence.

only half of Descartes'

owing, we believe, to
Stewart
that Dugald
assertion

all

of

ground

clearlyand

you
involves

the four

In

the

Hie

the

of

igitur detects

rundamentum

ac

^liqet, quicquid

Princip, Phil.

etiam

tarn

p. 4.

Experimental Philosophy
veritate
omnium

clard

ac

simal
aliarum

etiam

invenit

veritatem

of

omnium

mensuram

distinct^ percipiturqu^m

istud

the

as

Mind.

scientiarum
ac

v^rum

regulam
est/'-"

THE

598

Perhaps the title is just;

was

nearly

or

good

recognised.

We

so.

His

Method.

half of Descartes

eminence
He

as

the

was

make

first to

is

universally
grand discovery of

the
and

geometry,

Deductive

or

mathematician

to

equally important,

Mathematical

the

mean

applicationof algebra

the

foundation.

is, in truth, another

There

praise,though exaggerated,

Condorcet's

but

without

not

DESCARTES.

OF

METHOD

he

this at

made

geometrical
discovery
twenty-three.
be
curves
expressed by algebraical numbers, though
might
the history of mathematics,
in
only interests
highly important
it puts us on
the trace of his career.
We
as
us
here, inasmuch
him deeply engrossed in mathematics
him awakening
see
see
; we
that mathematics
were
to the conviction
capable of a; still
the

of

age

and
simplification,

further
Struck

The

he

as

with

was

of

that

far

certitude

the

application.
reasoning,
reasoning to

extended

more

of mathematical

principlesof mathematical

began applying the

subject of metaphysics.
the scepticism and anarchy of
His great object was, amidst
his contemporaries, to found
be solid And
that should
a system
find a basis of certitude"
to
convincing. He first wished
a
wished
He
next
startingpoint, and found it in consciousness.
found
of certitude,and
it in mathematics.
to find a method
**
he
all simple
chains
of reasoning,"
Those
tells us,
long

he

the

"

and

which

easy,

use^to arrive

geometers

at

their

difficult

most

that all things which

came
demonstrations, suggested to me
follow
each
in
similar
human
within
other
must
knowledge
a
that
chain ; and
provided we abstain from admitting anything
is not so, and
which
that we
true
always preserve in them
as
order

the
be

that

but

obscure

Method,

to
we

the
say,

may

completely
consisted
found
much
he

easy

being

the
;
to

announces

deducing
conclusions

Methods

the

The

only

so

are

The
system.
in him inseparable

ground

certitude;

of

of certitude.
the

Deductive

whole

Method

was

now

philosophy
premisses had been

operation
The

consequences.

alone

nor

Descartes"

of

nature

his whole

into

see

only method
therefore,that

constituted.

in

to

can

them."*
twofold

the

other, there

the

finallyattain,

cannot

we

discover
of

from

one

mathematical

consciousness

mathematics
We

may

it will be

psychological and
"

which

glimpses

these

From

remote

so

none

deduce

to

necessary

This

applies as
psychology. Thus, in his Principia,'
his intention
of the
of giving a short
account

physics

to

as

were

wanting.

of

Discours

de

la

M^thode,'

p. la.

THE

DESCARTES.

OF

METHOD

399

principal phaenomena of the world, not that he may use them

desire to deduce
to prove
anything ; for he adds,
reasons
we
as
from causes^ not causes
from effects
; but only in order
effects
**

that
of

resultingfrom

the

to

consider

rather

some

the

Method

same

will be

us

endeavoured
established
with

is

what
the

less

have

minds*

has

be

to

this

prise
sur-

such

writers.

done.

that

exclusivelyto

Bacon

He

He

has

England

has

and

has

he

imagination in style,but
always characterise one

of

grandeur

and

those

method

same

it

philosopher of

of

one

will hear

declared

by Bacon;

Descartes

superiorprecisionwhich

the

capable

our

readers

our

learningthat

attribute

it with

down

Cousin

France
to

writers

laid

on

see

to be

determine

may

Descartes,

French

Victor

now

in

of

that

learn

we

others."*

than

some
as

M.

we

causes,

heightened

reputationas
Says, "Let
established

same

Method

being the
surprise that

Such
with

effects which

innumerable

of the

out

must

with

himself in
laying down
rules, puts them
and gives the example with the precept."t M. Cousin
practice,
before quoted from Descartes
the four rules we
then quotes
]
and
seeing in them Analysis and Synthesis,which he believes
of Bacon, declares
the sole Method
constitutes
that the two
This
refutation ; nor
Methods
indeed
requires no
are
one.
but
been
it have
would
as
noticed,
affording an illustration of
Method
the
in which
is employed by certain
term
the loose way

who,

content

not

writers.
In

truth

Bacon

greatest

was

Both

sciences

all the

known
causes

"

*Principia Philos.,*
effectuum

of

method

philosophy

tela seul

argued
; and

the

pars

causis,

non

autem

be

est

for Descartes
toute

sa

he

other

The

contraris

the nature

Jules

is Doubt

that

to

causes

"

it

Descartes*

seems

phrase, "'cupiinus
ab

caasanim

method,
*^

the

the

explaining that

The
says
alone
is all his

to

of

effects from

as

enim

effectibus

opposed

to

commencement
entire

method"

his

edition

whole

mistakes,
us,
p. 3)
artificial
be
scepticism; besides, how can a Doubt
"Hist.
de la Phil.,'le9on iii.p. 91, ed. BruxeUes, 1840.
t

Descartes,

as

from

"

(Introductionprefixed to

Methode**

tion.
Induc-

it the basis

deduced

of his

Simon

of

also

illustration of his

noumena

51.

valuation
over-

; hence

neglect

mere

where

Bacon's

made

effects

by

iii. p.

and

it

from

said to express
When
of Bacon.
M.

deducere,'' may
the

one

Hence

Bacon

but

made

explaining phenomena

"

rationes

Physics :

the unknown

to

neglect

of Descartes.

department

Deduction

of

of Deduction

; Descartes

principles.The

that

in mathematics.

"

over-valuation
cultivated

in

lay

Induction, and

of

Descartes'

side of the medal

reverse

deficiencies

Bacon's
Descartes

the

was

of

purpose

of

Method

?
.

APPLICATION

400

which

OP

presenteditself to

the

THE

METHOD.

by that which

senses

tively
intui-

was

Both separatedreligion
from philosophy
known.
\ but
and ontologyinsoluble
Baccih declared the problems of religion
the
therefore
and
province of science;
beyond
by reason,
Descartes

declared

them

the first objectof

was

soluble

only by

reason,

that it

and

solve them.

philosophyto

there were
also
Besides these and other pointsof difference,
several pointsof resemblance, owing to the resen^blance of
their positionsas reformers.
They both overvalued their
to
sophize
philoMethods, which they declare will enable all men

equal justness. '^ It is not

with

"

slowly make
follow the rightroad, than those who

Those

who

walk

one."
in the
cripple
wrong

This

is

wrong

rightpath will beat

but
swiftly,

thought

run

of

on
"

Bacon :
in the wrong
one."
that the racer
will choose the
a

alwayssurpass

racer

these thinkers assume

path: whereas, if their methods

understandingmust

to

as

run

the
precisely

both

But

have

to

apply it rightly.
greaterprogress, if they always

understanding,"
says Descartes,

fine

essential

so

are

adopted,the finer

the duller in the

discovery

of truth.

III.

CHAPTER
OF

APPLICATION

the existence of God

method ; not, as
his
to apply
for that neither admitted

To

it was

the

the firstattempt of Descartes

ence,
existsay, to prove his own

was

prove

METHOD.

THE

some

of

proofnor
logical

his consciousness,
he
Interrogating
idea

of

;
disproof

primary fact.

of God:

found

understanding,by God,

that he
substance

had

the

infinite,

omniscient,omnipotent
eternal,immutable, independent,
This, to him, was
existence.

I exist

certain

as
:

not

the truth of his own

but exist as a miserably
exist,

truth

only do

as

finite being subjectto change

imperfect,

^greatly
rant,
ignothis,my consciousness,
creatinganything.
I find by my finitude that I am
the All ; by my
not
that I am not perfect Yet an infiniteand perfect
imperfection,
because
and perfectionare
infinity
beingmust exist,
implied,
in
ideas
and
of
finitude.
as correlatives, my
imperfection
e
xists
his
existence
is clearly
therefore,
:
God,
proclaimedin
and
be a matter of doubt,when
no
more
can
my consciousness,
"

"

and

incapableof

than
considered,
fairly

my

In

own

existence*

APPLICATION

402

further.

We

to remark

only stop

strations of God

the soul.

and

the existence of God

"

METHOD.

is,and

It

was,

is called

world, in fact.

of his demon*
usual
"

the
have

must

to prove

evidence

neither

Descartes

motion, which

from

the nature

on

what

from

the

design," from
from design nor

THE

OF

mover

of

started
he

and infinity;
his
perfection
in an analysis
of
proof was in the clearness of his idea of God
definition
his own
mind.
His method
that
of
and
tion.
deducwas
started

from

the

dprMtiidesLSof

"

God, and hence to construct the

not
to
contemplate the world,and hence infer the
existence of God
nently
the route he pursued. Is it not emiwas
mathematician
the procedure of a
? and of a mathematician
of

define the idea

To

world

"

"

who

Descartes'

are
speculations

; and he follows that

wildest conclusions.

method

the

to

consciousness

has taken

sometimes

admirable

but
optics),
Reserves

mostly
mention

(he made
fanciful.
here

as

an

his

as

?
starting-point
of
exemplifications

beautiful

method,

even

his

it leads him

when

physicalspeculationsare
importantdiscoveries in

His
some

The

theory of vortices

famous

example of his method.

beginsby
said,because
contemporaries

of

vacuum,

has

horror of

but because

beingextension,wherever

He

banishingthe notion

the

essence

there is extension
is

as

the
thus
more

kind

"

parts

ground into

are

most

vacuum,

subtle

kind

of

substance, coarser

kind makes

luminous

the second

kind makes

the third kind

planets,"c.

and

the

We

may

sun

and

the transparent substance

is the material of opaque

also

assume

and
third

is,besides,a

There

as

comers

second

less fitted for motion.

bodies,such

be
this

must

the

substance.

space

must

simple, therefore the

being set in motion,

sphericalform ; and
or
sawdust, form a
filings

off,like

rubbed
of

it is the

Because

supposition.This substance

natural

his

as

there is substance, consequentlyempty

fills all space

which
The
substance
divided into equal angular parts. Why

assumed?

most

chimera.

assumed
be

Nature
of substance

not,

The
fixed

stars ;

of the skies ;

bodies,such

that the

first

motions

as

of

earth,
thesie

parts take the form of

the matter
By this means
vortex, while

revolvingCircular currents, or vortices.

will be collected to the centre of each
surrounds
subtle matter
the second
or
it,and

planets are
by its centrifugaleffort constitutes light. The
carried round the sun
by the motion of this vortex, each planet
distance
in a part of
such
from the sun
at
a
as to be
being
the vortex
suitable to its solidity
and mobility. The motions
circular
and regular
are
prevented from beingexactly
by various

APPLICATION

instance, a

For

causes.

OF

METHOD.

THE

vortex

pressed into

be

may

403

oval

an

contiguous vortices.*

shape by
which
Descartes, in his physics, adopted a method
mitted
perthe substantial
him to set aside the real qualitiesand
were
forms (which others
seeking), and to consider
only the
relations of number, figure,and
In
motion.
a
word, he saw
This was
in physics only mathematical
problems.
premature.
be carried
on
Science, in its infancy, cannot
by the deductive
method

alone

Descartes

was

is reserved

that

But

it, and

employ
acknowledging
sufficiently
for the curious

fact that

discpveries,while

no

though premature,

method,

must

Bacon's

it.

Hence

with

Bacon,
Of

greatest

science.

of

error

in

was

not

rash

partly account
method, made
method, made

greater

ledge
physical know-

his

the

course

puissant.

was

we
may
his cautious

with

Descartes,

important discoveries.

maturity

the

failed in consequence.

of that, and

unaware

this deductive

Science

for

"

greater attention

the

of Descartes, and

by him

bestowed

physics, had something to do with this ; but his method

his discoveries
also
assisted him, because
of a kind to
were
method
the mathematical
which
strictlyapplicable.
was
upon

the

and

that

declared

false, if

have

doubt.

no

we

are

has

He

be desired

Bacon's

ficiency,
de-

fluous
super-

many

only

superfluous
before we
words, experience should

other

In

to

collect

to
not

ascertained

not

experiences.

these

make

we

liable

particulars, and

of

experiences
but

is

there

as
leaving nothing
praised Bacon's works
but
he
of
perceived
subject
experience;

himself
on

Bacon

read

had

Descartes

That

the

truth

Bacon
priori conception ; whereas
teacher us to form
our
conceptions from experience.
the method
of Descartes
We
have said enough to make
preciable.
apthe verification

be

of

an

"

positionis

His
method

the basis

on

into

divided

mathematical

the

of

and

founder

Of

Consciousness.

of

cultivators

deductive

that

philosophy.
his influence

on
speedilysurpassed,
the
second
as
an
impulsion. By
unhesitatinglyaccepted,
principleswere
a

His
"

by

different

somewhat

have

him

*
"

followed

Hist,

of

well, however,

by diagrams

to
*

"

Dr.

Ind.

turn

to

deductive

scholars

may

be

of

physics, and

the

By

the

them
he

first

can

was

he

only

was

be

continued

garded
re-

his

only developed in

and

manner.

philosophical method

We

His

cultivators

the

of

subsists in the

Whewell's

Sciences,' ii.
Descartes*

exposition
The
pi 134.

own

Principia Philosophise.*

present day.
of

this
curious

exposition,where

theory,
reader

It

as

is

given
will

do

it is illustrated

IS

404

physicians
metaimplicitlyor explicitlyadopted by most
in their speculationsupon
ontologicalsubjects. Is
The
?
question is of the highest importance :
good method

method

the

it

TRUEt

METHOD

THE

shall

we

in the

endeavour

chapter

next

IV.

CHAPTER

dedicatory epistle prefixed

the

In

*'

equal,

or

Upon

geometry."

of

it upon

founds

the very

am

'

existence

the

of

conceived

as

of, I must

Ckid,

demonstratioas

certain

be

He

by

Consciousness.

all certitude?

cartes
Des-

this belief?

found

he

of certitude

distinctlyconscious

Meditations

of the

certitude

does

nature

basis of

is the

What

surpass,
what

even

in

'

his

to

demonstrations

his

that

declares

"C.,

TRUE{

METHOD

THE

IS

it.

to answer

him.

ever
What-

of; all the

ideas

which

conceived,
distinctly

must

be

existence

from

the

Now

I find in my
consciousness, as
in my
belief
The
I have
true.

soon

as

we

think

we

as

that

believe,

we

have

we

have

never

can

conceive

we

led to believe
irresistibly

are

firm

consciousness

of my

fact

any
all the certitude

in

thinks therefore I exUt.

truth with distinctness,
if that belief

it ; and
to

reason

that

is derived

doubt
be

can

is

which

that

so
we

desired.

of anything external
knowledge
is the conseof ideas. What
quence?
to us, except through the medium
that
whatever
The
is,
Descartes,
consequence
says
in
ideas
h
e
the external
in
the
must
necessarily
things.
find
we
minds
that we
whether
seek
It is only in our
things exist
can
be
There
cannot
not.
realityin an eflfect than in a
more
or
The
external
of the idea, must
thing, being the cause
cause.
much
therefore
as
realityas the idea, and vice versd.
possess
conceive
So that whatever
we
as
existent,exists.
we

have

is the

basis

Further

This

this basis

will bear
so

no

no

which

on

rotten, the

be

which

from

root

whatever

the

fruit.

tree

thinker, except

No

it

gives,since

bringing together
nists of
If

narrow

an

Spinoza,

has

so

clearly,

thd
accept
afforded
opportunityis now
Let

field

then

us

the

defenders

and

lenge
chalof

us

antago*

philosophy.

Descartes

gxound

in

; if

is erected

system

fall. It is the
must
superstructure
the
has grown
tree
; if it is vitiated

frankly stated his criterium.

which

Descartes*

of

is wrong

"

if consciousness

certitude,embracing both

is not

objectiveand

the

ultimate

subjective
"

if ideas

internal

the

not

are

philosophy b^

must

and

find

And

content

refuge again

Descartes

TRUEf

METHOD

THE

IS

copies

of

405

things"

external

relinquish all claim

to

then

certitude,

to

in faith.
The

/j wrong.

consciousness

very

to

which

he

There
is a fallacyin his system
appeals shall convict him.
which
be briefly
is the ultimate
Consciousness
exposed.
may
if I am
conscious
that I exist,I
groundT of certitude,
^r^^^y
be
doubt
conscious
of pain, I must
that I exist ; if I am
cannot
in pain. This is self-evident
But what
be respecting
ground of certitude can consciousness
does the principleapply ? How
thingswhich are not me ? How
it
It can
only extend to things which relate
far^does extend?
I am
conscious
fo me.
within
all
of
that passes
myself ; but I
conscious
all that I can
of what
in not-self
not
am
:
passes
of the not-self
is in its effects
possiblyknow
upon me.
Consciousness
is, therefore, cabin'd, cribb'd, confin'd " to
"

and

me,

passes
extend, and

certitude

have,
be

knowledge

any

founded

we

of

have

may

sensation

the

of it. But

knowledge

farther.

no

far does

so

me;

inferences. Thus

on

conscious

am

within

what

to

principleof

ideas

other

Any

we

may

respectingnot-selfcan
bum

myself
certain

I have

the

in the

and

only
fire

immediate

certain of is that

change
has taken
from that change
place in my consciousness
; when
of an
ence
inferI infer the existence
extefnal
object (the fire),
my
shifted
be correct, but I have
ground ;
obviously
may
my

consciousness

my

"

all that

can

principleof

be

certitude

"

forsakes

me

here

is
myself to infer the existence of something which
bitable.
immediate, induMy knowledge of the sensation was
My knowledge of the object is mediate, uncertain.
for
Directly,therefore, we leave the ground of consciousness
that of inference,our
questionable. Other
knowledge becomes
inferences
be
can
brought to bear upon any one-infere;ice to
go out of
not-self.

illustrate
Descartes

it.

refute

to

or

attributed

to

The

mathematical
inferences

these

certaintywhich

therefore

becomes

greafuncertainty.
He
Good
then

says

we

; we

he also

of ideas.
thingsthrough the medium
accept the position as unquestionable. But

only know

will

"

of this,whatever
find
we
that,in consequence
in the ideas must
necessarilybe true of the things.
His reason
in us by objects, and
is,that as ideas are caused
the
effect must
much
have
as
as
realityas the cause
every
effect being equal to the cause
the same
ideas have
must
so
realityas things.
says

"

"

406
this is

But

equal

not

its

to

does

not

resembles

of

of

use

Descartes

the

things, he

perception

mind

ideas

of

is

be

must

passive recipient
this is
That
things reflect themselves.
that

the

mind

the

is

perception is

that

"

is true

what

that

assumes

altogether fallacious,and
in all

the

In

terra

that

says

mirror, in which

as

dent,
antece-

an

fire.

a.

when

true

of
consequence
equality whatever.

is

effect

place, an
fir^t

questionab
Unrealityis ambiguous.
effect
an
really exists \ but reality of existence
The
bum
of existence.'
imply similarityof modes
by a fire is as real as the fire ; but it in no
way

occasioned

So

the

In

mere

relation

such

no

TRUE

fallacy.
is
; it

cause

place, the

second

METHOD

doubtful

having

"

THE

IS

co-operitor

active

an

of changes
causing those
objects

consciousness

operatedin ourselves not a consciousness of the

demonstrate.*
In
to
changes we have formerly endeavoured
able
of
far
from
the
to apprehend
nature
things
truth, so
being
for
external to us, there is an
impenetrable screen
placed
ever
^

"

before

our

upon
external

with

operations
because

our

Into

is mediate^ and

whatever

regions

us

but

all

organizationon

an

the

us

precisely

the

their

medium,

is

wander, we carry
which, indeed, we

"

of

we

of

this

very

placed in

upon
know

cannot

Consciousness, by means
we
know,
know, is ourselves.
is composed
of Ideas.
Ideas
Knowledge
with

the

When

objects, they operate

we

is

screen

relies.

Descartes

know, themselves
knowledge of them

we

Consciousness.

our

impenetrable

that

which

Consciousness
contact

and

eyes,

the

rather, we

other

jointproduct

of external

hand, and

one

the

are

that

Ideas

causes

on

the

products
; or,
may
say
what
pf that organizationexcited by external causes.
Upon
principlesof inference (sincewe are here on the ground of
inference)can you infer that the ideas excited are copiesof the
excited
that the Ideas
excitingcauses
apprehend the whole
are

"

of the

nature

The

cause

causes

of the

fallacyis

give objectively to

in that very strong dispositionto

of the mind;f
in consequence
of

law

,
'

which
are

often

assertingis
There

'

so

you

is

validityof
existence

mode

one

people declare
in the

of escape

times,

"

See

Series

See

it

of

Ideas

"

left for those

or,

Necessary

as

the

Truths

I., pp. 254-5, 267-8,

exposed

in

Mill's

'

that

something they

idea."

ontological speculations.
of Innate

in modern

hear

involved

"

System

and
of

That

who
is

believe
to

in the

assert

the

theory is generally stated

indepenent

of all expe-

especiallypp. 279-384.
Logic,' ii.,p. 355.

IS

rience.

If the idea

longer

no

Descartes

of God,
of

matter

METHOD

THE

would

been

of this idea

equalled
Descartes, according

But

for

example,
but

Inference

have

TRUE

correct

in us, it is
Consciousness
; and
innate

be

of

in

407

believingthat

the

tainty
cer-

certainty of geometry.

the

Dugald Stewart, did not assert

the existence
of Innate
Ideas, though, from its having been
a
maintained
doctrine
his
it
attributed
is
to
followers,
usually
by
him.
cartes
DesStewart
the
from
Dugald
followingpassage
quotes
in reply to his adversaries,who
him
accused
of holding
the

of Innate

tenet

"^When
meant

I said

Ideas

"

idea

that the

than

more

to

this, that

Nature

in

is innate

of God

has

us, I never
with
us

endowed

either
know
God; but I have
faculty by which
we
never
may
said or thought that such
ideas had an actual existence,or even
that they were
the
a
spedes distinct from
faculty of thinking.
Although the idea of God is so imprinted on our minds
that every
himself
has within
the faculty of knowing
person
various
have
been
not
him, it does not follow that there may
individuals who
have
ever
making
passed through life without
this idea a distinct object of apprehension ; and, in truth, they
who
think
idea of a pluralityof Gods
have
no
an
they have
....

"

idea

of God

this it would

From
of

whatever."

Innate

conclusion

Ideas.

appear
But
we

that

he

must

did

hold

not

venture

the

dissent

to

doctrine
the

from

drawn

the strength of such

Stewart
a
on
by Mr.
will bring another
against that passage
we
passage;
equally explicit (we could
bring fifty,if necessary),which
the existence
of Innate
Ideas.
asserts
By the word idea^* he
I understand
in our
all that can
be
thoughts ;* and I
says,
like the common
distinguishthree sorts of ideas; adventitious^
idea
of the sun
by the mind, such as that which
; framed
astronomical
reasoning gives of the sun ; and innate^as the idea
of God, mind, body, a triangle,and
generally all those which
and
eternal
cartes^
essences^
{Lettresde Desrepresent true immutable
LIV.
Ed,
where
other
Rev,, Oct., 182 1, p. 236;
and

**

"

"

"

are
given.) This last explanation is distinct: and it
passas^es
is all that the serious
have
Ideas
ever
antagonistsof Innate

combated.

If

Descartes, when
pressed by objections,,gave
different explanations,we
of
must
to the want
only set it down
*

This

For

sense.

1830,
whether

was

p.

the
the

182, in
most

to

first time

historyof
an

article

admire

that

the

word

this much-abused

the

by

Sir W.

idea
word

Hamilton,

extraordinaryerudition

used

was
see

of
or

in

Edin.

which
the

we
rare

its

modem

Rev.,*

Oct.

know
acuteness.

not

IS

408

conception

steady

his

the

Although

said

be

under

upheld
necessity

led

plausible

Philosophy

have

Sir

by

present

the

radical

assumption
experience
it

noumena

clearly

been

that

the

this:

Have

history.

solve

to

attempts

the

any

method

of

Mill

This
in

the

on

his

arguments

We

hand,

one

the

for

may

of experience
of

or

That

in

the

of

ideas

such

no

in

because

phenomena

have

we

of

lies

speculations

ourselves

schools

best

of

speculation

metaph)rsical

still exists.

opinion

of

then,

modern

Ideas

independent

it will

occupy

of

the
this

upon

pushed

Descartes,

tion
specula-

his

other.*

established

entering

Before

paramount

Truths,

but

independent

question,

we

by John

existence

contrary

fundamental

The

the

the

the

be

to

Whewell

Dr.

by

Sciences

nothing.

us

continue

Necessary

the

Cartesian

settled.

of

us

enough

but

psychology;
proves

tell

can

of

its

of

ontological

ideas

tell

only

can

all

have

we

be

the

form

metaphysical

for

on

to

of

error

that

really

'

shattered

point

in

does

adopted

Herschell

John

assume

The

has

the

completely

been

and

of

been

Inductive

to

doctrine.

groundwork

has

theory

Ideas

may,

theory

Ideas

Innate

Innate

conviction

modem

of

Ideas

it

form.

such
the

to

Innate

exploded,

new

some

that

Cartesian

the

of

theory

of

has

of

be

importance

remains

fact

to

vital

the

groundwork

necessary

TRUEt

METHOD

of

The

system.

form,

THE

experience?

sub|tct

And

of

portion

greater

our

exhibit

must

we

its ultimate

to

is

Philosophy

conclusions

in

Spinoza.t
"

indeed,

by

any

la

works

Jules
volume
on

the

are

Philos.
is
Simon
of

by
has

the

Passions.'

Paris,

Diicourse

Paris,

on

184
in
a

Method,'

1844.

Rev.,'

by Locke

long

before

Locke

to

for

contempt

book

iv.

apart

from

BouUier's

Cousin,
published

Quarterly

Essay/

Descartes,

Paris, 1842

Victor
also

great

on

refuted

See

Francisque

Modeme.'

that

his.

works
M.

Cart6sienne.*

Revolution
de

of

and

5 ;

and

too

apparently

modem

Philosophy,

ii. ch.

anticipated

argument

best

The

been

has

Wheweli

Dr.

of

had

they

book

Logic,'

of

Sjrstem

and

M.

The

1.

cheap
the

Histoire
Ch.

besst

vols.

eleven
and
"

ch.

be

vinced
con-

Histories

regular
et

edition

of

la

'Manuel
Descartes'

1826.

edition
and

de

Critique

Paris,

convenient

Meditations

; but

6-7.

Renouvier's

8vo.

1841

June,

the

M.
in

one

Treatise

LIFE.

SPINOZA'S

410

to

convince

and

virtuous

done,
wise
His

parents

settled

there

honest

with

persecution

Spain.

The

but

passion

which

Baruch*

young
for

of

Amsterdam,
of

number

to

rigorous logicianwas

all

Jews

had
on

subject in

were

to

precocityof

the

who

their brethren,

firstdestined

at

was

study, and

man.

merchants

in company

escaping the
his

affectionate

and

were

this

that

reader

the

commerce,

his

intellect,

in favour of a rabbinical
his parents alter their resolution
education
resolution warranted
a
by his sicklyconstitution,
:

made

which

sickly child is
study. The
his own
himself, and
mostly thoughtful ; he is thrown
upon
of his pains,
suffers,and asks himself the cause
resources
; he
and

had

himself

asks

is

increased

whether

love

of

the

world

like him

suffers

whether

laws, or whether
subject to the same
From
is apart from
these
it,and regulated by distinct laws.
rises to the awful questions
Whither
?
? and
Why ? Whence
The
of the Jews was
almost
education
exclusivelyreligious,

he
he
he

with

his

one

and

nature,

"

Old

the

studies.

teira,who

became

the

hopes

were

rivalled

by

admiration

the

won

it was

as

almost

his biblical

into

his

and

all the

the

youth,

zeal,

subtlety,

Levi

Saul

instructor.

in

doctors

principal

fanatical

Rabbin

this

of

entertained

their

penetration and

Chief

guide

with

them

remarkable
the

of

forming

Talmud

entered

Spinoza

which, backed

the

and

Testament

Mor-

Great, indeed,
who

exactitude

fourteen

at

and

of

extent

these

turned
to fears,
hopes were
its
pertinacious spiritpursue
they saw
young
whatever
into
undaunted
inquiries
region they conducted
him,
him
found
difficulties
them
which
and
to
putting
they, rabbins
and
unable
to solve.
philosophers, were
deterred
be
neither
Spinoza was to
by threats nor by sophistications.
that

He
doctrine

found

and

in

made

no
point.f
irritated
schoolfellows,

anxious

before

Baruch

Latin

as

embraced

On

; from

an

which

Christianity,whereas
this

silence
of

Warburton

Moses

argument

; and

the

his

no

complete
opinions :

intellectual

the

mention

and

of his

two

rabbins, reported

the

on

or
superiority,

he

which

name,
some

only

have

he

himself

his

else

heresy

translated

erroneously supposed
Judaism.

that

into
he

renounced

endeavoured

to

establish

has exerted
Bishop Sherlock
discrepancy which' sceptics had

in their favour.

of the

silence

to appear
exaggeration. Summoned
with
a
obeyed
gay carelessness, con-

Spinoza*s Hebrew

was

Benedictus

ingenuity in explaining
as

he

synagogue,

Legation

the

with

was

of

his

at

curry
usual
of
fertility

the

Testament

Old

secret

favour

to

the

with

the

immortalityj there

of
He

"

But

knowledge.

when

the

divinityof

considerable
seized

hold

of

SPINOZA'S

innocence.

scious

of

in

opinions,

his

his

LIFE.

obstinate

judges, finding him

His
him

threatened

4""

with

excommunication

he

of the
Morteira, informed
danger,
his rebellious
hastened
to confront
pupil,but Spinoza remained
unconvinced
untouched
by his
by his rhetoric as he was
as
this failure,Morteira
took
at
Enraged
a
higher
arguments.
him with
threatened
excommunication, unless he at
tone, and
and
His
retracted.
irritated,
pupil was
rephed in sarcasms.
once
broke
the
The
rabbin
then
assembly, and vowed
up
in his hand."
with the thunderbolt
only to return
he
In
excommunication,
anticipation of the threatened
from
himself
tlie synagogue
2. step that
wisely withdrew
foundly
promortified
his enemies, as he thereby rendered futile all
had
which
intimidations
been
employed against him, particularly

with

answered

sneer.

"

"

otherwise

the

could

such

from

Dugald

Stewart

society which

the

makes

this secession

to

respect

inspirein

sentence

himself

withdrew

excommunication

terrible

himself

the

from

with

terror

voluntarilyabsented
him
pretended to exclude
who

one

unwarrantable

most

; for what

synagogue.

view, probably,

insinuation
He

says

with

Spinoza

gain a more
favourable
reception for his doctrines.'*
{Dissert prefixed to
the Ency. Brit.^ p. 144.) At that time Spinoza had no doctrines
of his

"

to

own.

Dreading his ability,and

made

him
would

time

at

time

offer of

an

florins,if he

only

their

the force
an

consent

annual
to

be

of his

example, the synagogue

pension of a thousand

silent,and

assist

from

ceremonies.

Spinoza, indignant at such

an
attiempt to palterwith his conscience, refused it with scorn.
As
neither threats
him
from
his
nor
temptations could turn
conceived
another
evening, as
path, fanaticism
plan. One
he had
of the theatre, where
been
coming out
Spinoza was
startled
mind, he was
relaxing his o'er-tasked
by the fierce
expression of a dark face, thrust eagerly before his. The glare
arrested
of blood-thirsty
fanaticism
him; a knife gleamed in
the air,and he had barely time to parry the blow.
It fell upon
his chest,but, fortunatelydeadened
in its force,only tore his coat.
The
assassin escaped.
Spinoza walked home
thoughtful.*
The
vast
at length arrived ; and
a
day of excommunication
of Jews assembled
the
awful
to witness
concourse
ceremony.
to

nation
of the assassibiographers contradict
Bayle*s statement
declare
that
being attempted as Spinoza was
leaving the theatre, and
he was
coming from the synagogue
they forge* that he had entirely
; but
of the assassin.
renounced
the probable motive
going there, and this was
*

Some

of

the

LIFB.

SPINOZA'S

411

It

the

began by

black

candies, and

wax

silent

and

solemn

by opening

lightingof

quantity

the tabernacle

wherein

of

were

of Moses.
of Law
Thus
the dim
were
deposited the Books
of the
imaginations of the faithful prepared for all the horror
and
friend
the
scene.
Morteira, the ancient
now
master,
of the condemned,
the execution.
fiercest enemy
to order
was
He
stood there, pained, but implacable ; the people fixed their

him.
and
rose
High above, the chanter
eyes
eager
upon
chanted
forth,in loud lugubrioustones, the words of execration ;
while from the opposite side another
mingled with these curses
the

of the

sounds
thrilling

reversed, and

trumpet ; and

the

now

black

candles

drop by drop into a

huge tub filled with blood ! This spectacle ^a symbol of the
made
terrible faith
the whole
most
assembly shudder ; and
when
Maranatha
! were
the
the final Anathema
uttered, and
in the blood, a cry of religious
lightsall suddenly immersed
were

made

were

melt

to

"

"

execration

and

horror

darkness,
Amen

and

to

burst

those

from

solemn

all ;
curses^

and

in

that

they shouted

solemn

Amen,

And

thus

the young
truth-seeker
munity,
expelled from his comhis friends and relations forbidden
intercourse
hold
to

was

and

with

him.

Like

the

young

energetic Shelley, who

and

in this
himself
outcast
him, he found
an
busy world, with no other guides through its perplexinglabyrinths
than
three new
or
sincerityand self-dependence. Two
friends soon
warred
who
against
presented themselves
; men
of
their religionas he had
warred
against his own
; and a bond
sympathy was
again
forged out of a common
injustice. Here
resemblance
trace
to
we
a
by
Shelley, who, discountenanced
his relations,
few
a
sought amongst
sceptical friends to supply
he
thus
affections
the
was
deprived of. Like Spinoza, he too
No
had
he had
been
only sisters,with whom
brought up.
and
the
the consciousness
of sincerity,
doubt, in both
cases,
in this combat
pride of martyrdom, were
great sustainments
with society. They are always so ; and
is
well that they are
it
the
battle
would
be fought ; but
never
they never
so, or
the
affections.
from
Shut
entirelyreplace
our
family,we may

imitated

afterwards

seek

brotherhood

intellectual
emotive

of apostacy

sympathies

are

sympathies, with

their memories

Spinoza

must

no

all

; but

these

compensation
their links of

new

and
for the

precarious
loss

of the

association, and

all

of childhood.

have

marriage,endeavoured

felt
to

this; and

Shelley, in a rash
fillthe void of his yearning hearty so
as

SPINOZA'S

Spinoza,urged

of his friend

daughter
This
He

Vanden

was

seminary with
sent

him

their

of Latin

dose

feeling,sought

same

the

"nde, as his wife.

master, Vanden
had
influence on
some
Spinoza's life.

in

Amsterdam,

such

; but

sons

by the

413

and

Ende

physician

think

must

we

LIFE.

logical
philo-

citizens

wealthy
discovered, that

afterwards

was

he added

conducted

that all the

success,

it

who

to

took
underHe
grain erf atheism.
to instruct Spinoza in Latin, and
board
and
to give him
that he should
lodging on condition
subsequently aid him in
This
instructinghis scholars.
Spinoza accepted with joy, for
of the Hebrew, German,
although master
Spanish, Portuguese
(and of course
Dutch) languages, he had long felt the urgent
necessity of Latin.
Ende
Vanden
had
a
daughter ; her personal charms
were
equivocal,but she was thoroughly versed in Latin, and was an
task of teaching young
The
Benedict
accomplished musician.
the pupil soon
generallyfell to her : and as a consequence
every

in

became

love with

ourselves,

to

Heloise.

as

the master.
a

sort

We

of

picturethis

often

odd

of

reverse

Abelard

ship
court-

and

Spinoza, we

fancy, not inattentive to the instruction,

but the more
in love with it coming from
soft a
mouth
so
:
He
watches
not
her
inattentive,yet not wholly absorbed.
it moves
hand
it
as
along the page, and
longs to squeeze
While
in the dictionary their hands
touch
"looking out"
and he is thrilled ; but the word
is foundy nevertheless.
The
lesson ended, he ventures
timid compliment, which
she
on
a
receives with a kind smile
ful
; but the smile is lost,for the bashhe raises
philosopher has his eyes on the ground ; when
her trip away
household
to
them, it is to see
duties,or to
another
pupil : and he looks after her sighing. But, alas for
female
Abelard
! our
vated
captiwas
more
maidenly discernment
by the showy attractions of a certain Kerkering, a young
Hamburg
merchant, who had also taken lessons in Latin and
lov^ from
the fair te.acher; and who, having backed
his pretensions
of
seductions
necklaces,
by the more
pearl
potent
into the shade.
He
then
rings,"c., quite cast poor Benedict
from
turned
love to philosophy.
"

His
read

progress in Latin
it with facility,
and

had, however,
found

considerable

been

it invaluable

in his

; he

philosophical

fell into
studies ; and especiallyas the works
of Descartes
now
his hands, which
he studied with intense
avidity,feeling that
a

new

Jewish

world

was

doctors

therein

revealed.

The

laws

of

the

ancient

expressly enjoin the necessity of learningsome

SPINOZA'S

414

mechanical

well

art, as

enough, they said,

also

must

be

the

to

the

as

be

to

LIFE.

scholar

the

learnt

synagogue,

the

the

"

Spinoza had

learned.

of

study

law.

It

of

means

not

was

subsistence

ing
accordingly,while belongof polishingglasses for
art

he
arrived
such
at
telescopes, microscopes, "c., in which
proficiencythat the great Leibnitz, writing to him, mentioned^
things which fame has acquainted me
Among the honourable
*'

with

respectingyou,

with

I learn

interest that you are

he gained a subsistence"humble,

small

no

clever

optician." By polishingglasses
To
this he
it is true, but equal to his wants.
soon
joined, by way of relaxation, the study of desigli,and
had
Col^rus
became
portfolio of portraits of
a
very expert.
several
distinguished men, sketched
by him ; and one
among
the
of
Masaniello.*
them
in
dress
of
was
portrait himself,
a
In his eight-and-twentieth
year Spinoza left his natal dty of
his life to study, retired to
and resolvingto devote
Amsterdam,
Rhynsburg, near
Leyden, where, still pursuing his trade as a
hour to philosophy. The
glasspolisher,he devoted
spare
every
the
fruits of his solitude were
Abridgment of the Meditations
a

of

Cartes,' witK

Des

the

principalpoints

of his

It contains

work.

of Descartes

account

have

with

met

ever

is

is

ing
interest-

very

comprehensible

and

accurate

most

he first disclosed

This

system.

own

the

we

which

appendix, in

an

the

; and

appendix

It made
Ethica.'
of the
a
curious,as containing the germs
profound sensation ; and when, the following year, he removed
small
his reputation
the Hague,
to Woorburg,
a
village near
attracted
of visitors.
enmities
him
a
Many
great concourse
the disciplesof Descartes, by the expoexcited amongst
were
sition
of the weak
points of their master's system ; and Spinoza
'

had

attention

of

clearness

and

So

at

his

solicitations

the Hague.

"

show

It

friendship" men

celebrated

of

advice

in

many

Your

enemies

that

you
Masaniello

dans

V autre

"

^^

ould

loved

emergency.

not

failed

in

in
1

latter

an

create

created

Monde.

who

to

"

we

the

but

assert

live

who
also

were

mention

may

tirely
en-

sought
bered
num-

the

Spinoza, and

profitedby
also,
great Condd

The

little while

Naples."

1 1

alone

public affairs

the

Of

have

in

and

come

the learned

not

was

Witt,

Jan

that

consequence
fixed upon

that he should

rank

them.
de

**

in

attacks

the
thinking men
him, and
was
him
their admiration.
precision of his work won
friendshipsdid he form, that he at last yielded

amongst
his

rude

all

new
many
the numerous

to

their

suffer

to

that
the

Rencontre

by

same

that

you

uproar
de

Boyle

pretended to
Christianity

in

avec

Spinoza

SPINOZA^

LIFE.

41$

of Holland
the invasion
(JIuring
by the French, sent to desire
and
The
him.
see
Spinoza to come
philosopher obeyed, but
the prince was
to his loss.
prevented keeping his appointment
This
near
proving fatal to Spinoza, The
journey was
very
in communication
populace having learped that he had been
with the enemy,
lord,
began to suspect him of being a spy. His landhim of them
alarmed
at these reports, warned
; he feared,
the house.
attack
he said, that
the populace would
Fear
It is easy for me
to justify
nothing,"replied Spinoza,calmly.
the object of
myself, and there are persons
enough who know
the people
arrive, as soon
as
journey ; but whatever
my
may
"

"

"

assemble

before
I should

though

which

courage

door,

your

the

share

him

made

I will go out
and
fate of De
Witt."

proclaim

truth,

the

them,

meet

even

calm

The

same

now

made

him

the infuriated
ready to confront
populace. Fortunately all
Karl Ludpassed off in peace, and he was left to his studies.
illustrious a thinker, offered him the
to secure
wig, anxious
so
chair of philosophy at
vacant
Heidelberg, which, however,
that the philosophy he
Spinoza could not accept, conscious
would
teach was
too
closely allied to theology, not to trench
the Elector
had
its dogmas ; and
on
expressly stipulated that
he should
teach
could
nothing which
prejudice the established
therefore
religion. He
begged to decline it, as his public
interfere with his private meditations.
it was
duties would
Yet
both
lucrative and honourable
a
sophical
post he refused ; but a philofor

contempt

worldly honours

his characteristics.

amongst

was

It is

wants,
by his

invigoratingto contemplate Spinoza'slife. Dependent

manual
exertions for his daily bread, limited in his
own
and
decliningall pecuniary assistance so liberallyoffered
friends,he was
always at ease, cheerful, and occupied.

There

is

on

his

heroic

an

firmness

in

traceable

of

act

every

worthy of our meditation

; there is a perpetual sense
He
refuses
independence, worthy of all imitation.
the belief of another

man

"

will believe

he

for

his

life,

of man*s
to

accept

himself; he

sees

mysteries around him

awful, inexplicable but he will accept
of no
man's
explanation. God has given him a soul, and with
"

that

he

Thus

will solve
he

leaves

thus

sphere

he

miserable

he

will

the

"

problem

or

the

synagogue;
thinks
for himself.

assert

his

pittance,and

remain
thus
So

independence.
with

the

to

also

in

he
a

far

Having

solution.

leaves

cartes;
Des-

subordinate
but

the

most

his friends open

to
acceptingtheir bounties.

purses

his desires
him, he preferredlimiting

without

of

SPINOZA*

4t6

LIFE.

subsistence,so long
preferred working, and gaining his own
be
This
it
crotchet of his ; neither
to
as
gained.
was
no
was
friends were
it ignoble calculation.
The
sincere, their
was
clined.
desincere ; he knew
offers were
them, and
it, but thanked
He

heritage,which
resigned to his sisters.
The

lot,he

Simon

friend

Vries

de

him, he would

not

his will in favour

pension
Louis

anything

to

God

who

to

refused,

he

XIV.,

if he

him

offered

brother

He

had

given

him

his

to

his

which

leaving

of
Simon

made

alter

The

Vries, at Schiedam.

De

dedicate

having

monarch."

that

fell

his intention

would

"

death

large property

accept ; but

to

his

The

announced

had

consent

of

his father's

on

his

intention

no

was

to

to

dedicating

of

indebted

work

next

no

but

one

those
to make
energy
him rot in idleness,or in

talents,and

available,not to let them and

ignoble dependence, while all the world had to toil.*
it was
Yet
a
hard, griping poverty that he endured.
his papers after his death, they found
accounts
looking over
talents

expenditure.

his
with

One

day

little butter, which

pot of beer, which

ate

nothing

but

soupe

of

lait^

au

half-pence, and a
Another
day
farthingsmore.

about

cost

three

cost

basin

he

On

three

butter and
raisins,
gruel, with some
which
him
cost
halfpenny ; and, says the pastor
twopence
Col^s,
Although often invited to dinner, he preferredthe
scanty meal that he found at home, to dining sumptuously at
the man
This was
of another."
the expense
who
was, by his
lived

he

on

of

"

with

contemporaries, branded
; and

who

has

borne

the

these

no

man

Novalis

could
his

hand

perhaps

was

call him

While

filled with

more

God-intoxicated
at

twopence

through

after

ever

the

on

curean
Epi-

and

hand

one

religion (so

legiblecharge againsthim.

publicationof his Tractatus

of some
importance, both
Spinoza.

and

of

not

favourable

that

man), on the other

halfpenny sterlingper
'

Theologico-Politicuswas
in the history of philosophy
of
men's
minds
at that
state
period was
of
reception
great philosophical
any
*

event

an

Epicureanism,

diem, stands
The

ever

for

names

Europe, excepting only Germany.

all

of Atheist

names

The
the

to

; and

Spinoza found himself obliged to prepare the way

for his future doctrines,by examining the nature
of that ecclesystem

"

It

in

was

and

greatness,
I

passage

more

to

the

arts

'

thinks,

"

man's

Governments
than

oppress
sciences

and
at

own

ridiculed

wisely

his

own

the germ
of
that he saw
energy
the notion
of patronage
in this

should

never

encourage
flourish,is to

risk

and

found

genius.

to

allow

peril."
"

The

every

Tract,

academies,

unique

for

method

individual

Polit,,c. 8, "

worth

of

to teach

40.

and

noteworthy
they serve
making
what

he

SPJNOZA^S

4l8

LIFE,

scarcely have raised

general approbation, yet it would
himself
violent
such
to
dissensions, had
Spinoza confined
of modem
mans,
Gerspeculation ; but, anticipating the rationalism
attacked
the
of the Bible, and
he undertook
a criticism
institution of priesthood as injuriousto the general welfare.
with

It

be curious

may

bach, and

Bruno

Oldenburg,

"

eternal

Son

all

be

formed."

Christum

Dei,

"

Dico

in

mostly

in

humand

et

which

conception

omnium

must

necesse,

astemo

illo filio

in omnibus

rebus,

de

sese

is

mindy and

human

esse

to

you
that

of God,

omninb

sed

sapientii,quae

that
of

the

non

his

logical
theo-

letter

flesh ; but

different

noscere,

setemi

mente

wisdom

camem

the

to

eternal

in the

in

salvation

for your

very
salutem

ad

noise

Spinoza,

says

the

Strauss, Feuer-

of

much

so

according
the

things,but
Jesus Christ;
"

hands

the

necessary

all

est, Dei

hoc

not

/. e,

secundhm

maxim^

et

in

you,"

Christ

in

of God,
in

manifested

it is

that

believe

tell

:
'^

should

of

in

made

Baur, has
**

world

Spinoza's anticipationof

quote

to

Christology. which,

Hegelian

most

here

in Christo

maximb

*
The
quences
conseJesu 'manifestavit,long^ aliter sentiendum."
at
were
was
as
might have been expected ; the book
in almost
to be received
once
condemned, and forbidden
every
stimulus
to
as
usual,
a
This,
only gave
country.
greater
and
the work
the sensation
curiosity,
produced may be judged
of by the quantity of
which
refutations
Many
appeared.
*'

"

artifices used

the

were

to

introduce

it into

various

the

tries.
coun-

this title,
published at Leyden, under
Hensii
Dan.
Historicorum, coUectio
prima. Edit.
Operum
multo
emendatior
et
II., priori editione
auctior; accedunt
This was
reprinted at Amsterdam
quasdam hactenus inedita.'
M.
Dr a cubiculo
as
Henriquez de Villacorta.
PhilippiIV.,
Caroli
II., archiatri
chirugica omnia, sub
auspiciis
Opera
title was
absurd
potentissimi Hispaniarum
Regis.' This
it
in
into
edition
French,
adopted to pass
Spain. Another
La
called
Clef du
Sanctuaire,' was
published at Leyden in
Traits des C^r^monies
des Juifs,'
as
1678, and in Amsterdam
and
Reflexions
curieuses
d'un espritd^sint^ress^.'
again as
ousness
abstemito
Spinoza's devotion
study, with its concurrent
and want
of exercise,soon
undermined
his constitution;
edition

An

was

'

'

'

but

he

never

complained.

everything else
"

If my

promise

"

He

silence.

in

sufliered that, as
Once

continued," he writes
explain certain matters.

life be
to

"

Opera Posthuma,'

only
to

him.

respecting a

plaint

450.

suffiered

escapes

friend

No
p.

hint

had

he

"

^no

regret

"

SPINOZA^

merely
brave

condition

; he

man

confronted

put

upon
confront

could

LIFE.

promise.

419

disease

He

was

calm,

and

death, as
Bravery of the

he

had

persecution.
highest
distinguishedhim through life,and was not likelyto fail
him
that calm, cold
the. quitting it; and
on
yet beneath
childlike gaiety springing from
stoicism,there was
a
warm
a
and
heart.
His
of
made
character
sympathising
was
up
and
He
heroic forbearance.
could
simplicity
generous
spare
and

poverty

kind

from

somewhat
He

taught

with

the

endless

toil ; but

attendance
and

his scanty pittanceto relieve the wretched;

learned
the doctrines
elaborated
world
he had
even

divine

on

unwise

the'benefit

proselytism which

unfitted
he

from

return

and

heard,

receive

to

believed

answered,

doubt

another, nor
provided you add

to

full

by her

saved

good

be

to

one

you

"

your

wisdom,

springing from

iC

him

religion. He
ought not to
salvation,
your

will procure
yours
piety the tranquil virtues

that

of

asked

his hostess

day

be

religion is

"Your

Words

One

could

she

seek

life."

would

others.

that

regular in their
He
would
question his host
church, respecting the sermon
He
had no
they had derived.
in minds
destroy convictions

taught children

service.

their

hostess,on

they had

he

of domestic

affectionate

an

and

experienced mind.
So lived the Jew, Spinoza.
and
assisted the development
he

found

relaxations

only
the

people

last

amusement

with

of

in it

its

in others.

sophy,
philo-

to

up

His
exceeding great reward."
his pipe,receiving visitors,chatting to
were
his house, and
watching spiders fight. This
would

own

the

make

of

commencement

end.

The

roll

tears

February, he insisted
and

the

his

down

his kind

on

cheeks

with

with

good

the

three

seized

what

After

o'clock, in
money

there

the
was

not

permit

obeyed.
and

sermon,

his

with

*him.

and

sorrow

twenty
22nd,

of

their

ate

some

When

the

his illness

On

friends

surprise,that

presence
the
on

for

hostess

dinner

physician

they learnt,with

about

the

about

appetite.

church, leaving
home

them

from

his

near

Sunday,
leaving him,

and

would

him

the

On

service,as he
their devotions.
They

obstruct

suffered

host

attending divine
talked

1677 found

year
had

he
which
phthisis,
alarmingly increased.

now

years,

he

Given

nature,

own

laughter.

The

to

**

developed his

he

So

he

return

broth

returned

to

they came
had expired

physician,who

table, together

with

care,^
further
knife,and left the body without
So died, in his forty-fifth
year^ in the full vigour and maturity
silver-handled

SPINOZA'S

420

hair

of

the

to

the

of

manes

Offer

"

Spinoza.

Benedict
intellect,

of his

DOCTRINE.

but

holy

"

with

up

me

lock
"

repudiated Spinoza 1
The
great spirit of the

pious Schleiermacher.
his
his beginning and
world
penetrated him ; the Infinite was
filled
eternal love.
He
bis only and
end ; the universe
was
it is that
with religion and
religious feeling; and therefore
in his art, but
he
stands
alone, unapproachable ; the master
elevated
the
above
adherents, and
profane world, without
the

exclaims

without

*
citizenship."

even

CHAPTER

VI.

Spinoza's
The

Spinoza, which
logicaldevelopment of
of

system

but

the

has

excited

to

of God

demonstration

existence

but

almost

opinions

admires.

'*

of

demonstration

! The

God

being possible

laurels

proudest
"

and

of

no

other

Spinoza's title

was

"

which

Descartes

execration.

the

of

the

candid

most

prejudicewith respect

common

similar

all

at

of

of Descartes'

odium, is

much

so

Curious

refuses, therefore, to admit

held

system

Stewart, generally one

evidentlyshared
He

the

existence

of God,

universal

Dugald

excited

one

was

of the

that

has

admiration.

much

so

of the existence
the

doctrine.

that
to

of

in little else,'*says

to

he

Spinoza, whom

those

of

men,

Spinoza.
dislikes,
he

whom

Descartes,
his

he, **than

physical
two
sophers
philoprinciples that he agreed with Descartes
; for no
differed more
ever
widely in their metaphysical and
characterizes
his system
Fontenelle
theological tenets.
as
Cartesianism
rect.
pushed to extravagance." This is far from corfew
Spinoza differed with Descartes
a
points, and
on
agreed with him on most ; the differences were
only those of a
tained.
more
rigorouslogicaldevelopment of the principlesboth mainIt

was

at

It

an

was

important

in

era

himself

deep
with

the

of the

Spinoza's life that the writings

then strivingto sblve for

fell in his way.

He
was
the inexplicableriddle of the

of Descartes

into the

learned

Jews, he
*

science

Morteira
was

the

; -but

still at

Schleiermacher

of

an

"Rede

universe.
Cabbala

though wise

immeasurable
uber

die

He

had

; he had
in all the

distance

Religion,'

p. 47.

trated
pene-

studied
wisdom

from

the

SPINOZA'S

desired

solution.

DOCTRINE.

captivatedhim

Descartes

his

logic,by the independent

truth was
sought in the inner

outward

world,

Descartes
riddle

in

nor

remained

existence

somewhat

demonstration.
estj is

Deus

man,

of

and

authority.
found

soon

He

that

found

the

own

included

was

manifestation

of

"

is irresistible.

sum,

lies beneath

which

noumenon

everywhere transformations
must

be

what

is it ?

something
We

"

all

the

studied

there

also

his

the
own

the

far

of which

the

this he

therefore, leaving Descartes, asked

Sii^inoza,
is the

He

but

his

in

not

superfluously established;

CogitOy ergo
syllogism.

no

of

of

varied

his

by the boldness of
Method, whereby

fact

in which

but

was

world

he

unsolved.

greater existence
great All

but

of

nature

records

the

avidity;

with

42

found

no

CogitOyergo

himself

phenomena

^What

"

We

see

perishable and

beneath

perishing; yet there

is imperishable,immutable
;

which

universe

wondrous

peopled with wondrous

of these beings exist perse, hut fferalwd:
beings, yet none
existence ; they do not rest
they are not the authors of their own
but on
their own
that of the
a
reality,
upon
greater reality on
What
is this reality?
TO
"v
Kai
TTOLV.
TO
This
be
not
answered
question, Spinoza thought, could
by
the idea of Perfection.
No
of
all
existence
: the
reality
great
in the gross
is Substance.
Not
substance
and
of
popular sense
is substans
which
is
matter," but that which
**body" or
all phenomena,
standing under
supporting and giving them
is a phenomenon
?
reality. What
an
a
thing perappearance,
ceived
But
what
state of the perceiving mind.
: a
originates
this perception
what
from
its prior to its
changes the mind
and
Something, external
extrinsic,changes it.
present state ?
What
is this something ?
it is, in itself,we
What
can
never
know
it would
to know
the forms
and
: because
bring it under
conditions
of the
constitute
it a phenomemind, i.e,,would
non
see

"

*'

"

"

"

therefore,

^unknown,

"

something

is ;
calls Substance.

and

science, as

this

Kant

but

not

calls

denied
noumenon.

"

this
This

ens

"

this

Spinoza

from
start
existence, must
one
principle,
which
the
be
is this commencemust
ground of all. What
ment
this apx^.
Perfection, replies Descartes.
No, says
is an
attribute
of something prior to it.
Spinoza, Perfection
Substance
is the
with most
Descartes, in common
sophers,
philoapxO'
had
had
assumed
assumed
and
God
a duality : he
a
a
real world
created
Substance, to him, was
by God.
by no
the primal fact of all existence ; on
the
means
contrary, he
All

"

all

DOCTRINE.

SPINOZA'S

422

words, that mind

in other

Spinoza

Attributes

than

more

duality of

the

arrived

thus

at

synthesis he reduced
all-embracing unity,and

One.

Substance

the

"

and

own

of the

conception

independent
only by God.
Thought
were
no

subtle

his

to

Existence

absolute

The

by

united

Extension

; and

Substances

were

distinct

were

and

essence,

Descartes

Thought

matter

both

that

affirmed

and

in

different

Substances,

and

extension

both

that

maintained

(callit

"

what

you

conceived.

I be
'

nises

God

nothing

fountain

infinite ; the
is but
There

life ; he

of

manifestation

the

but

of the

bosom

the

as

patient thinker

itself to the

unfold

begins to

: world

existences

concrete

exists,exists in and by God ; and can only

of
Here, then, thought he, the mystery

that

All

; arise.

all individual

Him

From

; will)is God.

in

sees

thus
the

; he

recoguniverse

the

the
; the finite rests
upon
inconceivable
variety resolves itself
of God

reality,and that is God.

this he
Such
was
Spinoza's solution of the problem : upon
this only.
in peace, and upon
To live with
felt he could
repose
the highest
with perfect knowledge,
God
was
God
to know
this he
to
development and happiness ; and
point of human
unity.

into

one

"

consecrated
we

to

his life.

Taking

and

our

live,move,

those

relations

the

trace

of

have

to

man

society.

the great results of that

Spinoza agreed with

I.

is

basis

The

the

of

the

of St.

words

being,"

as

world'

to

His

Paul,

his motto,
and
God
'

Tractatus

Him

In

he undertook
to

and

man,

Ethica,'were

'

and

"

endeavour.
.

in these

Descartes

of all certitude

vital

three

is Consciousness.

clearlyperceived in Consciousness

must

distinct ideas are

; and
III.
objective existences.

true

true

II.

positions.
Whatever

therefore

ideas, true

be

sarily
neces-

expressions
metaphysical

Consequently
The
mathematical
demonstration.
of
susceptible
problems
of
is,that it is the Method
only novelty in Spinoza's Method
tical
carried out
Descartes
Descartes
thought that the mathemamethod
was
capable of being applied to metaphysics, but
he did not
apply it ; Spinoza did.
of

are

it was
addition ; in reality
the
seem
a
trifling
may
differences
between
of all the
Spinoza and his teacher.
This

principlesinevitablylead

to

source

cartes'
Des-

Spinoza's system, if those

Descartes
But
never
principlesare rigorously carried out.
which
the
deduction
of
rigorous
attempted
consequences,
Spinoza, using the mathematical
method, calmly and inflexibly
deduces.

impugn

Those
the

who

premisses

rebel

at

from

which

the

conclusions

they

are

drawn

drawn;

must

for

the

SPINOZA'S

To

Spinoza

of

system

is

DOCTRINE.

nothing

this demonstration

we

more

423

about

are

than

less

nor

lead

to

stration.
demon-

readers, and

our

little patient
of them
little steady attention
and
only befjT
a
a
in
little difficulty
that they will then
have
thought, convinced
this
shall
abstrusest
of all subjects. We
finding their way in
translate some
Ethica
with the utmost
portion of the
care,
*

because
have

Spinoza's
his

watch

to

think

we

it every
mode

own

that
and

the

reader

should

be

enabled

thereby

deducing his conclusions

with eight
opens
of

manner

The

advisable
way
of statement,

work

his premisses.

from

DEFINITIONS.

By

I.

of itself I understand

Cause

existence

involves

considered

be
II.

III.

IV.

thing finite is that

by another
thing of

constitutingthe
Modes

I
or

which

be

can

limited

of Substance.

essence

very

of Substance
(affediones)
which
is in something else, through

understand

the

that which

accidents

it is conceived.

also

By God

Being absolutely infinite ;

consisting of infinite Attributes, each

I understand

Substance

the

which

I say
whatever

for

to

the

infinite.and

an

expresses

Explication.

eternal

absolutely infinite,but
is infinite but

in

not

essence,

"

involves

thing is said to
necessity of its nature,
This

always

is

an

ask

cause

the
and

cause

to

an

of

**

and

endless

the

free

be

important definition,

felt relative

hitherto

first

existence, Spinoza

of

suo

sua

genere

can
genere, we
is absolutely

which

implies

negation.

no

That

in

not

which
deny infinite Attributes ; but
to its essence
infinite,
pertains everything
and

ue,y

essence.

that

VII.

only

can

{terminari potest)
the same
nature, e.g.^ body is said to
be
finite because
it can
as
larger.
always be conceived
So thought is limited by other
thoughts. But body does
limit thought, nor
not
thought limit body.
is in itself,
that which
and
I understand
is
By Substance
is,the conception of which does not
conceived/^
se
: that
to it.
require the conception of anything else as antecedent
mind
the
that which
perceives
By Attribute I understand

By

VI.

of which

nature

which

of

essence

existent.*

as

as

V.

that, the

or

the

that,

as

which

the

sole

by itself alone is determined

to

it gets lid of
of causes."

chain
cause

very

in the

series

exists

the

by

verbal

The
; but

properly annihilates

perplexity

doubter

here, by
the

might
fying
identi-

sophism.

DOCTRINE.

SPINOZA'S

424

that is necessary,
or rather
its existence
acts
to another, and

action.
owes

determinate

and
VIII.

Existence

is conceived

necessarilyto

of

thing.

eternal

an

These

definitions

the

are

according to

certain

causes.

Eternity I understand

By

constrained, which

But

they need

in
itself,

from

follow

long

not

far

as

it

as

sole definition

the

dwelt

be

on,

to
all,no
frequently
objection ought to be raised against them, as
untrue,
of various
in constant
with
for they are the meanings
terms
use
he
them
he
and
has
to
use
Spinoza,
as
pleases, proa'right
vided
he does not afterwards
depart from this use, which he is

but

must

carefiil not

do.

to

We

hereafter

; above
unusual
or

recurred

be

to

come

now

the

seven

AXIOMS.

I.

Everything which
That

II.

which

dj/zW"

given

; and

effect
The

IV.

per

determinate

^"r

the effect
cause

necessarily
be given

lows
folno

follow.

can

of

knowledge

effect

an

understood

be

thing.

another"

through

determinate

and
includes
the cause,
it.
have
that
Things
nothing in

V.

other

some

se.

cause

versd, if no

vice

in

conceived

be

conceived

be

must

From

III.

in itself,
or
isj^is

cannot

of

by

on

common

with

of

means

does

one

each

involve

not

the

depends

the

of

knowledge

each

other

not
can-

ception
other, ue., the conconception of the

other.
A

VI.

idea

true

debet

cum

suo

Whatever

VII.

in
agree with its original
ideato convenire),

must

be

can

clearly conceived

in its essence,

not,

axioms

These

at

involve

absurd

; but

the

truth

prevalent respecting
I

this axiom.

of

it

is

is,that
and

cause

Mr.

Hall

to

seems

grounded
relation

be

in

upon
between

this

it, that
a

cause

different from
from

our

having

fourth

any

our

the

non-existent, does

existence.

command

once

fourth, which, because

as

{ideavera

nature

assent, if

we

except

the

ambiguous, has been

thought
the opposite conceptions now
effect prevent a real appreciation
am

goes
axiom, and

so

far

in

as

the

to

"

say,

It

proposition

The
fallacy lurks.
and
effect is surely something perfectly
perfect comprehension of it,or indeed

fundamental

knowledge

of

it at all ; much

less

can

the

SPINOZA'S

426
then

cause,

its

conception does

if it be

; but

cause

ception involve

same

the

one,

will

involve

not

does

the

; ergo^

more

complete

bear

this

in

conception

the

then

cause,

as

of the other

reader

The

other.

the

that

of the

knowledge

DOCTRINE.

the

one

of

con-

complete the
knowledge of the

more

the

mind

studying

when

Spinoza.
will

We

proceed

now

the

to

PROPOSITIONS.

Two

II.

This

with

common

follows

the

conception

the

other.

Prop.

III.

things

be

the

If

IV.

Prop.

Two

either

themselves

that

must

words,

other

conception

the

of

one

common,

other.*

distinct

then

(perAxiom

of each

other

common,
means

be

cannot

more

or

Substance

nothilSg in

have

of the

4), one

each

involve

not

nothing in
conceived
by

be

Ihey cannot
(per Axiom
Q.E.D.

other.

have

they

Attributes, have

through itself;in

which

cause

its accidents.

5.

3 ; for

does

one

Of

cannot

Demonst.

each

Def*

from

of

to

3 and

in itself and

conceived

be

nature

haying different

Substances,

nothing in
Demonst.

prior in

Definitions

Per

Demonstration.
Prop.

is

Substance

I.

Prop.

the

of

cause

5)

; ergo

other.

the

"

things are distinguishedamong

diversityof their Attributes,

the

through

of their

Modes.
through
Demofist,
other thing
Everything which is,is in itself or in some
i), that is (per Def. 3 and 5),there is nothing
(per Axiom
of ourselves
and
out
(extra intellectum)but' Substance
its Modes.
There
is nothing out
of ourselves
whereby
be
things can
another, except
distinguishedamongst one
or

This

fallacyhas been
speculation. For

of

one

the

influential

most

of

corrapters
; and

it

Mras
undisputed
years
many
* Mill's
See
to it.
System of Logic,' vol.

still adhere

sophical
philo-

most

physicians
meta-

ii.,pp.

376-386.
assertion

The
of

is that

Anaxagoras,

be

correct, his system

(causes)like, it is also

^ain

when

charcoal

since

is

upheld the

like

the

as

act

can

groundwork

is true.

although

But
that

the assumpThis
like.
was
tion
upon
If the assumption
of his system.
it is true

that

wood;

like

all

these

logicallv concluded

faUacy

nave

not

like

thus

produces unlike :
bodies, explosion when
applied

true

applied to our
when
applied to

Spinoza's position
have

only

and

effects

from

that

excuse.

his

are

fire
to

unlike

premisses

produces
produces

gunpowder,
the

cause.

; those

who

SPINOZA'S

Substances,
It is

V.

of

Demonst.

If there

the

are

4S7

thing, per

same

4*)

Def.

Modes.

and

impossible

Substances

is the

(which

or

their Attributes
Prop.

DOCTRINE,

that

nature,

same

different

many
the

be

should

there

the

of

or

two

or

more

bute.
Attri-

same

Substances

they

be

must

of
diversity of their Attributes
or
distinguished by
their
Modes
(per Prop. 4). If only by the diversityof
that
there
their Attributes, it is thereby conceded
is
of the same
nevertheless
Attribute ;
Substance
only one
Substance
but if by their diversityof Modes,
then
being
be considered
prior in order of time to its Modes, it must
is (per Def. 3 and
of them
independent
6), cannot
; that
another
be conceived
as
distinguished from
; that is (per
be
Substances, but only onfe
Prop.^4), there cannot
many
Substance.
VI.

Prop.

Q.E.D.

"

Substance

One

created

be

cannot

another

by

Substance.
There

Demonst.

Attributes

in

Prop. 3) one
Corollary, Hence
by anything

else.

that

its Modes

this Substance

now

Substance

there

For

not

and

of the

cause

is

the

same

(per Prop. 2), that

other

each

the

it follows

and

Substance

be

cannot

is

that

with

common

with

Substances

two

(per Prop. 5) ;

anything

5) ;

be

cannot

havfe

therefore

(per

other.

nothing

created

be

cannot

in nature

except

Def. 3
(per Axiom
i, and
being produced by another

and
is

self-caused.
This

strated
proposition is more
easily to be demonits
of
stance
contradiction
^for if Subby the absurdity
be produced
can
by anything else, the conception
it would
the
of
conception of the cause
on
depend
be
not
(per Def. 3) it would
4+), and hence
(per Axiom

Corollary

2.

"

Substance.
It

VII.

Prop.

pertainsto

Substance

DejTionst

Coroll.

i)
(per
pertains to

it

"

Def.

the

In

Auerbach

notice

it because

puzzle

the

t Here

the

original,by

and

4;

its

the

Substance

produced

is therefore

and

essence

slipof

reference

the

of Substance

the

followed
to

cause

to

exist.
else

(per

of itself ;

existence

exist*

ue.
or

Q.E.D.

"

of
to instead
4 is referred
We
in his translation.

pen, Axiom
the
error
Axiom

to

by anything

necessarilyinvolves

nature

has

of

nature

be

cannot

Prop. 6),

Def.

the

is

meaningless,

and

apt

to

student.
the

potency

and

significance of

Axiom

begins

to

unfold

itself.

DOCTRINE.

SPINOZA'S

438
All

VIII.

Prop.

it

and

would

there

which

Scholium

I.

I do

"

of

things, and

be

difficult

they do
the

ignorant of

that

true

well
other

with

is absurd.

Substance,

therefore, is

that

but

attribute

like

things

which

; that

forms

they would
this proposition would
Substance,

would

if

But
not

be

in
an

the

least

axiom

which

that

feigns

stones

divine

affections

these

knows

as

changed into
the

the

to

doubt

all

nature

to

affections

attended

men

natural

from

be

can

are

Hence

who

he

formed

human

how

fications
modi-

the

things, and

confound

notions.

common

among
understand

of

all

are

men

all

that

ignorant

are

; for

Substances

to

fusedly
con-

first causes,
of
Prop. 7,

produced.
they see

are

things, confounds

men

mind.

the

judge

themselves, and

Substances

commencement

of

they

all who

to

demonstration

the

who
So, also, those
the human,
naturally attribute

numbered

the

inquire into

to

wont

forms.

in

case

Attribute,

and

seeds, and

especiallyas

in that

nature, and

by

same

in which

causes

from

as

Bat

be limited

roust

distinguish between
sufficiently

the

talk

trees

finite.

or

of

admit

to

manner

things have, they

the

finite it

bute
Attri-

same

Substances

not

are

not

it follows, that

not

infinite

as

same

doubt

not

Substances,

of

the

of

Q.E.D.

"

because

two

(per Prop. 5)

infinite.

the

of

be

exist

3) as

(per Def.

Substance

another

Substance

one

either

roust

for
finite,

not

it will

exists but

There

Detnonst,

necessarilyinfinite.

is

Substance

are

nature

God,
produced
of

Prop.

7 ; nay,
be
would

all, and
For, by substance
to

they

is conceived

and
exists in itself,

does not require

through itself;ue.y the knowledge of which
of
the knowledge
But
cation
to it.*
anything antecedent
by modifiin
understand
that which
is
another
thing,
they would
the conception of which
is formed
by the conception of the
in
which
it belongs : we
it is, or
which
to
thing
can
have,
of
ideas
non-existent
therefore, correct
modifications,because,
of
the
although out
no
reality,yet
understanding they have
their essence
is so comprehended
of
in that
another, that they
be
conceived
other.
truth
The
of Substance
can
through this
it
because
but in itself,
(out of the understanding) lies nowhere
is conceived
he
that
has
If,therefore,anyone
a
per se.
says
distinct
*

The

would

and

clear

reader

will

fullyseize

Descartes,
Existence

as
was

we

the

idea
bear

of

in mind

Spinoza's
saw,

primal

could
fact

Substance, and
the

meaning
find

result
and

of Descartes'
the

nothing

of all science

yet

basis

on

doubt

philosophy, if
which

indubitable

; self-evident

whether

but
and

he

it reposes.

existence.

indisputable.

SPINOZA'S

Substance

such
had

(as

man

affirms

that

be

more

absurd.

the

existence

of

Substance

fuller

possessingthe

development.
That

1.

the

nothing
which

of
of the
no

be

same

created, he
it is

as

which

well

its

as

is

essence

that

there

Attribute, which

same

not

if any
time

nothing

necessarily confessed

conclude

must

the

at

false ; than

eternal

an

is

that

only

one

requires here

therefore,

definition
the

it be

whether

he

of

of

nature

the

thing includes

and

defined.

thing

presses
ex-

From

follows
That

2.

but

that

say

or,

1 note,

correct

to

as

sufficientlymanifests);

Hence

we

much

as

become

Substance

hence

And

has

idea

true

can

truth.

to

429

doubts

nevertheless

Substance
a

be

would

little attention

false

affirms

exist,this

idea, and

true

DOCTRINE.

more

of

definition

no

includes

or

expresses

distinct

ber
num-

individuals,because

it expresses
nothing but the nature
thing defined ; e.g., the definition of a triangle expresses
fixed numthan the nature
of a triangle,
and not
ber
any

triangles.

ence
for the existnecessarily be a distinct cause
of every
existingthing.
of which
be
This
by reason
anything exists,must
4.
cause,
either contained
in the nature
and
definition of the existing
else must
to exist),or
thing (viz.that it pertains to its nature
be something different from
lie beyond it
it.
must
these
From
of
positions it follows, that if a certain number
individuals
exist,there must
why that
necessarilybe a cause
if in tha
not
a
number, and
larger or smaller number
: eg,,
world
exist (whom, for greater perspicuity,
I suptwenty men
pose
it
exist at once,
to
more
existed),
no
having previously
be
will not
sufficient to
show
the
reason
why twenty men
but it will further
the
nature
exist, to point to human
as
cause,
show
be
to
exist,
why only twenty men
cause
necessary
of
be given for the existence
because
must
3) a cause
(per note
everything. This cause, however
(per notes 2 and 3), cannot
be contained
definition
in human
because
the true
nature
itself,
3.

There

must

"

of

man

does

not

involve

the

number

twenty.

Hence

(per note

exist and why each individual

why twenty jnen
lie beyond each
exists must
of them
therefore
must
we
; and
that everything,the nature
admits
of which
absolutely conclude
of many
external
individuals, must
cause.
an
necessarily have
of Substance
to exist,so
As, therefore, it pertainsto the nature

4)

must

the

cause

its definition
from

its sole

include

definition

necessary
we

must

existence, and
conclude

quently
conse-

its existence.

SPINOZA'S

430

DOCTRINE.
m

But,

as

it is

not

from

its

definition,as

possibleto

necessarily follows

nature

can

We

must

the

at

that

in

shown

notes

only

of many
Substance

one

of the

here

break

off in

our

and

pith

of

heart

very

is

all that

now

is but

There

translation
the

manifestations.

far
gone
the reader.

have

and

naturans

of

as

which

Substance
Mode

Substance,

of Infinite

attributes

be

can

things
everything
all

Substance,
the

as

of

cause

has

He

infinite

two

attributes

the

are

God,
naiura

under

modes

is

He
not

siently.
tran-

Extension

"

is

else

is the

he is the natura
naturata.
appear,
things,and that immanently, but

all

ceived.
con-

exist.

cannot

manifestation,

nothing

ever
What-

his attributes

which

the

sole

is the

viewed

"

will

treated

that is God.

and

Him,

Being

universal

He

the

under

without

; and

yet, without

Mode;

arrived

have

we

system,

infinite Substance,

one

is the

He

viewed

same

necessary.

is, is in God

3,

exist.

in all its rigour before

enough to present the method
An
analysis of the principalpositions subsequently
be

and

Substances,

existence

the

conclude

ergo^ it

already

and

is in*
Thought ; and Thought
visible Extension
the
Objective and Subjective of
are
: they
which
is the Identity. Every thing is a mode
of God's
God
attribute of Extension
thought, wish, or feeling,a mode
; every
Extension
That
and
of his attribute of Thought.
Thought are
from
this :
not
maintained, is obvious
Substatfces,as Descartes
conceived
that they are
not
Something is
per se, butter aliud.
Not
Extension
is ?
but something
the
extended
itself,
: what
is uncreated, but creates
Substance
prior to it,viz. Substance.

Extension

Thought.

is visible

by the internal necessityof

existingthings,but only one
Substance.

one

Such

is

Spinoza

; and

is the

God
brief

its nature.

There

existence
"

outline

of

the

many

forms, but

; many
"

idea immanens

be

may

the One

"

fundamental

and

only
All.

doctrine

of

the

he
the
reconcile
reader, can
fact of this being a most
religious philosophy, with the other
with
almost
fact
of its having been
universally branded
this
Is
Atheism?
intelligible?Yes; three causes
present
themselves

obloquy
"

Socrates

to

party
use

at

has

now

as

vision,and

of the

I. The

once.

been

applied
to

the

ambiguous

with

ask

we

to

readiness

opponents

Gottlieb

Fichte.

with
from

which
time

II. The

that

term

of

immemorial

obscurity of
III. The
rashness
party judgment.
word
Substance, whereby God was
founded
con-

the material

of

world.

SPINOZA'S

This

last
To

is the

God

is the

say
the

sight,like
no

point

perceiving

this

teaches
Mode
but

the

is

he

No

is

universe

for he

corporeal, but

body is a
universe,

God

is

the

not

that

material

of his infinite Attribute

aspect

one

; but

Spinoza without

of

pages

first

at

school

misunderstanding ;

is not

God

Extension.*

of

twenty

tion.
atten-

look,

of the D'Holbach

but

was

that

deserves

infinite Substance, does

read

have

ever

that

431

important, and

most

grossest Atheism

could

one

DOCTRINE.

the

identity of the

verbal

resemblance,

naiura

pressly
ex-

tension
of Exthe

and

naturans^

naturata.\

natura

It is

mere

therefore,this of Spinozism

Atheism

stances
intoo
; but the history of philosophy shows
many
of the errors
of language erected
into errors
of fact, to

to

astonish
which

has

trust

we

It

reader.

any

was

done

been

; and

Schelling's Philosophische
"God
from

Pantheism

between
is

that

which

itself alone

the
;

and

another,

the

Schriften

distinction

place

our

'

in

error,

from

accurately draws

the

"

and
itself,

finite is that

the

out

followingpassage

Atheism

and

exists

point

to

is

which

is

comprehended
necessarilyin

be

from
that
other.
comprehended
in
Things therefore, are
only
degree, or through their
limitations different from
Whatever
their
God, but toto genere.
God
other
relation
to
divided
on
points, they are absolutely
this: that
him
from
on
they exist in another, and he is self-

only

can

not

existent

all individual

finite

its

things

which

since that

God,
with

Stewart

Dugald

works

much
very
those who

taken

is in

original,
any

Spinoza's

this

original. From

or

its

than

more

somewhat
he

has

naively

the

at

it is manifest

that

constitute
together cannot
be one
nature
derived^cannot
the singlepoints of a circum-

himself

avowed

astonished

difference

an

charge);

remarks

that

Atheist"

'**but

*"m

it will

have

riot be

of

part

no

(he would

been

disputed by

compi"faend the drift of his reasonings, that in point of practical

and
Atheism
tendencv
It may
be so ;
Spinozism are one and the same."
the
notnin?
of
accusation
warrant
because
can
Atheism,
merely
yet
have
the same
that of
practical tendency as
Spinoza's doctrines
may
Atheism.
existence
If
\

t
be

the

world

could

"Natura

borne

nesSy

but

they
body

have

not

Help

naturans

in mind
the
a

root
common

is the

deny

not
:

he

terms.
philosophical

existence

these

an

of

God

he

Acosmist,

not

denied

the

Atheist.

an

opposite systems reallyis the, same"

two

it.
et

natura

identitydoes not
from
which
spring
life.

in identitate

naturata

that

Man,

of
identitjr
constantly being made, owing
; water

the

consequently

was

the practical tendencyof

Spinoza

'

did

Spinoza
of

for

common

Deus

est.**

usage)

and

It must

mean

opposite stems, and

instance, is the identityof
two

hydrogeii. Great
overlooking this distinction

oxygen
to

(as in

same'

in

which

soul

mistakes
of

vulgar

and
are

and

DOCTRINE.

SPINOZA'S

43a

together can constitute the circumference, which,

in idea."
whole, is of necessity prior to them
a
as
We
here conclude
exposition of Spinoza's theology
our
one
of the most
extraordinary efforts of the speculative faculty
have
which
We
witnessed
the
to
history has revealed
us.
mathematical
it is developed;
have
rigour with which
we
him
followed
by his irresistible
step by step, dragged onwards
is,that
logic; and yet the final impression left on our minds
We
hxsX not
shrink back
the system has a logical
a vital truth.
taken

ference

"

from
gaze

whither

the consequences
the abyss
over

seeing nought
temples there.

and
our

to

parent

all

of

forced

are

to

conclusion

yet the

no

We
false

other

retrace

mind

refuses

of which

have

development

hurried

ness,
earnest-

examine

not

some

secret

at

every
error,

starting-point,we

the

found

we

build

to

; we

be

dragged,

taken

Arrived
we

been

us

refuse

steps with

our

if there

see

have

we

despair, we

has been

route

that

the

leads
irresistibly

so

and

errors.

confess

is but

edge

chaos

but

to
positions,

of his

one

if

see

the

to

it

error

no

of antecedent

"

that

each

and
positions,

accept the conclusions.

state of the inquirer : he
to

chain
This, then, is the
sees
a vast
with the strictest rigour. He
has
of reasoning carried on
not
There
been dazzled by rhetoric,nor
confused
by illustrations.
has been
artful appeal to his prejudicesor passions ; he has
no
has no
been treated as a reasoning being, and
been
able
more
the positions,after once
to doubt
understanding the definitions
and
the positions of Euclid.
axioms, than he is able to doubt
And
again say that the conclusions
are
fused
repugned, reyet we
the
the truth
not
inquirer has been seeking ;
; they are
life whose
they are no expressions of the thousand-fold
enigma
he has been endeavouring to solve.
Unable, himself, to see where this discrepancy lies,he turns
with impatience to the works
seeks
in criticisms
of others, and
and
refutations an outlet from his difficulty. But
and
it is a
curious
point in the history of philosophy he finds that this
'

"

"

bold

and

extraordinarythinker

meeting

one

connexion

quite

easy
*

at

is

pronounced
refutations

the

with

variance

work.*
This

his

on

On
the

way

the

by any

have
taken
Men
ground.
up
them
their
from
having wrenched
them
to
easilyshown
system, have

the

other

Bayle

refuted

whole
with

been

never

own

propositions,and

separate
be

him

has

answers

hand,

the

the

refuters.

inquirer finds

Spinoza;

of
""one
by Dugald
hi^ yet appeared.'* Mr.
which
Stewart

of the

systems

yet
most

Stewart's

his

answer

elaborate

This
that
has
and

dislike of the

is
the
been

acute
conse-

SPINOZA'S

434

the

presses

We

thing,and nothing but its nature.

admire
the consistencyof this : he grapples
he is endeavouring
of the science
very difficulty
It is obvious
that, to know
things which are

but

boldly with the

establish.

to

of

nature

cannot

beyond
must

appearances
them
know

of
know

as

that

which

"

He

says
in reference

at

not

as

we

"

ditions
con-

that we
so
can
pronounces
is ,true ; true
I clearlyknow

once

whatever

sphere of sense
they are under the

the

transcend

are^ and

they

Spinoza

sense,

them.

DOCTRINE,

to my
conception of it,but in reference
merely
is a mirror
In other words, the mind
to the thing known.
flecting
reThis
assumption, which
things as they are.
necessary
first distinctly
Hes at the root of metaphysics,Descartes
brought
to
light as the basis of all inquiry. Whatever
was
clearlyin
he accepted as the truth.
It is on
Consciousness
the truth of
this assumption that Spinoza's system
add,
depends : we
may
that on
fabric of philosophy depends.
it the whole
position of Spinoza's
Having thus signalisedthe fundamental
doctrine,it is there, if anywhere, that we shall be able to show

not

his fundamental

truth

the

On

error.

or

falsehood

of

this

one

have
must
Spinozism stand
or
we
assumption
fall; and
that
show
to
the assumption is false.
formally endeavoured
Those
who
in the reasonings we
adduced
agree
may
escape
it by denying the possibilityof all
Spinozism, but they escape

philosophy.
consideration, that the mind

This

is not

passive mirror

flecting
re-

of its own
partialcreator
certain
forms
perception there
nothing but
changes
in the percipient this consideration, we
destruction
say, is the
of the very basis of metaphysics,for it expressly teaches
that
fact
the subjective idea is not
the
the correlate
of
objective
;
and
belief
that
the
ideas
the perfect and
our
only upon
are
of
external
adequate images
things can any metaphysical speculation
Misled
the
which
its
of
draws
rest.
nature
by
geometry,
truths from
the mind
its
the
the spider draws
web
from
as
the

nature

in

that

"

of things, but

the

is

"

bosom,

Descartes

attained

yet

in the

assumed

same

that
This

way.

Spinoza, Leibnitz, and

their

metaphysical
was

of this
see

of Bacon

tnistaken

the

On

the

he

nature

of the
looks

protest.
on

knowledge
of

mind,

it

as

that

says,

writer's
cause

Bacon

could

him

hesitatingly
un-

ment
denounce-

Bacon's

to

read

great

^e

reasoning,

evidently unprepared

It is curious

of the first

he

read

of

followed

successors,

Spinoza, however,
^i/wr/ method, though

the truth

confusion

had

truths

to

his criticism
error

to

have

origin of things.
speaks very confusedly;
and

DOCTRINE.

SPINOZA'S

while

he

435

For, in the first

nothing, judges much.
the
besides
the decepthat
human
intellect,
place, he supposes
tions
is
of the
subject to the deceptions of its own
senses,
conceives
that
it
and
everything according to the
nature,
and
of
its
not
analogies
own
according to the analogies
nature,
of the universe,so that it is hke an
unequal mirror to the rays
of things which
the conditions
mixes
of its own
with
nature
those
of external
things.*
look
We
Spinoza's aberration as remarkable, however,
upon
because
he
had
the subjective
also seen
that in some
sense
the
not
absolute .expressionof the objective,as is proved
was
for the destruction
of final causes,
by his celebrated
argument
wherein
he
showed
that order
a
thing of the imagination,
was
useful and hurtful
also
these
as
were
right and wrong,
being
and

proves

"

in relation

such

merely

Still

us.

in this passage

of Kant

et

tempus

mensuram,

to

that the

"

numerum

all other

to

which

should

of mental

law

same

Ex

potihs imaginandi modos;"

suspect

pation
his antici-

strikingis

more

quibus clar^ videre est,

nihil esse
praeter cogitandi, seu
"

have

forms

to

applicable

also

was

him

led

subjects.

the inquirerescape
Thus, then, may
Spinozism by denying
possibilityof metaphysical science; thus, and thus only.
in denying it he will not
But
the less be
grateful.to the great

the

thinker

elaborated

who

immortal

intellects

state

dences

of

it.

labours

whose

things;
Spinoza with

of

will

He

will

and^he

cleared

the

as

went

way

sent
pre-

coinci-,

the

and

before

of the

one

for the

trace
affectionately

who

those

him

revere

those

who

Pantheism

after him.

came

in the

old

Greek

taught
and
by the Jews.|
*

''Nam
suA

sensuum

et

is

schools

Indeed,

as

It

philosophy.

was

Augustine,!
by Plato, by
that
under
Pantheism,
say
may
St.

humanus
primd supponit, qnod intellectus
prseter fallaciam
sold naturi fallitur,
naturae
fingit ex analogic suae
omniaque

analogic universi, aded

naturam
naturae
qui suam

rerum,

"

one

sit instar

at

ex

non

old

as

speculi inaequalis ad

immiscet."

rerum

"

radias

ii. Opera^

Epist.

p. 398.
t

St.

si6 est

Augustine

says

"

difiusus,ut
per cuncta
mundi, sine labore regens
tamen
spatia locorum, quasi
per
sit
dimidius, at que ita per
corpore
Deus

creatrix

in sold
in

p.

se

Deus

Snbstantialit^r
non

et

sine

mole
totum

sit

ubique difTusus
qualitas mundi, sed

onere

continens

diffusa, ita
totus'; sed

ut

in

Sed

substantia

mundum.

in solo

terrft totus, let in coelo et in terrd totus

et nulla
Austin
Mrs.
totus"
on
ipso ubique
(Quoted in

est.

dimidio
coelo

Non

mundi

totus,

et

sed

loco,
'Goethe,' vol. iii.,

contentus

272).
{

The

founded
Christ

Cabbalists
on

et

sa

material

taught, however, a more

vague
analogies and
metaphors.

Doctrine,'tome

i. p.

122.

and
See

fanciful

pantheism,

Salvador:

'J^sus

SPINOZA'S

436

DOCTRINE.

of its various

of all
shapes, is the necessary
consequence
pushed to its logicallimits; and
metaphysical inquiry, when

one

this

from

do

reason

it in every

find

we

nation.

and

age

The

versatile

quick
dreamy contemplative Indian,
Greek, the
practicalRoman, the quibbling Scholastic,the ardent Italian,
the bold
and
the livelyFrenchman,
Englishman, have all pronounced
of
it as the final truth
consists
philosophy. Wherein
natural
are
Spinoza's originality? what is his merit?
tions,
questhe

"

"

when

him

see

only lead

before

the

his

hands,

science.

The

the

for

first

doctrine, carrying with

true

it looks

"

true

it

no

of that
the

is

is

seize his

than

you

be
; it may
But
with

meaning

admit
can

; you

Euclid

no

opinion is possible,conviction only is possible.

Benedict
was
Spinoza thus he lived and thought.

mere

Such

fanciful

vague

doubt

"

of

aspect

his terms,

can

in

doctrine

wantmg.

understand

and

his conclusions

doubt

more

proof

; if you

others

as

originalityconsist

and

Pantheism

the

but

"

choice

is

result

same

scientific conviction

no

no
Spinoza
of his science,
the possibility

there

the

development
Hime, it assumes

Indian

and

Greek

to

merit

proclaimed. His
systematic exposition and

had

in

we

"

earnestly meditating on the deepest

the human
subjects that can occupy
race, he produced a system
the
which
will ever
remain
of
most
one
as
astounding efforts of
that
has
been
abstract
decried, for
speculation a system
iniquitousand blasphemous
nearly two centuries,as the most
has ifow, within the last sixty
invention ; and
which
of human
the
nation's
become
acknowledged
parent of a whole
years,
admirers
of
its
the
most
some
philosophy, ranking among
The
ribald Atheist
pious and illustrious intellects of the age.
God-intoxicated
turns
nearer
acquaintance, to be a
out, on
man."
The
a
blasphemous Jew becomes
pious,virtuous, and
The
dissolute
creative thinker.
heretic becomes
a
child-like,
and
We
heroic man.
look into his works
simple, self-denying,
brave

and

simple

man,

"

"

with

calm

has

existence
demands

beacon, whose
rocks
"

^tion

on

to

use

is

warn

have

the

out

is thrown

hundreds

Spinoza's works
we

stands

shadow

serve

which

there

another

curious

of

page

failed, as

Spinoza

sympathy.

read

majestic struggle with the mysteries of

it always must
fail ; but the struggle
ardent
the man
admiration, and
our

the

warmest

our

light will

and

earnestness,

history:

human

the

from

the

athwart

wanderers

of their brethren
been

very

quarto which

ably edited

dim
the

from
have

like

past

tall

sea,

and

the

shoals

whose

and

perished.*

by Prof. Paulus.

appeared shortly after

his

The
death

CRISIS

FIRST

PHILOSOPHY.

MODERN

IN

CHAPTER
CRISIS

FIRST

doctrine

The

Philosophy.

Spinoza

deduced

His

VII.
MODERN

IN

was

having brought

than

more

of

doctrine

into this dilemma

PHILOSOPHY.

of great importance, if for nothing

the
first crisis in modern
about
was

admitted

from

clearlystated,and so rigorously
that
he
sophy
Philopremises,
brought
so

"

we
premises are correct
; and
my
distinct idea is absolutelytrue
clear
and

Either
every

but
subjectively,

437

admit

must

that

only

; true, not

objectively;

If so, my
system
Or my
premises

is true
are

false ; the voice

of Consciousness

is

not

the voice

of truth ;
if so, then

is my
system
since the only ground

And

impossible:
is pronounced
"

unstable,

false, but
of Certitude

only

our

pronounced fallacious.
Spinozism or Scepticism, choose

"

knowing

of

means

ness
Conscious-

our

the

is

truth

other

no

Philosophy is

all

have

you

choice.

Mankind

refused, however,

which

Descartes

principlesthemselves

make

to

established

had

Spinozism, it

result than
those

them, for

between

was

could

while

worth

might

choice.

not

be

ciples
prin-

If the

have

other

no

inquiring,whether

modified.

shifted : psychology took the

ground of discussion was
It was
Descartes'
theory of knowledge
place of ontology.
that theory therefore
be
which
must
led to Spinozism;
mined
exathe
theory becomes
: that
great subject of discussion.
The

Before

deciding upon

merits

the

of any

system

which

embraced

great questions of Creation, the

Deity, Immortality, "c.,

that it was
the (Competence
to decide
saw
men
upon
necessary
mind
such problems.
to solve
of the human
be obtained
either through experience,
All knowledge
must
or
independent of experience.
the

excellent- German
translation in
1677. An
Opera Posthuma.'
Auerbach,
was
volumes, by Berthold
published in 1841. M.
in French,
Emile
with
Saisset has also recentlypublished one
tion!
introducan
from
the
character
of
the
which,
translator,is,doubtless, to be lelied
of
We
on.
are
aware
scarcelytanythingin English, critical or explanatory,
the
Literature
Introduction
to
given in Mr. Hallam's
except the account
the
articles
in the
of Europe,' and
Spinoza and
Spinozism
Penny
few
a
Cyclopaedia (by the present writer) : the latter contains
passages
"

B.

five

D.

S.

sm^I

'

'

'

'

'

not

incorporated in

this

because
history,

lying beyond

its

proTince.

"

FIRST

43"

CRISIS

dependent

Knowledge

All

objects.

All

phenomena.
of

that

them

know

must

we

experience

on

agreed

are

PHILOSOPHY.

MODERN

experience

be

only

can

"

of

knowledge

merely

IN

ourselves

know

to

through

that

agreed

are

ence
experi-

modified

as

things per

se

by

noumena

"

channel

other

some

be

necessarily

must

than

experience.
Have

have

or

we,

other

that

not,

we

channel

This

is the

problem.
before

Thus

this

settle

must

Can

per

this

answer

The

psychology

still

less

of

times

it

has

mistaken,

similar

that

In

both

cases

; it

of

any
the

of

the

limits

of

ascertain

speculation.

been

nature

ideas

we

before

carried

to

it

was

men

the

new

capacity,

basis
became

and

limits

broad

the

in

the

tests
con-

we

are

tendency

Method.
gation
investi-

of

begun

could

fact

only

course

had

tinctly
dis-

antiquity,

Inductive

Consciousness
that

of

of

the

the

Unless

necessary

inquiry,
Thus

make

on

answer

proper

agitated,
of

for

that

all

been

which

result
the

of

with

ages;

been

assumed

believe

on.

the

Fichte

has

place

ground

produced

succeeding
until

attention

middle

arisen

has

the
we

the

real

evident

and

took

was

science

of

object

psychology

not

of

psychology

faculties.

Philosophy;
its

have

conditions

inquiring

the

basis

questions
and

the

become

and

Have

"

themselves

the

of

been

in

that

it
has

little

necessity

had

end,

wrong

which

into

psychology

why

reason

contented

attention

strangely
to

know

and

philosophy
with

why

have

schools

the

of

the

occupied

the

great

modern

that

reason

Men

that

the

was

speculation,

of

itself

occupied

but

the

stated.

modem

we

fact

noticed

subjects

higher

Cotisciousness

our

resolves

question

importance,

this

of

sphere

exclusively

almost

constantly

subjects

"

further

of experience

philosophers.
was

the

question

independent
To

question

ontological

upon

se

this

And

dogmatise

can

transcend

we

things

we

be
first

and

at

given
to

the
to

settle

conditions
became
and

first

the

firm,

to

object

of

Philosophy

to

reduced

question

of

psychology.

CHAPTER

I.

HOBBES.

had

We

at

time

one

contributions

His

History.
had

scarcely

"ut

three

in

than

rather

than

calmer

of

opinion

the

his

depreciated
majority
enough

as

who

saw

had

the

But

as

his

Politics

has

and

to

whose

little

that

only

depreciation

his

was

temper

was

tolerate

to

we

name.

admiration

able

he

treated

bestows

of

pages

better

has

Spinoza

has

given

no

portion

his

with

even

merit
and

in

first

of

ences
differHobbes

is devoted

as

it, was,

and

have

who

thinker.

importance

we

social

until

the

with

contempt

adversary,

an

uniformly

so

appearance

of

those

shallow

proclaim

been

ever

by-word

political

as

of

been

prodigious

courage

are

account

and

vilified,

great

so

instructive

From

dangerous

long

trious
illus-

historians,

by

over

pass

those

was

the

acknowledge

to

treated

in

except

writers;

of

in

much

Dissertation,'

more

he

Hobbes.

he

day

present

his

doctrines.

writer
as

nificant,
insig-

contemptuously

Mackintosh,
and

exposition,

no

to

and

the

neglected

Historical
;

but

psychological

Perhaps

our

not

lies

that

been

unjust

'

Stewart's, and

is little

there

be

copious,

more

though

eminence

finding

been

exposition.

of

is

greater,

also

Hobbes

upon

pages

from

through

except

real

only

not

had

but

Stewart,

Dugald

to

had

it would

that

thought

His

consideration,

Hobbes

antagonists,

Philosophy,

influence,

any

Hobbes

influence.

further

on

little read,

by

his

lies

also

omit

to

to

Locke.

successor,

there

determined

been
he

The

the

liberal

has

been

first person

political thinker,
believe, James

theories

continue

and

Mill.
to

be

judged
be
It

of

denied
will
At

be
the

by their
a

fair

long
risk

hearing.

ere

of

supposed
that

has

He

will

incurring

so

consequences,
roused

be

appeased.

some

of

the

the

long

will

odium

odium

Hobbes

theologicum.

cast

upon

his

HOBBES.

440

help standing

cannot

we

name,

in his defence.

up

Faults

had, unquestionably; short-comings,incomplete views

all

as

will

is

error

that

say

Let

then?

in

was

faults

the

its

proportion to
guilty of dangerous

dangerous

he

be

but

noted,

; and

he
"

plausibilitywe
"

But

errors.

what

overstrained; the
enlarged and corrected
;
not

views

short-comings
incomplete
shall all be
and
examined
the
We
refuted.
errors
calmly
by screaming
gainers by it ; but by inconsiderate
contempt,
and
result can
be obtained.
Impartial minds will
no
vilifying,
the greatest writers England has
always rank Hobbes
amongst
do not
of
masters
simply mean
produced ; and by writers we
of thought.
is profound and he
He
language, but also masters
His
and
is clear ; weighty
sparkling.
style,as mere
style,is
it
in
has
in its way
clearness
fine
the
as
anything
English :
as
it has also the solidityand
of crystal,and
brilliancy. Nor is
It is original
the matter
unworthy of this fonn.
; in the sense
of having been
passed through the alembic of his brain, even
when
perhaps the property of others.
Although little of it
and

could

and

never

says,
less than

in the

they

as

they (/". previous

in

are,

th^

know

when

conditions
inwards
subtle
unless

we
passage
of the Baconian

science

and
and

what

disputationin
first get

we

with

spirit.It

operations of
see

his usual

much

as

Locke

see

observation

of

though
leave

intending

; that
our

none,"
I

err

no

but

men

not

to

take

basis

on

if

we

minds,

avoid."

to

can

would

understand

the

advance

not
**

the

patientlylook
reasoning and

must

we

All

fact.

causticity,"has

anticipated. It is also an
proclaims that Psychology,

there.
passes
will
the world

firm

as

Man,"

one

us

he

the exclusive

[ forming

says

step,
where,
else-

privilegeof
alloyed by

But
this privilege is
general theorems.
of
the
privilege absurdity, to which no living
by
I another,
"
is subject but man
those are
creature
of men
only. And
of ail
that
^
And
the
of
Philosophy
to
most
profess
cause
subject it,
\
of the privilege
this large endowment
to
Philosophers we may
he attributes the difficulty
read in another
men
passage, where
that is

Truth,

do

can

it.

in mind
of what
only to put men
know
by their experience, I hope to
may
too hasty coU"
do, it must
proceed from

this

In

loved

I
"

Leviathan/

dispute\ but

produced

he

manner,
"
Harm

writers),for I shall

I will endeavour

eluding,which
evidence

the

he

when

trusty but

already^ or

less ; and

and

doubt

principleupon

is

of

opening

any

err

novel

was

dogmatic, overbearing in
hesitated to proclaim her.

Haughty,
he

novel, it

appear

now

"

Works

9d\ted by

Sir W.

Molesworth,

vol.

iv. p.

i.

HOBBES.

442

of

understanding

the

For

"

what

by ^the

mean

power

and

acknowledge that there be in

minds
continually certain images or conceptions of the
our
This
of the
us.
represetiiatians
imagery and
things without
quahties of the things without, is that which we call our can^
option,imagination^ tdeas^ notice^or knowledge of them ; and
ledge,
the faculty^or
by which we are capable of such knowpower
the
is that I here call cognitive
power^ or conceptive,
power
of knowing or conceiving."
of sense.
is tlius wholly constructed
mind
Nor
The
out
he
which
be deceived
must
by the words faculty and power
we
of
if they
as
speaks of, as if they m'eant any activity the mind
The
last sentence
implied that the mind co-operatedwith sense.
clear
this point
is sufficient to
of the foregoing passage
up
we
cognitive^

remember

must

"

elsewhere

the

object that causeth

matter
by which

the

Neither

in

that

us

for

motions;

motion

"

them,

of

but

several

many

so

are, in
motions of

sensible

qualitiescalled

the

it

diversely.
our
presseth on
organs
else
but
divers
are
pressed are they anything
produceth nothing but motion"

therefore,

Hobbes,
school

says

All

"

He

Locke, is

not

which

Psychology

(principallyin

and

flourished

in

which

France), and

the

of that

precursor

the

eighteenth century

made

every operation
sensations ; which

proceed out of transformed

ended, logicallyenough, in saying that to think is to feel,penser
shall come
this school
We
c'est sentir.
to
by-and-by ; meanwhile
of

mind

the

It

is to

though

familiar

correspond

'^

us

with

the

the

'

self-evident,
was
was
adopted by

cartes
Des-

sensations

not

it is that

*
"

external

any

our

qualities;

nothing

image

knowledge
it is
;

sense

opinion

that what

modifications

but

of

do

are

the

yet

called

sentient

the

that

no

we

long

or

that

Hallam.

"

Ltt.

have
rate

that
air.

the

the

shape

cause

of

may

believe, by Mr.

and

same

possibly also
publication is at any

Descartes

priority of

received

for

matter

colour

same

for the
; and
the qualitiesof the bell
so

and
vision, consisting of colour
have of the qualitiesof the object

in

hard

themselves

we

appear

discover which,

"

of that

of

Because

shape, is

been

to

as

now

Meditations

qualitiesare

sensible

being

to

is due

important discovery,and

most

in his

this historical indication.

that the merit

Hobbes

so

in truth

with

ourselves

content

we

of Europe,

fall into
very

sound

and

this

qualities

iii. 271.

"

^a

are

hath

appear

it for himself;

Hobbes

this

noise

opinion

needs

must

discovered
to

the

are

And

contrary

due

to

man

but

the

fact first noticedy

HOBBES.

introduction

yet the

great paradox ; and

443

of

speciesvisible and

maintenance
for
the
of thai
intelligibie
(which is necessary
than any
opinion) passing to and fro from the object is worse
paradox, as being a plain impossibility. I shall, therefore,
endeavour
to make
plain these points :

subjectwherein colour and image are inherent, is

the object or thing seen.
not
That
there is nothing without
us
(really)which we call an
image or colour.
the said image or colour is but an
That
apparitionunto
us
"

That

the

"

"

ik
cUteration ivhich the objectworketh
motion^ agitaiiony
or
the braififor spirits,
internal substance
of the head
or
some
:
in vision, so
also in conceptions that
"That
arise from
as

of th"

the

other

object, but

inherence

their

of

is

the

not

sentient,"

the

alone

to

seems

have

Cameades

the ancients
among
has very clearly

suspected,* Hobbes

conclusively illustrated.
furnishes

Sense

operations
how

seen

Hallam

opening
is worth

will

but

there

as

are

conceptive, it remains
the originalof them.

be

also

noticed

has

characterize

^often

"

can

conceptions ;

besides

mind

of the

sense

with

us

the

other
to

be

first,of Itnaginaton.

And
Mr.

of

remarks;

Hobbes's

the

chapter
quoting :

and

the acuteness

Imagination

on

which
originality

and

he

in the

instances

the

Leviathan.'

It

"

That

when

lie still for

unless
thing lies still,
ever,

is

truth

no

somewhat
one

doubts

else stir
of.

But

it,it
that

thing is in motion it will eternallybe in motion, unless

else stay it,though the reason
be the same,
somewhat
namely,
that
nothing can
change itself,is not so easily assented
to.
but all other things by
For
not
men
measure
only other men
because
themselves
they find themselves
subject after
; and
motion
to
pain and
lassitude, think everythmg else grow$
when

subject

which
important principle,

This

and

the

senses,

weary

of

motion

and

seeks

repose

of its

own

accord

; little
wherein
that

it be not
other motion
considering whether
some
desire of rest, they find in themselves, consisteth."
defines
Imagination Hobbes
"conception remaining
a
as
and
little
little
and
of
after the act
firom
and
by
decaying
sense,"
Imagination, therefore, is nothing
but
senseJ^
The
here
stand
underreader
must
not
decaying
"

by imagination anything- more

"

Vide

than

p. 279, sq.

the

retainingof

an

HOBBES.

444

image
term

called

It is the

object is removed.
used
what
to
by Hobbes
James Mill
express
Ideation.
Sense, Sensation
; ideas, Ideation.
object, after the

the

of

says, sense, Sensation

; images. Imagination.
The
materialism
of Hobbes's
theory does not

in his

language (as is the

with

case

happily
Hobbes

consist

merely

philosophers; Locke,

some

theory. Thus, he
Whence
ideas.
and
have
sensations
have images
we
says, we
it
in motion
those
When
a
body is once
images ? Listen :
nioveth, unless something hindq^it,eternally; and whatsoever
hindereth
in an instant,but in time and
by degrees,
it,cannot
the
in
it
quite extinguish
we
see
water, though the
; and, as
wind
the waves
rolling for a long time
over
gives not
cease,
in the
after : so also it happeneth in that motion
is made
which
internal parts of man
For
he
sees, dreams, "c.
; then, when
after the object is removed,
the eye
or
shut, we still retain an
when
than
obscure
we
image of the thing seen, though more
it
in men
The
see
waking is not
decay of sense
the decay of the motion
in sense, but an
made
obscuring of it,
in such manner
the light of
the light of the sun
obscureth
as
the stars; which
less exercise their virtue,by which
stars do
no
in the night. But
because
visible in the day than
they are

instance);

for

it lies

the

at

the

of

root

very

"

"

strokes which
our
many
the
external
from
bodies,

amongst
receive
therefore
affected

happy

; but

materialism
He

is

light

the
with

the

of the
us

the

action

it only

has told

of

of

to

serves

other

predominant only
being predominant

sun

the

and

ears,

eyes,

stars."

bring

is

organs

sensible;^

we

are

not

illustration is very
into stronger relief the

This

out

theory.
what

Imagination is ;

let

us

now

learn

what

Memory.
**This

would
the
we
decaying sense, when
thing
express
I xxit^xi fancy itself,
call imagination^ as I said before:
itself,
we
but
when
the decay, and
would
we
signify that the
express
is

sense

fading,old,

imagination
considerations
Mr.

that

Hallam

and

past, it is called

and

memory
hath
divers

are

but

imagination

thing,which,

tliat

for divers

names."

objects to this,and
and

one

So

memory^

says

that

it is very

evident

distinguished by something
names.
more
Truly, by us ; but not by Hobbes
:
he
the
word
in
a
generical
evidently uses
imagination
more
Thus
it
it
ideation.
he
he calls
than
sense
means
we
use
:
by
that sleep.*' It is that state
dreams
the imagination of them
of the mind
the objects which
which
remains when
agitated it
than

"

their

memory

are

HOBBES.

445

is then not so agitated,

the mind
:
by sensations,are removed
that state
to the gentle
he compares
but neither is it calm; and
ceased.
hath
after the wind
rolling of the waves
Hobbes
in mind
this be distinctlyborne
Let
nothing
sees
:
sations,
Senin the intellect but what
previously in the sense.
was
which
and the traces
they leave {i.e.images), form the
of
the various
commixtures
of all knowledge;
simple elements
elements

these
now

the third

at

open

propounded, as
important law

first
very

and

great clearness

his

Not
as

it he

In

may
the

obvious,

He

the

it with

states

though he evidently was

application.
on
anything whatsoever,
says,

imagination whereof

in whole

sense

one

imagination
in

sense

the

former

continue

also

water

we

from

transition

no

had

never

is this

whereof

reason

like

the

all fancies

in sense
uSy relics of those made
another
one
immediately succeed

together after
again to take place
of

coherence

upon

part of it is

have

we

to

seems

indifferently.
not
formerly

have

we

it

as

within

that

as

manner

The

motions

coming
followeth
by

so

whereof

another

to

motions

those

the

in parts,

or

senses.

our

(/". images) are

latter

ideas.

of

thorough mastery,

no

had

and

association

of

man

have

we

before

Leviathan.*
chapter of the
something quite simple and

We

"

next

But

faculties.

thinketh," he
thought after is not altogether so casual
every thought to every thought succeeds

When

be.

intellectual
*

of its extensive

quite unaware
"

various

the

form

guided by

sense

be

and

insomuch

as

predominant, the

matter

moved,

in

such

which

way

any

is drawn

table

plain

the

the

in

the

finger."
in
materialism
continues
here is distinct enough !
He
The
excellent
This train of thoughts, or mental
discourse,
style:
is of two
is
The
first
sorts.
unguided, without
design, and
inconstant, wherein there is no passionate thought to govern

one

"

"

and

direct those

said

to

dream.

only without
though even
but

without

itself,as

to

the

and

end

scope

of

yield

pldy.

And

ofttimes

thought
what

other

or

company
then
their

harmony

would

war,

follow

the thoughts are

passion ; in which
case
and
in a
another
to
impertinent one
wander,
seem
as
that are
Such
the thoughts of men
not
are
commonly

desire

some

that

but

thoughts
as

the

to

man
any
; or
in
wild
this
yet
of
perceive the way

upon

another.

would

seem

For
more

without

also
are

sound
in

it, and
a

busy

which

tune,

raging
in

as

to

of the
the

discourse

impertinent

one

lute

of

out

that

mind

could

than

of

present

our

to

ask,

tune
not

may

man

dependence
of

times,

other

at

as
a

anything;

of

care

as

one

civil
one

HOBBBS.

446

did,what
to me

the value of

was

manifest

was

Roman

enough.

For

penny
the

the coherence

? Yet

thought of the

war

duced
intro-

the

thought of delivering
up the king to his enemies ;
of
that
in
the
thought
brought
thought of the deliveringup
of Christ ; and that againthe thought of the thirty
pence, which
the
of
that
and
treason
thence easilyfollowed that
was
price
;
inalicious question,and all this in a moment
of time; for
is
thought quick."
**
For thoughtis quick." This is the simple pregnant comment,
sufficient. It is no purpose
of this history
justlydeemed
merits
but
the
to dwell upon
literary
as Bufifon says,
style,''
;
is the man," and occasionally
forced to notice it. The
we
are
direct
with
the above
which
concludes
remark
Hobbes
plain
what
modems, have run somepassage would, in the hands of many
thus :
How
wonderful
is thought ! how mighty ! how
all space, and
mysterious! In its lightningspeed it traverses
makes
the past present !
Hobbes, with a few simple direct
ing
words, produces a greater impressionthan would all the swellthe

^'

'*

"

"

"

of

pomp

This is the

passage
of his

with
bristling

notes

of exclamation.

It is also the characteristic of

style.
speculations.Whatever faults they may have they have no
of the truth as
no
pretended profundity. As much
vagueness,
he has clearly
he clearlyexhibits ; what
he has not seen
seen
he does not pretend to see.
One importantdeduction
from his principles
he has drawn :
*" Whatsoever
we
imagine isfinite. Therefore there is no idea,
of
have
no
can
conception
anything we call infinite.No man
in his mind an image of infinitemagnitude, nor conceive infinite
infinitetime,or infinite power.
When
swiftness,
we
say that
we
signifyonly that we are not able to
Anything is infinite,
the ends and. bounds
conceive
of the thingnamed, having no
fore
therethe
of
but
of
And
our
own
tonception
thing,
inability.
the name
of God is used not to make
him, for
us conceive
he is incomprehensible,
ceivable,
inconand his greatness and power
are
secret

his

soever
whathonour
him.
Also because
may
has been
first
either
all
perceived
by sense,
have no thoughtrepresenting
can
parts ; a man

but that

we

conceive

we

by
to SenseJ*
anythingnot subject
at

once

or

This is frank, but is it true?

Hobbes's
On
it is irresistible. His
principles

assuming that all

from

our

being true, that

formingimages.

be

thoughts

must

not

even

all

our

images.
sensatiofis

error

So
are

lies'in

far is this

capable of

HOBBES,

will

Consciousness

Every man's
him

447

him

assure

of this.

It will

idea, notion, conception, figment

he may
give the thought) of Infinity.
name
(or whatever
If he attempts to form
an
image of it,that image will of course
be
otherwise
be finite : it would
not
an
image. But he can'
of it.
It is a thought. It is in his
think of it ; he can
reason
be a question.
mind
it got there may
; though how
The
ability
incompleteness of Hobbes's
psychology lies in the inthis question. If the maxim
he adopts be
to
answer
nihil est in intellectu quod non
true
:
prius fuerit in sensu, the
question is insoluble ; or rather, the question itself is a practical
also

assure

refutation
We
the

that

he

has

the

maxim.

of the

insist upon
for a
reader

materialism, the better

Hobbes's

appreciation of

correct

Locke:

to

prepare
of the

one

plain writers.

Hobbes, in the sixth

Nature,* has very carefullydefined what
chapter of his Human
**
is a story somewhere,'* he
There
he means
by knowledge.
of one
been
that pretei;i4sto have
miraculously cured
says,
he was
of blindness, wherewith
other
bom, by St. Alban
or
that
of St. Alban's; and
the Duke
of
saints, at the town
Gloucester
being there, to be satisfied of the truth of the
What
asked
the man,
colour is this ? who, by answermiracle,
ing
it was
and
discovered
himsel(
was
punished for a
green,
he might
counterfeit : for though by his sight newly received
all other
and
red and
distinguish between
colours, as
green
that
should
he
well as
could
interrogate him, yet
not
any
which
first
of
them
at
called
sight
was
possiblykuow
or
green,
other
name.
red, or by any
understand
this
there be two kinds of knowledge,
we
''By
may
is nothing else but sense, or knowledge original,
whereof
the one

misrepresented

most

of

'

''

of

knowledge
but

effects
latter

the

the

truth

is derived

Called,and
are

of

remembrance

and

same;

the

propositions,and

from

of
understanding.
former
being the

experience; the
of things that work

upon

us

have

from

the

experience men

is called

other

how

Both

from

proper

science

or

things

are

of these

sorts

experience of

the

without;

and

the

of

names

use

in

I have
all experience being, as
said, but
language: and
remembrance, all knowledge is remembrance.'*
The
is that
only ambiguity possible in the above
passage
the use
of the word
which
understanding.
might arise from

This
''

he
When

defines

elsewhere
a

man

thoughts which

upon

the

the

words

as

follows

:"

hearing of any
of that

speech

speech

and

their

hath

those

connexion

LIFE

448

he

to

but

is said

to

conception

by speech."

formed
We

with

ourselves

content

must

observations

alluding to
quoting, for

merely

language, and with

time, his weighty aphorism, Words
but
by them;
they do but reckon

admirable

on

"

hundredth

/ counters;

wise

are

they

his
the

men's

the

are

of fools."

money
No

is made

attempt

notice

of

to

the

do

no

him

clear
object has been fulfilled if we have made
the position Hobbes
occupies in modern.psycho-

Our
reader

the

justice to Hobbes;
made
speculations which

here

taken

be

can

famous.
to

constituted

and

it ;

understand

LOCKE,

JOHN

signify,then
understanding being nothing else

ordained

were

OF

logicalspeculation.

CHAPTER
LIFE

John

Locke,
bom

was

His

wisest and

sincerest

in

attachment

began

at

Westminster, where
He

twenty.

or

universitywas

was

then

to

its affection.

for

the

past,

is old

whatever
That

piques itself on being behind

Locke
an
original thinker.
was
which
then
Philosophy
was
upheld

the

Like

so

mind

like

can

could

Locke's

at

university
the place

not

The

there.

ease

Scholasticism.

was

itself.

nourish

not

much

tempt
a profound conpredecessor Bacon, he imbibed
universitystudies,and in after life regretted that
of his time should
have been wasted
such profitless
on

So

deeply convinced
college education,that he

thought self-education
"

there

Past

his great
for the

pursuits.
of

is

age,

ill

; the

in this veneration

gainsay. Nevertheless,

which

food

is its model

good

for

such

That
Oxfprd.
been, by its
ever

to

sent

the Past

is much

there

will not

we

stayed tillhe

he

it has

distinguishedthen, as

has

On

Englishmen,

of

son.

education

nineteen

was

the

LOCKE

JOHN

OF

Somersetshire, on the 29th August,

Little is known
of his family except that his father had
in the Parliamentary wars
without
fact not
ficance
signia
:
in connexion
with the steady love of libertymanifested

served

the

of

Urington

at

1632.

by

one

II.

There
here

is

mixture

only

the

was
ran

of the vicious

into the

other

method

extreme,

and

best.

of truth and

indicate.

he

It is true

error

in this notion

that all great

men

which
have

we

been

LIFE

450

LOCKE.

JOHN

OF

standing,
UnderEssay concerning Human
This he did not
complete till 1687. In 1675 his
he repaired
delicate state of health obliged him to travel,and
he

1670

In

of

the.south

to

his

planned

he

where

France,

Essay is dedicated.

Pembroke.

Lord

met

To

in

returned

1679, and resumed

But his friendshipwith Shaftesbury,and
his studies at Oxford.
him
known
to
the Liberal
hold, drew upon
opinions he was
ship
He
the displeasureof the Court.
deprived of his studentwas
did persecution stop there.
Nor
by a very arbitraryact.
and
find refuge at the
forced to quit England
He
was
soon
of Charles
also the anger
There
pursued him, and he
Hague.
there
It was
farther into Holland.
he
was
obliged to retreat
published his celebrated Letter on Toleration,
He
did not
to
return
England till after the Revolution.
there
He
Then
was
securityand welcome.
pressed to
was
office
but
the
in Germany,
of
state
accept a high diplomatic
him.
his health prevented
He
In
1690 the first edition of his 'Essay' appeared.
had
indeed
already (1688) published an abridgment of it in
Lederc's
The
of this
*Biblioth^ue Universelle.'
success
immense
Warburton's
assertion to the contrary
Essay was
; and
of the number
falls to the ground on the mere
statement
of editions which
the work
rapidlywent
through. Six editions
within fourteen
books
sold
years,* and in times when
more
is
evidence
sell
than
enough.
slowly
they
now,
The
publication of his Essay roused great opposition. He
in the
with Stillingileet,
discussions
soon
Bishop
got involved
He
after engaged
of Worcester.
in the
was
soon
political
discussions of the day, and published his Treatise on Government.'
It was
about
this time that he became
acquainted with
Sir Isaac Newton
a
portion of their very interesting
correspondence
; and
has been
given by Lord King in his Life of Locke.'
Locke's
turbed
dishealth, though always delicate,had not been
the age
of
by any imprudences, so that he reached
for
who
has
studied
and
a
one
good ripe age
seventy-two
his
He
of
friend,Lady Masham,
thought.
expired in the arms
the
28th
on
October, 1704.
the

him

He

'

'

'

"

The

"

author

in

error

last

may

not

be

paragraph

himself

filth

this fifth edition

know

We

appeared

that

adds

and

article

the

"writer of

edition

fourth

is the

of

on

Locke,* in

1700.

edition

preparing

was

appeared

in

He

died

in

1704.

Ency. Brit.,'says
repeats
death

when

the

that

the

statement,

overtook

the

that they

are

1705.

that

announces

Cousin

authority these
to Locked
turning
by

which

the

Victor

what

seen

sixth.

in

writers

the

"

speak

; but

Epistle

the

edition

to

then

the
Reader/
issued by Xiocko

SPIRIT

OF

LOCKE'S

WRITINGS.

CHAPTER
ON

has

It

for

Indirect

THE

sneers

of those

his

"

because

who,

been

years

many
at

OF

SPIRIT

bottom, fancy they

are

451

III.
LOCKE's
the

WRITINGS.

fashion

decry Locke.
the writings

to

abound
superficiality"

they are
muddy and
profound. Locke's

in
cannot
"

their

see

materialism

is

"

with these writers ; and

subject of condolence
that
his principles "lead
to
Atheism."
they fearlesslyassert

also

favourite

Lead

w/wm

mode

Another

only borrowed

undervaluing Locke,

of

and

popularisedthe

is

to

assert

that

he

ideas

originatedby Hobbes.
Hazlitt
late Mr.
and
thinker
The
acute
an
a
metaphysician,
used
but a wilful reckless, writer
to
fly into a passion at the
idea of Locke
ately
being regarded as a great thinker ; and deliberasserted
owed
that Locke
Dr.
everything to Hobbes.
Whewell
qualifiedmanner.
repeats the charge, though in a more
Hobbes
had
He
already promulgated the main
says
afterwards
Locke
doctrines, which
urged, on the subject of the
of
our
knowledge."
origin and nature
is
favourite at Cambridge, we
Locke
know, although he
no
students*
all
of the
of
text-books
is one
Cambridge men,
; and
he
could
be
less
congenial than vith
one
perhaps, with no
of the
clearest
Dr. Whewell.
is one
of thinkers,and
Locke
The
him
the
between
and
of
homeliest.
Dr.
antagonism
one
Whewell
We
therefore
find
is radical.
little
are
surprised to
the
Professor
the great Englishman thus
appreciated by
;
his
the
intellectual
owed
stances
circumto
Locke
authority mainly
of the time.
Although a writer of great merit, he by
such metaphysical acuteness, or such philosophical
no
means
possesses
charm
such
of
of
view,
or
a
writing, as
largeness
in
he
has
held
literature
the
him
the
of
to give
high place
Europe.
"

"

"

"

"

"

Locke

That
very

apparent
quote

may
the

we

of

best

did

not

in

our

the

read

Locke

except

the

and

his ideas

from

Hobbes

will be

meanwhile
exposition of Locke
; but
one
testimony of Sir James Mackintosh,
of our
philosophers, and
one
intimately

acquainted with both

**

borrow

these

Hobbes

Cartesians,

thinkers

"

chieflyon those
agree
all the speculators of

points in which,
their age

were

SPIRIT

452

They diflfer on
of knowledge,

agreed.
sources

will ;

the

the

on

Hobbes.

of

their

many

two

evinces

imbibe

doctrines

borrowed

this

To

repugnance

the

from

an

will

we

of

is not

add

could

lead

liberty and

of

enemy
all its faults,is that

passage
whose

trines
doc-

only in their premises and

in their manner
of philosophizing

prejudicewhich

no

very

the

to

not

original style
opinions."*

and

himself;
"

had

Locke

of

subjects, Locke, by his

but

conclusions,

style,with

His

differ

^the

"

of abstraction, the nature

strong

questions

momentoas

most

the

They

itself.
to

the

WRITINGS.

power
last of which

failures themselves,
of

LOCKE'S

OF

man

usually

another

from

him

religion.

who

thinks

for

the

vehicle

of

writer

the

all who
to
authority must
carry conviction
less
his works, distinguished, as
know
they are, no
by the
of
the
than
clear
depth and
subject
thorough knowledge
by the
the
of
forward
speculations brought
:
mastery

weight

of

"

"

Few

harder

the

among

great

in

philosophy have met with

the present generation than

names

justice from
the unquestioned founder
of
of

measure

the

analytic philosophy of
whose
first caricatured,then, when
doctrines
were
the reaction
with
arrived,cast off by the prevailing school even
regarded by one of the conflicting
contumely, and who is now
partiesin philosophy as an apostle of heresy and sophistry ;

Locke,
mind, but

while

those

among
raised,there
his
"

has

been

reputation in

thinker

his

still adhere

who

disposition in

favour

time,

to

of
but

Hobbes
inferior

3.

"

the

which

standard

times

later

he

sacrifice

to

great writer and

great

only in sober
even
profundity and originalgenius. Locke,
judgment,
candid
of
the most
philosophers, and one whose
speculations
the
mark
bear
of having been
on
subject
strongest
every
of
from
the
materials
his
own
wrought out
mind, has been
mistaken
for an
while
has been
Hobbes
unworthy plagiarist,
extolled
of his leading doctrines.
as
having anticipated many
did not
He
of them, and
the present
is an
anticipate many
in what
instance
it was
manner
generally done.
[The writer
is speaking of Locke's
refutation
of JSssmces,] They both rejected
the
scholastic
doctrine
of Essences, but Locke
stood
underand
these
explained what
supposed essences
were.
for

Hobbes,
and

instead

of

explaining

accidental

the

properties,and
propositions, jumped
over
"

to

Locke

not

in

but

Edin.

Review

for

distinction
between

it, and

October,

between

essential
gave

C821, p. 242.

tial
essen-

and

dental
acci-

definition

which

suits,at

those,

as

453

propositions,and
Proposition in general."*

of

Stewart, indeed,

Dugald

WRITINGS.

only essential

most,

definition

the

LOCKE'S

OF

SPIRIT

**it

that

says

must

scarcely
evident

appear

"

diligentlystudied the writings of Hobbes

Sir J. Mackintosh, as quoted above, has
explained why
that

implying
from

studied

have

to

appears

Indeed

Hobbes.

he

has

but

Hobbes,

correction

the

of Hobbes's

root

have

We

glance
That

great authorities

of how

having

read

him; and

few

in any
Twice

him.

then

the

were

his

the very

at

us

cast

now*

among
read.

had
be

can

with

never

he

allude

impropriety,as

such

his

amples
ex-

many
He

interpreted into

believe,does

only, we
to

incredible, but

one

he

that

way

and
distantly,

so

is

It

books

quiteconvincing with respect

is in

Let

seem

may

its truth.

of

Hobbes

to

lies

which

speak.

Hobbes

read

never

convinced

alludes

important
step beyond

facts.

Locke

are

merely

not
error

an

the

was

he

system." t

heard

the

at

of

in which

note

own

from

principal ideas

his

admirable

an

is far

Stewart

gained

therefore

Locke

and

Hobbes,

points oiit how

completely Locke's
principle of Reflection. ** This was

we

but
;
Locke

had

Locke

ignorance.

to

to

be

first time

The

he
Bishop of Worcester,* in which
and
absurdly classes Hobbes
Spinoza together. He
says
in Hobbes
well read
and
I am
not
so
Spinoza as to be able
their opinions on
this matter, but
to
were
possibly
say what
there
will think
who
be those
I*ordship'sauthority of
your
those justly-decriedwriters.^*
The
than
of exterm
more
use
pression,
I am
well read," "c., is obviously equivalent
not
so

'Reply

the

to

"

"

"

I have

to

allusion
We

is

to

at

"

Hobbist

"

would

hands

lay our
question.

present
moral

some

writers.
justly-decried

those

simply this

cannot

refers

read

never

on

is

only negative evidence.

evidence, however, is the fact that

The

above

covery

Association

of

apprehension
Locke,

who

chapter

on

statement

Hobbes:
"

Mill's

Association

as

had

he

'System

%'ery

is

law
not
of
on

curious.

Ideas

important
the

of the

and

it is

first,in

"

t 'Dissertation

long

as

of

by
so

"

was
or

it

stands.

no

means

thoroughly

so

like

tive
posi-

great dijB-

Hobbes's

simple

Moreover,

it; yet,

114.

The

of
to

the

Locke's

satisfactoryas

mastered

it

but

passage,

Something

Logic,* vol. i., p, 150.

Progress of Met.
Phil.,'p.

the

say.**

completely unknown
fifth edition, added

fourth
now

second

probably

principle as

"

the

His

that

by

had

he

note

is

I
OF

SPIRIT

454

WRITINGS.

LOCKE'S

read

it in

That

he

did

not

he

so

simple and

instantaneous

so

improved

assuredlyhave

would

it into his work

first introduce

at

presumptionthat
is

he

Hobbes,

the law

read Hobbes, because

evident,when stated,that it must
had

it.

on

is a strong

never

produce

conviction.

is strange that any

should
have read Locke
and
man
writer
T
here
his
is
could
we
questioned
scarcelya
originality.
It

whose

name

"

works

having
to live lazily
on
to

work

scraps

It is still more

and

not

content

thoughts

own

strange that any

in Locke
endowed

almost

than

with
is rarer

good

sense;

genius.

than

writer.

any
a

In

He, too,

able
remark-

largely

was

Gibbon

.quality,

as

these

read

have

sagacitywhich,
patient

That

power.

should

man

a
philosopher,is more
things,
distinguishes

all

which

almsbasket,

begged opinions,set his

questionedhis

Locke'and

above

of

indisputableimpressof his

an

the

above

follow truth."

find and

to

such

bear

raised himself

remarks,
in his

and
qualities,

two

masculine

the type of the English

see
style,we
its
best
The
directness
of his manner,
at
plain
his earnestness
without fanaticism,
his heartyhonest love of

homely racy
mind

when

ties
tnith,and the depth and pertinenceof his thoughts,are qualiwhich, though they do not dazzle the reader, yet win his
love and respect. There, in that volume, you have the honest
thoughts of a great honest Englishman. It is the product of
a
manly liiind : clear,truthful,direct. No vague forhiulas
of base
rhetorical flights ^no base flattery
no
prejudices ^no
assumption of oracular wisdom, no word-jugglery. There are
their vanity with a veil of words,
writers who
so
cover
many
who
seem
profound because
they are obscure, that a plainness
"

"

"

like Locke's
that what

deceives

is there

so

Locke, though

the careless

plainmust

reader,who

have

is led

to suppose

obvious.

been

patient,cautious thinker,was

anythmg but

timid thinker ; and it'does great honour to his sagacity,

that
all scientific men
at a time when
were
exclaimingagainstthe
of
danger of hypotheses,believingthat the extravagant errors
a

schoolmen
a

and

time

alchemists
when

the

owing

were

great Newton

to

their

himself

use

of

could

wise Locke

into the vain boast

theses,
hypobe

led

should

non
hypotheses
fingOyour
He
them
at their true value.
exactlyappreciate
says,
Not that we may not, to explainany phenomena of nature,
make
of any
use
theses,
Hypoprobable hypothesiswhatsoever.
least great helps to
if they are
at
well made, are
**

memory,

and

often

direct

us

to

new

discoveries.

But

we

SPIRIT

should

take

not

would

LOCKE'S

OF

them

into

always penetrate

the

principlesto rest on, is very apt

made
examined
and
particulars,
thing which

it will agree

whether

of

causes

to

and

be

not

have

have
well

very

experiments in that
see
hypothesis, and
our
principleswill

several

explain by our
all; whether

to

that

mind

things,and

tillwe

do)

them

quite through,

us

carry

would

we

455

hastily (which the

too

up

WRITINGS.

inconsistent

as

with

one

of

accommodate
and
to
nature
as
phenomenon
they seem
another
that
take
carfe that the name
we
explain
; and, at least,
of principlesdeceive
not
impose on
us
us
nor
us, by making
is really at best
receive that for an unquestionable truth
which
but a very doubtful
conjecture : such as are most
(I had almost
said all)of the hypotheses in natural
philosophy."
seek
dazzle
did not
Locke
to
; he sought Truth, and wished
all

to

men

He

would

that he

saw

accompany

exchange
their

published in
"

an

him

in the search.

his

error.

immature

He

not

was

bigoted.

with

he
when
ease
opinions
He
readilyretracted ideas which
form ;
thinking myself,''as
*'

fancied
had

he
he

says,

opinion of my own
that of another, when
than oppose
truth appears
against it.''
He
had a just and incurable
suspicion of all great volumes
how
much
He
knew
with ambiguous words."
swollen
jugglery
it
of
with words
of it unconscious,
conscibus, some
on
; some
goes
but all pernicious.
Vague and insignificantforms of
of language have
for so
speech and abuse
long passed for
mysteries of science ; and hard and misapplied words, with
such
little or no meaning, have, by prescription,
a
right to be
mistaken
for deep learning and
height of speculation, that it
will not be easy to persuade either those
who
speak, or those
hear
of ignorance and
who
them, that they are but the covers
To
hindrance
this sanctuary
of true knowledge.
break in upon
concerned

more

to

quit and

renounce

any

'^

"

vanityand ignorance will be, I

human
understanding."
had
Locke
an
analyticalmind.
of

suppose,
He

service

some

desired

to

to

the

understand

about them.
explain things, not to flourish rhetorically
There
mysteries enough which he was contented
to let
were
that
faculties were
human
alone ; he knew
limited,and reverentially
all things which
submitted
to
ignorance on
were
But
down
before
that
beyond his reach.
though he bowed
which
anxious
to allow
not
was
essentiallymysterious, he was
that which
essentially cognizable to be enveloped in
was

and

to

mystery.

Let

let that which

that
is not

which

is

mystery

necessarilya mystery

remain
be

undisturbed:

brought into the

SPIRIT

4S6

the

Know

lightof day.

LOCKE'S

OF

limits of your

limits it is madness

those

limits it is

wondering
plain as they

to

and

always assuming

appear,

and

to

attempt

let in darkness

follyto
and

WRITINGS.

understanding

beyond

"

penetrate
to

mystery,

that

matters

wUhin

those

incessantly

be

be

cannot

something lying deeper

that

so

courts

attention.

our

minds

To

in the

otherwise

regions

constituted
of

to

"

love

who

dwell

to

only at
an
honestly
ease
twilight
(though
be a strengthener) is naturallya disagreeable
studied he would
of their prejudices ; he fits in with
flatters none
teacher.
He
of their tendencies.
Mistaking obscurity for depth, they
none
declare
that the
him
of being superficial. The
owls
accuse
the twilight; he
They want
eagle is blind.
vague

in

speculation

who

men

intellectual

**

to

"

in the

are

if

Locke

"

Wantons

men

smile

of

Jove."

So
said, a fashion to decry Locke.
oflf-hand
and
frequent are the sneers
charges against him, that
who
had
in our
read him
youth with delight,began to
we,
The
had been rash.
proverb says,
suspect that the admiration
Throw
but mud
be
will
It was
stick.*'
to
enough, some
sure
It

has

become,

as

we

**

so

his

with

Reiterated

Locke.

image

in

minds.

depreciationhad
time

The

de"ced

somewhat

however,

when, for
the
had
of this history, we
read
the
to
Essay on
purposes
Human
We
it
read
Understanding* once
more.
through, pen
in hand, carefully,
The
of
image
John Locke
admiringly.
was
than
its former
again revived within us; this time in more
splendour. His modesty, honesty, truthfulness,and directness
had
the vigour and
doubted
we
never
originalityof
now
; but
his mind, the raciness of his colloquial style,the patient analysis
by which he has laid open to us such vast tracts of thought,
and
of his truly practical understandabove
ing,
all,the manliness
feel satisfied
so
are
strongly impressed upon
we
us,, that
our

came,

the

best

Amongst
thought over
again;*' to
still

his critics is

to

answer

readers

our

Locke.
those

warmer.

who
From

to

say, read

many,
very many,
We
earnestly say

have

never

communion

read

with

him.

have

must
to

.them,

him,

read

and
him

Read

exhortation

our

such

"

mind

as

is.
his

result.
He
he
nothing but good can
as
suggests as much
teaches; and it has been well said, that we cannot
speak of
his Essay without
the deepest reverence
consider
;^whether
we
"

the
.even

to

it constitutes

in

the present day of

truth, the beautiful and

its

era

at

which

philosophy, the

intrinsic

thoughts, or the noble

touching earnestness

and

value

devotion

simplicity

458

LOCKE'S

liberal,which spares the feelings of the good, and

direct hostilitywith obstinate
formidable
prejudice. If
made
few discoveries, Socrates
made
Yet both
none.

well

as

as

avoids
Locke
did

METHOD.

improvement

for the

more

less for the

of

progress

Mr.

will

Locke

the

by

decus

Anglicae certe, O

said

be

may

Newton

after

most

addressed

language

to

him

altera gentis I "

lux

"

IV.

science

the

created

Locke

somewhat

"in

the

of

same

; he

study books

not

content

was

they would

self,
him-

within

descend

to

as

soul, its

...

did

physics,"
Metaway

the

understand

To

Physics.

misdirected

have

that

its affections,he

ideas, and

one

method.

D'Alembert,

says
created

most

"

Locke's

It

6ot

be

ever

in the

CHAPTER

**

of the

(Gray)

poet
**

the authors

regarded as
English nation, and the

of the greatest ornaments

of the
distant posteritywill speak of him
him

understanding, and

than

knowledge,

discoveries.

brilliant

the

of

speak, contemplated himself a long

he had
in which
the mirror
while, he presented in his
Essay
himself.
In one
Metaphysics to that
seen
word, he reduced
which
it ought to be, viz., the experimental physics of the
and

having, so

to

'

mind."t
This

is great praise,and
from a high authority, but we
pect
susit can
with
qualification.
some
only be received

that

Locke

made

grand

no

discovery, equal

He
changed the face of science.
Descartes
glance inwards.

his

not

was

and

even

the

had

Hobbes

which

Newton's,

to

first to turn
before

been

him.
Yet

Locke
before

Others

had

his Method

him

had

cast

;
a

peculiarlyhis

Method

hasty glance inwards, and

own.

matised
dogwatch

the first to
He
was
they saw.
patientlythe operations of his mind, that, watching, he might
them
the
steal
from
surprise the evanescent
thoughts, and
upon

secret

of

their combinations.

Psychology.
"

what

By

him

the

He

is the

questions

of

founder

Philosophy

Modern

of
are

boldly

*Ed.

Rev.,' Oct., 1821, p. 243.

la m^taphysique
^ ce
t "" En
un
mot, il r^duisit
Discours
effet,la physique exp6rimentale de rdme."
"

qu'elle doit ^tre, en

Prilim,

de

rEncv'

LOCKE'S

METHOD.

459

the

primary question of the limits

is begun
of
the
history of
By him
of our
combination
Others
the development
and
thoughts.
with
the
had
themselves
contented
thoughts as they found
Locke
them
sedulously inquired into the origin of all our
:
thoughts.
the
Victor Cousin, who, as
M.
type of a rhetorician,is in
constant
antagonism to the clear and analyticalLocke, makes
and
his school
it an
have
especialgrievance that Locke
sidered
conthe question respecting the origin of ideas as fundamental.
has
that
been
It is from
Locke," he continues,
and children,upon
the custom
of referringto savages
borrowed
reduced
to
scientifically
human
understanding.

and

*'

"

is

observation

whom
trust

of

the

of

language

we
(children),

Really

the

class

one

are

to

very
Locke

how

see

prejudiced and ignorant

visited; for the other class
equivocal signs."*

country

reduced

cannot

we

the

should

avoid

referringto
facts concerning
the psychological

and
to collect
children, if he wanted
savages
the originof ideas ; this is inseparable from
of error
has been
Method.
Perhaps no source
than

obstinacy

the

universal

and

primary

with

which

truths.f

removed

minds

of

associations, would

those

universal

prove

"

influences

that

those

looked

truths

as

"

little observation

which

fostered

associations

simply associations.

truths, but

all times

irresistible

as

the

abundant

more

little analysis

from

in

have

men

associations

indissoluble

their

upon

must

we

reports of travellers,often

the

to

difficult ; for

so

not

were

It is because

men

analysed the cultivated mind that they have been led to

false results ; had
they compared their analysiswith that of an
uncultivated
gained some
mind, they might have
insight.
the
that
Locke
in
saw
philosopherswere
clearlyenough
wrong
He
that no advance
well as in object.
could
be
method
saw
as
loose
data.
He
made
by dogmatising upon
saw,
moreover,
have

with

the

of

types
be

false

taken

iiotions
the

types, for

as
were

Histoire

t This

chap,

was

will

as

Locke's
de
be

la

v., of this Series.

consider

their minds

their- minds

being

warped hy prejudices,could

granting that

even

had

notions
He

been

not

object ?

Philos.,* 17
more

to

; whereas

true, yet these true

minds.
of universal

minds

such

What

mind

human

notions, and

furniture

from

"

accustomed

philosopherswere

that

so

He

the

has

told

us

illustrations

for

**

"

their

portions of

not

sought
warped.

in nowise

majorityof

were

as

filled

To

inquire

le^oo.

fully

discussed

hereafter,

See

Epoch

viii.,

LOCKE'S

460

METHOD.

into the

knowledge.**
original certainty^and extent of human
He
with
led to this by a conversation
friends, in
was
some
which
had puzzled ourselves
after we
disputesgrowing warm,
of those doubts
awhile, without coming any nearer
a resolution
which
into my
perplexed us, it came
thoughts that we took
a
and
that
before
ourselves
set
inquiries
course
we
;
wrong
upon
of that nature, it was
examine
to
abilities,
own
our
necessarj'
and see what
not fittedto
were
objectsour understandings were
or
^

"

deal

ivithr

is as follows :
plan he himself laid down
First,I shall inquire into the originalof those ideas,notions,
else you
observes
whatever
please to call them, which a man

The

"

'^

or

is conscious

and

himself

to

he

has

his mind

in

the

and

ways

with them.
to be furnished
whereby the understanding comes
what
to show
knowledge the
Secondly, I shall endeavour
evidence,
understanding hath by those ideas ; and the certainty,
"

and

of it.

extent
*'

and
Thirdly, I shall m^ke
some
inquiry into the nature
that assent
which
grounds of faith or opinion ; whereby I mean
have
truth we
give to any proposition as true, of whose
we
yet

certain

no

the

reason

We

shall
we
; and
and, degrees of assent."

knowledge
here

decisively settled
often raised respectingthe importance
may

Innate

Ideas.

Cousin,
Ideas

For

; hence

Indeed,

important

as

the

Locke

celebrated

recent

of the

and

science

for

his

is the

M-

study of

Ideology for the

of mind."

shown, the originof

questions j upon it rested

of all

so

Inquiry into

school,'* says

of

name

examine

question

of Locke*s

have

we

to

foolish

the

study of understanding

justly, "the

designation

of

see

"

occasion

have

Ideas
the

the

was

whole

most

problem

Philosophy.
Locke

has

given

respecting Innate

us

few

indications

Ideas, which

it is worth

of

the

while

opinion
collecting. I

state

of

"

was
epitome of this treatise which
cause
in
1688
without
condemned
reading, beprinted
was
by some
innate ideas were
denied in it,they too hastily
concluding
be
that if innate ideas were
there
little left
would
not
supposed
either of the notion
or
proof of spirits." Recapitulating the
of the
of innate
the refutation
contents
to
chapter devoted
this may
to the
I know
absurd
how
not
ideas,he says,
seem
of demonstration, and
masters
probably it will hardly doum
"What
with
elsewhere:
sure
cenanybody at firsthearing,^* And

have

been

told

that

short

"

doubting

thus

of innate

principlesmay

deserve

from

men,

METHOD.

LOCKE'S

who

will be

knowledge
least

pulling up

certainty,I

and

foundations

tell ; I

cannot

surer."

How

foundations

old

the

pursued, being

I have

thatjtheway

lays those

it

call

to

apt

461

persuade myself

conformable

well

of

to

at

truth,

anticipated his

he

critics I

purely psychological; although he had

of medicine, he never
been
student
indulges in any psychological
a
such
Darwin
his disciples Hartley and
as
speculations,
delighted in. Ideas, and ideas only, occupied his analysis.
there is not
that in the
has remarked
Essay
Dugald Stewart
of the
theatre
a
or
single passage
savouring of the anatomical
chemical
laboratory.
have
We
already spoken of the positivism of Bacon
; that of
words
shall now
Locke
:
speak for itself in his own
of the understanding I can
If by this inquiry into the nature
the powers
discover
thereof,how far they reach, to what things
they fail us,
they are in any degree proportionate, and where
the busy mind
it may
of
I suppose
be of use
to prevail with
cautious in meddling with the things exceeding
to be
man
more
of
its comprehension, to stop when
it is at the utmost
extent
in a quiet ignorance of those things which
its tether, and sit down
are
found to be beyond the reach of our capadupon examination
We
should
then
ties.
not
perhaps be so forward, out of an
affectation of universal
knowledge, to raise questions and perplex
ourselves
others
about
and
standings
underthings to which
our
frame in our
not
suited,and of which we cannot
are
minds
clear or distinct perceptions, or
whereof
(as it has
any
perhaps too often happened) we have not any notions at all.
Men
has thought
have reason
God
to be well satisfied with what
fit for them, since he has given them, as St. Peter says, ^ravra
Trpos
for the convenience
is necessary
of
^onyvKoX ewri^ecav,whatsoever
Method

Locke's

was

'

'

"

"

life and

the

information

of their

discovery

way

that leads

may

be

is, it yet

of

an

secures

to

the

of virtue ; and

comfortable

better.

universal

or

How

has

put within

provisionfor
short

soever

this

and the
life,
their knowledge

perfect comprehension

their great concernments,

that

the reach

of

they

whatever
have

light

of their Maker
and
th^
to the knowledge
enough to lead them
duties.
Men
sufficient
find matter
sightof their own
to
may
their
and
heads
busy
employ their hands with variety,delight,
and
if they will not boldly quarrel with
their own
satisfaction,
and
throw
the
constitutions,
blessings their hands are
away
filled with because
to
they are not big enough
grasp
thing.
every-

462

LOCKE'S

METHOD.

much

complain of the narrowwill but employ them

about
what
ness
of our minds, if we
may
that
and
be of use
it will be
to us, for of
they are very capable;
value
unpardonable as well as childish peevishness, ifVe underan
of
and
the
prove
our
knowledge,
advantages
neglect to imfor which
it was
it to the ends
there
given us, because
"

shall

We

things set

some

are

The

of it.

of reach

out

to

reason

It will be

who

would

by candle-light,to plead

that

he

within

us

idle and

an

have

not

candle

untoward

servant

tJuit is set up

shines

his

broad

not

to

excuse

attend

not

had

no

ness
busi-

sunshine.

bright enough for

all

purposes,

our
"

When

know

we

strength we

own

our

of

shall

the

better

know

have
;*
we
of our
well surveyed the
own
minds, and made
some
powers
from
what
shall
estimate
be
clined
innot
we
we
them,
expect
may
and
either to sit still,
set
not
at
our
thoughts on work
the
other
thing ; or, on
all,despairing of knowing any
side,
disclaim
all
question every thing, and
knowledge because
some
is
It
of
be
understood.
to
not
to the
things are
great use
with it
sailor to know
the length of his line, though he cannot
all the depths of the ocean.
It is well he knows
fathom
that
it is long enough
reach
such
the bottom
at
to
places as are
caution him against running
and
to direct his voyage,
necessary
ruin him.
shoals
that they may
This
was
upon
any
the
this
which
first rise to
that
Essay concerning the
gave
for
the
first
that
I
understanding;
thought
ing
step towards satisfyof
several
the
mind
to
man
inquiries
was
run
into,
very apt
wliat

undertake

to

with

hopes

and

success

to

was

take

survey

things they

what

were

of

our

own

when

understandings,and

adapted. Till

that

was

done

to

see

to

suspected

began at the wrong end, and in vain sought for satisfaction

in a quiet and
concerned
sure
possession of truths that most
whilst
the
loose
into
of
let
vast
ocean
our
we
thoughts
us,
the natural
and
extent
being : as if that boundless
were
doubted
unof
wherein
is
there
our
possession
understandings,
nothing exempt from its decisions,or that escaped its comprehension.
Thus
men
extending their inquiries beyond their
and
into those depths
capacities,
lettingtheir thoughts wander
find
where
that
no
sure
they can
footing,it is no wonder
they
raise questionsand multiply disputes, which
coming to
never
continue
increase
clear
and
t6
resolution,are proper only
any
we

"

The

real

falselymagiiifying
tiue

and

cause

and

Bacon.
\\"[^%.^^^^

root

of almost

extolling

the

all the

powers

of

evils in science

the

mind,

we

is this

seek

not

that
its

and

doubts,

their

is necessary
wisdom
will be

their

calm

ui

which

not

only

manner

ontologists is
noticeable

admired

have

We

giving

as

fueritin

the

cisive
de-

from

the

Temple.

V.
OF

nihil

IDEAS.

OUR

that

ideas

our

intellectu

in

est

all

quod

rived
de-

are

prius

non

sensu.

Locke, who
there

the

enter

us

Gassendi,

sensations;

from

extracts

himself

separates

; let

ORIGIN

said, with

had

of these

length

CHAPTER

H066ES

perfect scepticism."

is also
historicallynoteworthy, but
his subsequent speculations.
to
tone

Portico

THE

in

appreciated by all; and

Locke

the

the

463

last

at

the

for

apology

No

IDEAS,

them

confirm

to

OUR

OF

ORIGIN

THE

is called

two

^"cq

not
sources,
Reflection.

and

Sensation

popularizerof Hobbes,

mere

Separating himself

one

and

source,
from

the

from

which

said

these

two

that
were

upholders Cf the
of innate
of truths independent
ideas
of experience,
doctrine
that all our
he declared
on
experience,
knowledge is founded
and
from that it ultimately derives itself.
Separating himself no less decisivelyfrom the Gassendists,
but
who
of ideas
saw
no
Sensation, he declared that
source
of our
of most
the great source
ideas,
was
although Sensation
decisively
"

"

yet there
nisheth

the

"

understanding

it be not

though
sense,
it
is
objects,yet
very
After

that

error

school,
did

or

The

not

above

spend

teach

that

which

"

all

this

and

with

do

to

fur-

source,
external

be

properly enough

of

the

wide-spread

the 'so-called

sensational

inquiringwhether

in

knowledge

contradict

of

exposure

chief
time

no

experience

calls Reflection.

ample
the

was

need

was

referable

Locke
to

did

sensation.

respecting
Stewart
decisive ; Dugald
numerous
are
selected
have
we
quoted
several; but perhaps the one
will be considered
explicit. Reflection, he
sufficiently
sidered
though it be not sense," may
yet analogically be conpassages

Locke's
has

we

this he

Stewart's

Locke

ideas

like

sense;

Dugald

-with

having nothing
it,and might

as

"

internal

called

fountain

another

"

was

doctrine

the

vulgar

error

and

"

says,

as

To

an

prevent

internal
all

sense.

misconception,however,

we

will

as

deci-

THE

464

ORIGIN

OF

OUR

IDEAS,

example refer to his proof of the existence of God, which

that we have a more
he sums
up by saying, It is plainto me
than of anything
certain knowledge of the existence of a God
discovered
have
not
to
senses
us.
our
immediately
Niay,I
sive

"

presume
there is

(Book
our

know
that
more
certainly
may
say that we
than that there is anythingelse without us."

may

God,

IV.

ch.

"

X.)

made

Locke

knowledge;

sensuous

the
ideal

our

from Reflection.
comes
Historians have not accorded
made

the *source of all

senses

knowledge (so

due

praiseto

speak)

to

Locke

for the

solution of the great

towards

a
important advance he
the
While
of
Leibnitz has been
on
knowledge.
question
origin
lauded to the skies for having expressedLocke's doctrine in an
epigram,Locke has not only been robbed of his due, but has

sacrificed to his rival.

It is this :
their opinions?
to Sensation ; Leibnitz
came
nihil est in intellectu

quod

is the

What

been

"

Locke

usual

reduced

and

accepted
prius fueritin

non

knowledge

old

the

sensu,

only half the truth ; and therefore added

Locke
did not accept the
Now, firstly,
intell^ctus!*
truth ; he said that Reflection

Secondly,Dugald Stewart
which

Leibnitz made

has

was

remarked

second

that

adage of

but

it as

the whole
of ideas.

of

statement

all our

the

he

cepted
ac-

nisi

ipse
adage as
source

addition

he said there is nothing in the

intellect
which
in the sense, exceptthe intellect
not
was
previously
the
than
doctrine of Locke, who says,
itself^
expresses no more
**
External
objects furnish the mind with ideas of sensible

qualities
; and

when

furnishes the

the mind

ideas of its own

understandingwith

the

operations.**

and thereby
Thirdly,although the phrase is epigrammatic,
has had such success
in the world, as epigramsusuallyhave, it
few epigramswill. Except as a verbal
will not bear scrutiny
:
the
trivial
how
is
tellect!
expression ^the intellectin the injingle,
"I
have
in
to
man
a
no
Suppose
say,
my
money
scarcelybe less al^purse, except my purse itself" he would
the schoolmen
surd.
For when
said, Nothing was in the
in the sense," they did not
intellectwhich
not
was
previously
that
the
intellect
the
was
mean
same
as the sense
\ they meant
furnished with no ideas,notions,or conthat the intellect was
ceptions,
been
which had not
furnished them by sense
; they
"

"

"

"

meant

Dr.

that the

Whewell,
and

as

the inlets to the soul.

were

senses

may

alluding to

be
Mr.

of the epianticipated,
gram,
approves
that
Sharpe'sobjectionto it,viz.,

THE

466

objects through

external

The

passive.
with

mind

of which

portion

second

mind

knowledge.
If it shall be demanded,"

wholly

famish

to

the

internal

of

This

operations.

own

materials

the

by

sense

furnishes
which

of

out

means

the

frames

have

ideas

any

the mind

the

in the

This

making

sensations

hear, and

to

air

of

waves

our

the

nate
in-

of

the

with

Our

these

be

to

learn

to

the

on

but

tion
opera-

have

have

We

tions,
sensa-

the

senses

Light strikes
tympanum

with

coeval

not

organs.

touch.

on

sensation."

coeval

not

are

retina,

are

yet

as

the

sight nor
hearing : they are
preparations for sight and

neither
are

pulsate

ideas

out, developed.

to

ideas in
any
in, I conceive

on

drawn

educated, i,e.,to be

to

first has

he

against the upholders

and incomplete view.

are

themselves

objects

any

with

coeval

are

begins

man

be

to

conveyed

rude

only

not

not

appear

stand

very

considered,

of external

see,

is, when

answer

have

decisive

it is

ideas ; but
but

true

there

senses

"when

says,

understanding

that ideas

Deeply

he

the

since

For

before

is

think

sensation.

any

to

is herein

said

be

that

its

observes

last

mind

its materials.

the

"

and

IDEAS.

The

senses.

he understands

mind

the

OUR

therefore, may

portion of

Reflection

By

the

senses,

one

OP

ORIGIN

rudiments, they
only
hundred
hearing. Many

call a Sensation
before what
repetitionsare necessary
we
a
(/.^.,
the
distinct feeling corresponding to that which
object will
tiie
be produced.
developed sense) can
always produce upon
to produce a perception : a perare
Many Sensations
necessary
ception

is

objects

act

sensations

produce
definite

the

it out

trace

trace

the

soul

to

so

continues
"

this

only

of

to

as

and

more

book,

so

more

which

the

Accepting
comparison, we must
after
a series of tentatives;
only possible
practise before it can
steady itself sufficiently

letters ;

thus

we

this

also

In

treated

his
time
in

the

of

mind

masterly

learn

senses

tabula

account

the
k

the

must

intelligible
figureson

See

becomes

Sense
call their

writingis

must

Locke

produce what
they act

impression,which

vague

educated

the

Sense

the scribes.t

hand

to

On

to

uneducated

the

; on

are

carry

instantaneously

as

by repetition.*
finely compares

Plato
senses

so

sensations.

of

cluster

rasa

the

origin
to

comes

in

maimer

to
by repetition

of the
of

mind.
all

reflect

Beneke's

ledge
know-

our
on

its

'Lehrbuch

own

der

Psychologie.*
T
sense

Philebns, p. 191.
is.

Plato's

words

are

not

given

in

the

text, but

the

IDEALISM

AND

operations about

the

itself with

set

These

the

are

new

ideas
of

which

ideas,which
which

LOCKE.

made

are

from

of

mind,

intrinsical and

powers

stores

reflection.

our

on

the

to

467

thereby

ideas

call

extrinsical

are

operations proceeding

IN

got by sensation, and

impressions

objects that

outward

SCEPTICISM

by

senses

its

and

own

to

proper

self;
it-

becoming also objects

by itself,
I have
of its contemplation, are, as
said, the original of all
intellect is
Thus, the first capacity of the human
knowledge.
is fitted to receive the impressions made
that the mind
it ;
on
either through the senses
by outward
objects ; or by its own
reflected

when

it reflects

operations when

towards

makes

man

whereon

build

to

on

discovery

the

all those

tower

the clouds

above

which

notions

naturally in this world.

reach

and

their rise an'd

footing here : in
mind
wanders, in those remote
elevated
with, it stirs not one

high as

as

he

ever

sublime

those

All

is the first step 'that

of and
the groundwork

This

them.

on

shall

have

thoughts which
take
heaven
itself,

all that

good extent wherein the

to be
speculations it may
seem
jot beyond those ideas which
reflection have
off*ered for its contemplation."
or
sense
is an answer
The
close of this passage
to the ontologists not
;
will
which
that
They deny
however,
they
tion
sensaaccept.
one,
of materials.
But
and reflection are the only sources
we
will continue
"

\Yhen
to

an

Locke

"

understanding is

the

ideas, it has
even

hear

to

the

almost

to

power
infinite

with

stored

once

and

repeat, compare,

variety,and

so

these

make

can

simple

unite
at

them,^
pleasure

in the power
But
it is not
of the most
complex ideas.*
exalted
wit, or enlarged understanding, by any quickness or
new
simple idea in
one
varietyof thought, to invent or frame
the mind
taken
aforementioned."
in by the ways
not
This
is very exph'cit ^and, we
If true,
believe, very true.
new

"

what

becomes

of

Philosophy ?

CHAPTER
ELEMENTS

The

IDEALISM

OF

last

passage

naturally leads

quoted

positionin the great

knowledge of things/rr se.
"

What

faculties

does
'

here

Dr.
?

Whewell

IN

SCEPTICISM

AND

Locke's

VI.

say

debate

to

carried

this ?

Is

to

us

on

theie

LOCKE.

consider

respecting our
any

denial

of

the

IDEALISM

468
Can

AND

things as

know

we

that

suppose

distinctness

we

they

can

IN

are

LOCKE.

his

and

Descartes

their criterion

lowers
fol-

is the clearness

and

of ideas.

have

examination

adequate

; but

ideas

Distinct

"

the

that fall under

may

ideas

of the several
of

our

suspect

perhaps

senses,

have

we

of

sorts

of any

not

them."

amongst

one

we

admirably said,

Locke
bodies

SCEPTICISM

clear,are never
ideas, however
adequate ; they are subhalf
But
towards
the conception
Locke
jective.
only went
way
did not
of knowledge as purely subjective. He
think that all
ideas were
our
pressly
images, copies of external objects ; but he exideas
of
what
he
calls
that
our
taught
primary qualities^
exist
in
resemblances
bodies
of
what
are
really
; adding, that
the ideas produced in us by secondary qualitieshave
no
semblance
reOur

"

of

existingin
denominate
tn

the

them

at

bodies

from

all.

themselves.

them, only

nothing

is

There

They

power

to

like

ideas

our

in the bodies

are,

produce

we

those sensations

us.^*
It

is remarkable

the

conclusion

are

but

that

the powers
attribute
who

that the
all the
to

did

last sentence

which
qualities
of

him

to

we

perceive in bodies

in

us

produce sensations
the

lead

not

these

; and

sensations

that

it is

form
that so
us
effects.He himself warned
we
think
not
(as perhaps usually is done) that they (ideas)
may
are
exactly the images and resemblances
of something inherent in
of those
the subject; most
of sensation
being in the mind tw
the likeness of something existingwithout
than the names
more
us
stand
them
that
likefiesses cf our
are
ideas, which
for
yet upon
in
us."
excite
And
it
hearing they are apt to
elsewhere,
conceive
that
should
God
impossible to
being no more
annex
the
motions
such ideas to such
motions
of
ing
(/".,
objects affecthave
the senses) with
which
similitude
than
that
no
they
he should
the
of
idea
of
motion
the
pain to
annex
a piece of
steel dividing our
which
with
that
idea
hath
flesh,
no
semblance."
rewe

analogous

to

causes

to their

"

"

From

these

it will be

how

stood
underclearlyLocke
the subjective nature
of one
portion of our
knowledge.
His not carrying out the applicationof his principlesto primary
qualities,was
owing perhaps to carelessness, or else to invete-.
association
rate
the contrary in
having too firmly established
passages

seen

his mind.
is willing to
admit
that colour, light, heat,
Every one
not
perfume, taste, "c., are
qualities in the bodies which

IDEALISM

produce

in

sensibilitywhen

our

ZV

LOCKE.

469

simply conditions

effects; they are

placed in certain

those

us

SCEPTICISM

AND

with

relations

of

certain

bodies.
But

few

willingto admit
they are to undo

are
as

conceive
and

number,

which

which

stand

otherwise

be

to

copies of
And

their

can
associations)

constant

viz.,extension, solidity,motion,
primary qualities,

the

we

customed
only philosophers (ac-

indeed

"

impressed

are

to

than

real
us

upon

qualities of bodies
by the relation

"

in

the bodies.

these

less

subjective than the former.

to
They do not
belong at all to bodies, except as powers
in us
the
sensations.
produce
demonstrably as
They are
much
the effects produced in us by objects, as the secondary
admits
be effects^
to
qualitiesare; and the latter everyone
and not copies.
Wherein
lies the difference?
wherein
the difficultyof conceiving
?
not
to belong to bodies
primary qualities
In this : /the primary qualitiesare
conditions
the invariable
of sensation.
variable
The
the
ditions.
consecondary qualities are
We
have
that
of
is
not
can
perception
no
a
body
extended, that is not solid (or the reverse),that is not simple
These
rest.
complex (number), that is not in motion
or
or
invariable
conditions.
But
this body is not
are
necessarilyof
smoothness
; it may
any particular colour, taste, scent, heat, or
These
be
colourless, tasteless,scentless.
secondary qualities
are

yet

are

no

all variable.

Consequently, the

set

one

associations

minds, so that it is not only

the
at
same
impossible for us to imagine a body, without
with
these
time
imagining it as endowed
primary qualities;
that the bodies
led to believe
also we
but
irresistibly
are
we
those
pendently
qualities quite indeperceive do certainly possess

indissoluble

of
could

himself

in

occasioned

being invariable,have

it has

Hence

us.

make

not

our

The

said

been

without

body
phrase

that

the

extension
"

should

Creator

for such

it

such

a
body
be,
impossible.
body
But
indissoluble
associais impossible for us to conceived
our
of reality.
tions are
standards
no
is true; but
conceive
That
cannot
we
body without extension
conceive
be
cannot
it, the contrary must
that, because
we

is

false, is preposterous.
amount

to

of

things,but

is that
our

of

knowledge

nature.
our

All

These

our

assertion

must

be

this

subordinate

conditions

organizations.'

in

are

not

matter
to

the

conditions

|
'

can
ditions
con-

of
'

IDEALISM

470

LOCKE.

IN

SCEPTICISM

AND

If

had

we

affect

with

us

led

so

To

of the

of

pain, "c.
at
affinity

is

Locke
of

different bodies

with

sistibly
irre-

been

have

in

quality inherent

indiss(^uble

no

of

he has

external

association

and

at

formed.

bodies

mechanical

all with

those

ideas

connection

affections

have

no

sations,
sen-

in

any
colour

distinct

having
(therebeing

bodies

of

theyproduce

of

seveml

us

tastes, smells, pleasure, and

us

impulse

between

perception
can

produce in

us,

colours, sounds,

These

body, Hnd any

we
Jiiinds)
our

says,

about

excepts

the

that

of

nature

primary
bulk, figure,and

he

things,though
"

the

stated

well

very

evident," he

several

conceivable

was

varies

warmth

It is

"

as

should

we

should

bodies

rest.

to

qualities.

warmth,

all

that

as

that warmth

conclude

knowledge

motion

of

times, there

return

our

so

because

different
And

constituted

degree

to

; but

body

been

or

of

any

which

smell

knowledge of

we

such

no
no

sort

of

find

in

operations

otherwise
them
about
no
experience; and can reason
wise Agent, which
than as the effects produced by an
infinitely
perfectlysurpass our comprehensions."
He
vation
The
shortly after says,
things that, as far as our obserreaches, we
constantly find to proceed regularly,we
conclude
do act by a law set them
\ but yet by a law that
may
know
work
not:
we
steadily, and
whereby, though causes
and
pendencie
defrom
effects constantly flow
them, yet their connexions
in our
but
ideas
have
wt
can
being not discoverable
have
Hume's
Here
an
experimental knowledge of themJ^
we
doctrine
of Causation
anticipated.
the subjective nature
To
of our
knowledge is but one
prove
the great question.
it is
The
second
step towards
step, which
was
vulgarly supposed was
only taken by Berkeley and Hume,
also taken
Hear
him :
by Locke.
Since
all
the mind
its thoughts and
in
reasonings hath no
other immediate
ideas, which it alone does
object but its own
is
evident
that
can
or
contemplate, it
knowledge is only
our

beyond

our

"

"

'*

about

conversant
"

them.

Knowledge,, then,

of the

connexion

and

of any one
of
This
is the great
Locke
stated
"

foresaw

the

problem

It is evident

but only

the

by

the

to

seems

agreement,
our

or

with

that the

the

but

perception

disagreement and

nancy
repug-

ideas."

stronghold
use

nothing

me

which

of

would

remarkable
mind

intervention

Idealism
be

of it ; and

made

he

precision :

"

knows
of

Scepticisiri.

and

ideas

not

things immediately,

it has

of

them.

Oar

AND

IDEALISM

loiowledge, therefore,
between
"

But

when

real,only

shall

and

the

the

how

things themselves
has he

Thus

hand

one

he

stated

will solve

There

its

is

formity
con-

things.
the

tnind^
they agree

shall

How

that

ideas^ know

own

471

there

as

realityof

the

LOCKE,

"

problem which

by Scepticism on

was

solved

the

other.

by Idealism
Let

us

see

it.

two

are

the

and

far

so

the criterion f

be here

it perceivesnothing but

with

on

is

ideas

our

what

IN

SCEPTICISM

ideas,

of

sorts

he

simple

the

says,

and

the

modem
more
complex ; or, to use
language, perceptions and
**
must
conceptions. The first
necessarily be the product of
mind
the
in
and
things operating on
a natural
producing
way,
the
will
of
Maker
wisdom
those perceptions which
and
by
our
and
From
it follows
whence
the/ are ordained
adapted to.
that simple ideas are
fictions of oiir fancies,but the natural
not
and regular productions of things without
really operating \
us
is inand
all the conformity which
so
upon us;
\
carry with them
which
for
state requires:
tepyied^or
our
they represent things to
those
under
which
us
they are fittedto product in us^
appearances
I
This
leaves the question of Idealism
unanswered, though it
It is a plain and
the Gordian
knot of Scepticism.
cuts
explicit
of the subjectivityof our
avowal
knowledge; of the impossibility
of our
transcending the sphere of our consciousness
ever
and
into
the essences
of things.
penetrating
of simple ideas,we
need
out
not
Complex ideas being made
examine
their pretensions to infallibility.
All human
certaintyis,therefore,only a^relative certainty.
Ideas

may

sidered

be

true

for us, without

being

all

at

when

true

con*

is Locke's

position. He stands upon

two
a
ledge
yawning abysses. He will stand
he
when
there, and proceed no farther.
Why should he move
knows
that a singlestep will precipitatehim
into some
less
fathomwith his ledge of rock.
The
abyss ? No ; he is content
notice we
of the existence
have by our
of
senses,'* he says,
be
without
it
not
things
altogether so certain as our
us, though
intuitive knowledge or the deductions
of our
employed
reason,
absolutely. Such
of rock

between

"

"

the

about
assurance

clear,
that

concerning the
cannot
can

pass
in earnest

for

of those

the

deserves

ourselves

ideas

abstract

that

name

our

of

faculties

our

existence

of

of

those

minds

own

yet it is

knowledge.
act

and

objects

that

If

inform
affect

we

us

an

suade
per-

right

them,

it

ill-grounded confidence
; for I think nobody
of the existbe
uncertain
ence
to
so
sceptical as
things which he sees and feels. At least he that
an

be

IDEALISM

472

doubt

can

far

so

SCEPTICISM

AND

(whatever he

may

IN

LOCKE.

with his

have

thoughts)

own

benever
controversy with me, since he can
any
I say anything contrary to his own
sure
opinions. As to myself,
has given me
I think God
assurance
enough as to the existence

will

have

never

things without me ; since by their different applicationI can

is one
produce in myself both pleasure and pain, which
great
of my
We
concernment
cannot
act
state.
by anythingpresent
but our
faculties ; nor
talk of knowledge
but by the help of
ledge
those faculties which
fitted to apprehend
what knoware
even
of

is."
all we
and hear,
Again, anticipatingthe objection that
see
feel and taste, think and do during our
whole
being is but the
series and deluding appearances
of a long dream, and therefore
desire him
our
knowledge of anything be questioned ; 1 must
'^

consider

to

makes

that

should

rerum

it,is

not

condition

it is not

so

him.

answer

much

but

doth

that

matter

that

dream
a

waking

yet if he pleases, he may

But

dream

this answer,
That
the certaintyof
naturd^ when we have the testimony of

things existing

only

tOy but

that I make
in

dream, then he

question ; and

the

man

if all be

him

as

great

neechJ*

This

frame

our

as

attain

can

Idealism

leaves

for

senses

our

unanswered

our

as

it

but

for our faculties,"he

Scepticism to be frivolous :
to
continues, being not suited to the full extent of being, nor
a
perfect,clear, comprehensive knowledge of things free from all
and
doubt
they
scruple,but to the preservationof us, in whom
"

pronounces

"

and

are,

purpose
those

accommodated

things which

convenient

are

this is very
it is no
ans7ver

good

him

between

and

influence

no

simply

the

himself

very
was,

they

sense

Hume,

that

knew

he

of

us."

to

will admit.

one

every

our

notice

certain

us

as

shall

we

see

but the difference

opinions :

same

to

serve

inconvenient

Scepticism.

Locke

opinions had

such

philosophical question, but

tenting
practical affairs ot life ; whereas
Locke, con-

whatever

upon

give

or

common

to

hereafter,proclaimed the

life ;

of

use

enough, if they will but

well

That
But

the

to

with

upon

the

practical,disdained

the

to

the

answer

philosophical question.*
We

sum

may

up

of this

the contents

distinctlyenough foresaw
which
might be drawn
arguments
Locke

not
"

them, because

draw
Dr.

Reid

Berkeley
within his

conjecturesthat

"

the
from

his

thought

them

Locke

had
he

did

principles. He
frivolous.

glimpse of

the

advanced, though
thought proper
breast."
No, not to suppress, but to disdain

afterwards
own

he

chapter by saying that

Idealistic and
Sceptical
Aware

system
to

which

suppress

it.

it

CRITICS.

LOCKE'S

474

superb disdain

sanre

alchemists

ambitious

the

as

treated

The
in which
modem
Frenchmen
tone
early chemists.
is painful ; the tone
in which
Germans
speak of Locke
Englishmen speak of him is disgraceful. To point out any

is honourable

; but

to

him

accuse

of

which

errors

and
many
error

not

are

th^

be

to

interprethis language according to your

him of inconsistencyand
views, and then accuse
superficiality
;
that
"lead
Atheism"
his principleswould
to
to
assume
or
them
elsewhere, and on that assumption to condemn
; to speak
in his

found

work,

to

superciliousness,as if he were
some
respectable
but short-sightedgentleman dabbling with philosophy, and
not
of mankind, deserves
the severest
of the great benefactors
one
reprobation.
him

of

with

is

There

no

for not

excuse

language be occasionally loose

always to be gathered from the
Hobbes
or
lucidityof Descartes
;
and
intelligible,

himself

make

stated

but

he

this

to

not

on, unless

end

which

passages

seem

considerable

most

Cousin.

He

the

pressions,
ex-

"

contradictory; any

very

has

of

Locke's

undertaken

an

all

clear

important positions. The

popular style of his lectures

and

person
coherent*

misconception.
critics is Victor

modern

examination

all Locke's
and

to

his

carefullyreading it through will find

is not read through ; hence
But Locke
The

his

varied

he

the

not

anxious

most

was

"

find

had

He

context.

is

He
meaning in a varietyof forms.
is to be relied
be taken
literally. No
single passage
it be also borne
out
by the whole tenor of his speculations.
the Essay, will
dipping into
merely
Any person
and

must

his

If
understanding Locke.
and
wavering, his meaning

and

eminence

refutation
of

his

of

name

have

ance
given great importif we
to his criticism ; but
to
are
speak out our opinion
frankly,we must consider this criticism very unfair,and extremely
be teimerityin this declaration
shallow.
There
may
\ yet such
do not
suffer themselves
readers
of our
be imposed upon
to
as
to think
showy, but are content
scientiously
conby reputations however
for
fit occasion
Wc
not

unfairness

see

that

the

present

is

not

for idle courtesies.

here

cannot

suffice

themselves, will

to

expose

and

one

examine
all

his
his

examination

errors.

of his shallowness

Let

one

volume

example

would
of hi^

suffice.

the
principleof reflection,he says, "In
here
that Locke
tion
reflecfirst place, remark
evidentlyconfounds
consciousness.
with
Reflection, strictlyspeaking, is
doubtless
a
faculty analogous to consciousness, but distinct

Speaking

of

the

CRITICS.

LOCKE'S

from It, and

whereas

which

particularlybelongs

more

consciousness

We

answer

evident

that

belongs
in

that

the

to

place,

tantamount

and

to

speculation),forces

exclaims

then

interpretedLocke

he
fairly,

could

with

In
a

that

contradiction

about

its

from

being
consciousness,
the second
place,
peculiar sense
(viz.,

reflection

the contrary.
Essay proves
the
word
reflection in
Cousin, using

as

far

so

his whole
M.

philosophers,

to

man."

every

first

confounds

Locke

475

sense

If

Cousin

thus

have

never

Locke,

upon
M.

**

had

caught
.

him

the

hip."
It is quite true
that
in the passage
quoted by M. Cousin,
the
of
reflection
is
limited
the
to
faculty
operations of the
mind
down
to any
one
said, to pin Locke
passage
; but, as we
illis unfair ; and
in
of
his whole
some
spite
Essay proves,
much
worded
definitions,that' by reflection he meant
very
mind
what
is usually meant
the
bining
comby it,viz.,the activityof
the materials it receives through sense, and
thus
a
being
on

second
This
to

of ideas.

source

leads

besides
and

space,

sensation

examines

through sensation
could

not

think

is

wishing

some

reflection,instances

the

possible

was

obtained

to

obtain

idea

the

That

through the
by proving

satisfactorily
proved
in it ; that

Cousin
from

reflection.

and

been

have

it

ideas

have

we

and

how

M.

example.

that

against Locke,

prove,

source

second

the

to

us

of

idea of
idea

that

pure
space
he seems
to

senses,
that
the

it could

other

have
not
nothing sensuous
because
it
has
do with
to
nothing
through reflection,
of our
understanding, is equally evident to him.
both
Locke's
account
as
sources
fail,he pronounces
origin of our knowledge
incomplete and vicious."

idea

has

obtained

been

the

tions
opera-

Hence,
of

the

"

This

argument,

by
the

extends

several

to

of space both
never
inquirer would

idea

Locke

to

meant

say
Locke

"

that

understand

that

abstraction

primary
sight." Locke

touch

and

objection, so
of

our

idea

did

not

of substance

say,

materials
did

sense

idea
!

of substance
It has

been

never

thought

an

idea of

He

suppose
would

space

is

an

through our
anticipateany quibbling

it ; but

given

could

never

'

obtained

are

not

guard against
hef has

the

honest

Any

sensation.

a
"

to

meant

the

is

space

curiously enough his antagonists

the

is deemed
pages,
"
that
we
get
says

triumphant. Locke, indeed,

by our
sight and touch."
this
would
quibble upon

Cousin

M.

which

have
have

in his

explanation

analogous case ; and

frequently objected that
been
obtained
through

an

irresistible argument

aga^st

CRITICS.

LOCKE'S

4?6

have
fact that
we
very
be sufficient proof of some

theory. The
is supposed to

Locke's
stance

knowledge

sensation

reflection

and

suli-

idea of

an

other

source

example of
has
been
read.
He
how
carelesslyLocke
expressly tells us,
in more
places than one, that the idea of substance
(and by
idea he does
here
ence
not
mean
image, but a thought) is an inferexperience of external
our
grounded upon
things. True
it is that we
perceive nothing but phenomena, but our minds
forced
constituted
that we
these pheto
so
are
are
nomena
suppose
of

than

lyingunderneath

substances

have

an

"

them.

will examine

himself," he says,
concerning his
in general, he will find he
notion
substance
of pure
has no
other
idea of it at all,but only a suppositionof he knows
not
which
what
are
capable of producing
support of such qualities
called
dents.
accisimple ideas in us, which
qualitiesare commonly
be
is the
should
asked
what
If any
one
subject
he
would
wherein
colour
have
weight inheres,
or
nothing to
"

If any

one

"

say but the solid extended

is it that solidity
what
and

in

be

much

world

better

case

if he

; and

extension

great

inhere

Indian

the

than

supported by

was

parts

were

demanded

in, he

would

not

saying that

who,

elephant,-was

what

asked

the
the

elephant rested on, to which his answpr

was, A great tortoise ;
but being again pressed to know
what gave
support to the great
what."
broad
backed
not
tortoise,replied.Something, he knew
will apply to space-^an
of argument
The
idea
same
course
derived
from the senses
suggested by place,which is surelyone
;
and
declaims
but M. Cousin
ward
forat
a
brings
great rate,
away
and
all
to
illustrations, utterly trivial,
arguments
many
show
A

that

of space
could
have
never
attention in reading the author

little more

have

could

the

that

have

grounds

all this

him

saved

supposed

"

idea

the

been

his

idea

trouble.

Locke

of

or

space,

sensation

position

that

idea

the

sensation.

he attacks
for

never

ideas

any

fact that

the

on

been

is vague,

of

instant

an

that

it could
and

would

is

class,

not, he
a

mere

supposition."
The

whole

tenor

Locke.

But
and

much

Locke

senses."

critics

German

time

of

their

let

us

we

may

speculations unfits

hear

an

Englishman

"

them
a

Dr. Whewell,
fell,*'
says
who
recognise no source

"

"

as

all
of

must

The

for.

judging
Cambridge professor,

We
need
philosophicalhistorian :
inconsistencies
the
in pointing out
"

silence.

in

over

pass

not

into

spend
which

sistencies
fall into incon-

knowledge except

the

LOCKE'S

Let

manner

more

than

refute

his whole

most

another

gives him

an

the

senses."

the
source

He

and

Dr.

ing,
last-

Whewell,

otherwise, they
tion
misrepresenta-

as,
a

"no

of

source

that

knows

did

Locke

Reflection
suppression of
he suppresses
it,and triumphantly

but

victory;

easy

so

the

"

.he maintains

sight

of

that

and

which

tortoise

space
idea
of

our

"

is derived

of

is

of substance

solidityfrom

unknown

an

from
the

support

is illustrated

qualities,and

of unknown

idea

our

touch

notion

Our

alone.

the

it behoved

very

great

so

general

so

senses

touch

been

surely

over

pass

Secondly, it is
having recognised

Locke's

except

Thu5

"

to

philosophy.

knowledge
recognise
proceeds

it is

that

refute, inasmuch

to

men,

of

talk

to

has

"inconsistencies"

whose

and

first

influence

Locke, whose

as

man

477

place,
of writing history thus

cavalier

in the

remark,

us

CRITICS,

by the Indian fable of

elephant which
supports the

the

supports

world."
have
already considered
space, we
Cousin.
if the idea of
As to solidity,

As
M.

from

sensation, from

the

substance,

Locke, who

does

again notice
it

define

not

qualities,"but as an
: from
our
knowledge
qualities
with

of

to

respect

blind
should

receive

unable

to

he

the

in

direction
he

of

Locke's

meaning.

"

Our

notion

is in like

ideas
DOt

are

occur

of

manner

thus

hesitate

they

l^own

to

in

mere

accidents

power
got from

or

bodies

of

the

senses

to

them

our

him

as

does

; and

he

that

he

to

cause
assisted,
un-

moved

was

of

thing
some-

would

the

unknown

us.

This

the

the

knowledge

is

historian,

yet, though these

experience, Locke

necessityand

propositions.Thus

of

something

cause," continues

fragments of

ascribe

to

when

that there

unknown

relation

of

know,

ever

other

no

certain

are

direction,
Although

cause

attribute

to

could

he

have

that

similar

the

the

We

certain

being struck

quite

pain, and

somewhat

his

could

be

in

hesitate
All

known

condition

the

understand

not

; he

in

of

infer

revolvingwheel.

so

him.

would

his

support
**

would

of

they inhere.

moved

to

as

support

qualities we

which

some

the fact of

be

besides
stand

from

without

wheel, yet

he

wheel, and

received, he

certain

somewhat

the

see

would
in

substance,
blow

something

to

in

who, whenever

man,

pain

substratum

some

And

support

the

derived

not

unknown

unknown
of

answering

misrepresentationof

"an

as

unknown

existence

be

that

is it derived

whence

here

must

we

in

that

to

does

when
universality

maintains

the necessary

CRITICS.

LOCKE'S

47S

geometrical properties : he asserts that the resistance

arising from
solidityis absohitely insurmountable
ceives
con; he
that nothing short of Omnipotence
annihilate
can
a
he has no
misgivings in aiding upon
particleof matter
; and
that
have
the axiom
He
does not
a
cause.
everything must
of the originof our
account
ledge,
knowperceive that upon his own
have
of these assertions.
we
no
can
right to make
any
of

truth

If

world
venture
true

are

example

say

as

far

of

of

; and

that

as

In

another^
Dr. Whewell,

of

his

such

it is

of

want

misconception
occur

nature
"

of

have

we

found

one

innumerable

among

with

Locke.

instances

The

fallacyon

we
come
fullywhen
following exhibit his

certainlydid

who

surprise.

some,

cause

shall examine
rests,-we
let the
Meanwhile

Locke,

no

occupy

examined^

might

acquaintance

of

seen

cause/'

passage

only

have

we

less space
by
annihilated
by natural

to

substance
have

that

reduced

we

had
a

his argument
of Kant.*
treat

"

tried them

material

which

ascribe

that

have

change has

every

external

experience,all that we could

geometrical properties of figures

body being

the

concern

from

that, wherever

In

to

be,

ive

solid

or

pressure,
means

would

to

which

truths

knowledge of the
wholly derived
were

our

not

hesitate

to

necessity and universalityto certain ideas when

they
in propositions,"but who
clearly explained the
very
of this necessity in a masterly passage
:
"

There

is

anything

sort

one

answerable

of

propositionsconcerning the existence

idea ; as having the idea of
to such
an

elephant, phoenix, motion, or angle, in my mind, the first

and natural
such
a
inquiryis,whether
thing does anywhere
exist ?
ence
existAnd
this knowledge
is only of particulars. No
of anything without
certainly be
God, can
except
us,
an

known

farther then
There

"

is another

the agreement

dependence
versal

and

our

sort

of

another.

one

us.

wherein
propositions,

disagreement

or
on

inform

senses

of

our

Such

abstract

ideas

expressed
and
be

propositions may
and

So, having the idea of God

certain.

is

of

their
uni'

myself,

is to be
but be sure
that God
obedience, I cannot
feared and obeyed by me
this proposition will be certain
: and
in general, if I have
made
abstract idea of
concerning man
an
such specieswhereof I am
one
particular. But yet this proposition,
how
certain soever,
that men
ought to fear and obey
of

fear and

God,
will

proves
be true

not

to

of all
"

See

me

such

the

existence

creatures

of

wherever

cbap.
epoch viii.,

men

in the world, but

they do exist; which

v., of this Series.

LOCKE'S

CRITICS.

479

general propositions depends

certainty of such
in those
disagreement to be discovered
or
former

the

In

senses

in

latter, knowledge

the

what

(be they

their

Many

indeed

of

these

so

; not

are

they were
till he, having got

by affirmation
such

the

as

he

must

consideration

propositions
mind

from

about

from

ideas

truths,

abstract

ideas

to

as

passage

is sufficient

futility of
certain

foregoing

the

from

followers
"

eternal

the

true."

hiin

exonerate

also,

standing
under-

by

from

IV.

charge

the

show

to

the

of

mind

(Book

"

believe,

we

account

own

time

any

samples

are

of

the

style in

Psychology is spoken of by his modern

of what
be sufficient warning to the reader

them

which

are

to

the

necessity

which

of

partisans
; and

professes

his

own

the

dark, without

stimulate
no

more

conjectures

truth."

any

reaction

the
him

to

than

to

concerning
other

the

of

careful

design

study of
candidly

subject lying
than

an

great
Let

is to expect

he

against Locke

lay down,
a

the

critics.

of

master

after

Whewell's

tions
proposi-

truths.

The

who

Dr.

to

sufficient

inconsistency;

of

they

antecedent

be
made
to
again at
supposed
ideas, always actually be
having those
ch. xi. " 13, 14.)

This

the

fore,
propositions, there-

be

can

certain

to

they are imprinted on

that
of them
of
out
are
anywhere
because
made
being once
; but
be true, they will, whenever
they

before

so

clude
con-

because

nor

must

we

disagreement

because

not

suppose

thoughts

of

Such

and

patterns

existed

have,

or

ideas.

mind

one's

faculties,and

we

truth

them

of all men,

can

we

such

agreement

own

them

any

all of

separated them

or

applies his
the

the

producing

and

with
as

he

the

his

makes

veritaies

our

of

minds

our

the

by

consequence

wheresoever

ideas, know

eternal

and

mind

But

of

minds

oUr

ideas, joined

actually formed

that

the

when

in

called

are

the

needs,
his

perceive

will

he

such

of

in

is,endowed

with

will arise

that

abstract

man

thereby furnished

are

(BtermB

negation.

or

creature

of

any

the

ideas.

consequence

in

is

ment
agree-

abstract

being written in the minds

them
propositions in any

from

that

or

called

are

the

ideas

they will) that

general certain propositions.

ideas

"

things producing

of

existence

is

knowledge

our

case

the

on

and
that

author

and

freely,

somewhat

unbiassed

his

in

inquiry

LEIBNITZ.

48o

CHAPTER

VIII.

LEIBNITZ.

Leibnitz
had
could

the

not

staple

come

with

the

peculiar force,
is

the

of the

theory

first he

answered

destined

not

he

opinion

work

influential

he

HumainJ

after
till many
years
edition.
Dugald
and

where
*

New

he

does
treats

has

heard

in

so

his

earlier

Dr.

its

of

aware

works

the
not

included

tion,'
Disserta-

of Locke's
in

; but

his great

Preface, speaks

reader

The

was

upon

was

is not
not

in his
explain a passage
Leibnitz
always speaks coldly

says

he

Essays'
in the

and

work

his death, and

stir

disputed

remarkable

Stewart

bear

to

this fact will

Leibnitz

Essay.'

Essais

Essay,' and

This

reputation.*

Nouveaux

all his forces

brought

Duten's
;

his

in

subject ; he grappled with the

This
ground with it inch by inch.

existence

done

be

with

the

in M.

here

can

he

took
opposition
respect
origin of ELnowledge.
in a few
Locke
what
paragraphs of a someHe
the
looked
evidently
Essay'
upon

any
alter ; and

to

that

All
which

achieve

to

lived

r Entendetnent

published

he

though

they are parts of his system.

in philosophy and
mathematics;
forbids
entering into any
our

of his claims.

line of

supercilioustone.
as

Understanding/

He

because

name

this

examination

Locke's
At

great

of

indicate

to

on

great critics.

Locke's

of

its

nature

detailed

to

Essay

last

Human

have
formed
principles. His arguments
him
and
from
objection against Locke;
they

of

Leibnitz

is

first and

'

accept

the

but

the

was

studied

adversary with due

with eulogy.
Whewell
speak of Locke,

the

respect;

of him

and

can

the language
appreciated his tone ; let him now
compare
of the great Leibnitz, speaking of his rival :
"The
Essay concerning Human
Understanding,' written
illustrious
of the finest and
an
by
Englishman, being one
most

have

esteemed

works

comments

on

introduction

but

so

in what
See

'Reflexions

vol. ii.

my
"

have
I

resolved

is

that

true

far from

and

detracting on
writer, that I do

wherefore
sur

TEssai

I differ
de

M.

often

that

him

from

Locke,'

in

them

am

in

make

to

shall procure

thoughts by placing

of this celebrated

niaizeaux,

time,

Thus

for
.

opinion ;
known

our

It

company.

merit

of

it

account

of

some

favourable
such
a

good

different
from

the

justice in making
I judge
him, when
the

*Recucil'of

Des-

A
i

"

LEIBNITZ.

482

truth,for it does not follow that that which

in the same
will always occur
way."

that

has

once

occurred

continues

Leibnitz

truths, such

and

arithmetic

proof

does

find

we

as

in

depend

senses,
thought of them.

such

full of

from

come

Locke

upon

also

in
particularly

the

senses

would

one

which
principles

those internal

have

never

logic,metaphysics,and

morals

consequently their proofs

truths, and

are

only

can

called innate/*

are

agreed with these premises,but

have rejected.That
the senses
rightly
furnish us with any general truth he taught as
not
Leibnitz ; but he did not build his theory upon the

would

perfectlyhave

the conclusion
could

alone

So

necessary

principlesof which the

examples, nor consequently upon

although without

the

that

have

must

geometry,

not

it appears
mathematics, and

Whence

"

expresslyas

he would

alone.

senses

been misled by Locke's

to have
Leibnitz,however, seems
in
the
for he says,
first
definition
of
Reflection;
language
Perhaps the opinionsof our able author are not so far from
mine
For after having employed the
as
they appear to be.
of his first book
whole
against innate knowledge taken in a
certain sense, he acknowledges in the beginningof the second
"

that there

from

attention
io

convey

then

us

which

Leibnitz

here

this

Locke's

words.

*'

mind

reiterate

we
us

The

To

say

man;

curious

senses,

nothing

instance of how

the

very

point
the

but

do not
it

Can

mind,

the

reflected in the

them

opinions, sees

assumes

issue;

at

assumes

cannot

senses

convey
contained
in

assumption
supposes
the contrary.
Locke
taughtprecisely
is itself innate," continues
Leibnitz (towhich

our

he

objection: innate in

displacementof
mind

question is:

all ideas

of

was

man

Are

be

to

there

In itself?

what?

that it is innate in itself is

innate in us, is a
that the
doubted
the

the

within

has innate ideas which

that the mind

it;

reflection is

passes

in italicsis

passage

and

originatefrom

what

preoccupiedwith its own

of others.
expressions

to

not

Now

do

us
; and the senses
within
ourselves.
we
alreadypossess
that there is much
innate in the mind?"

that

to

which

Reflection.

denied

be

The

ideas

are

arise

but

the

any

question:

bom

or

in

quibble; that it is
in

man

ideas

no
"

one

ever

^bom

with

with

the

bom
mind

is itself

acquired by
mind, or
mind?)
innate,and there are included in it substance, duration,change,
other objectsof
action,perception,pleasure^and a thousand
the

**

The

"

483

LEIBNITZ.

of marble

block

such

marble

in

like

us

that

.when

figure of
some

more

way
the

discover
of marble.

This

is

if there

veins

are

rather

than

on,

block

in the marble
other

any

rasa

truths would

indifferently one

ideas

are

ingenious

and

truths

which

of

marble,
figure or
mark

figure, that

the

marble

existence
of these
very
assi^mption,and an assumption not

in us."

innate

of the

statement

it,the

for

is in the

than

call tabula

unwritten

of

would
determinate, and the figure of Hercules
be innate, although labour would
be necessary
to
their envelopment
from
veins, and to free them
Thus

an

receive

may

Hercules

be

would

marble

But

another.

tablets

figure of Hercules

the

in it rather

veins

philosophers

as

if the soul resembled

because

be

certain

has

comparison

the

used

I have

which

of

plain piece

in

ideas

intellectual

our.

theory: unfortunately

veins

in

the

for the

made

is

marble

an

of
facilitating

inquiry,but simply for the proof of the theory assumed

: it is
for the sake
the
of explaining what?
an
hypothesis framed
be
to
innate; to
hypothesis itself! Ideas are first assumed
this assumption, another
of
the existence
assumption
prove
"

"

innate

ideas

is made

theory is complete.
real
force
of
Leibnitz'
The
theory lies in his distinction
in his position
between
truths, and
contingent and accessary
could
furnish
that experience alone
with
never
us
necessary
The
examination
of this we
truths.
must
delay till we come
to

"

; and

the

Kant.
A

view

brief

of

the

celebrated

Harmony

will be

have

say of Leibnitz.
in those
days an

It

was

that

is necessary

to

Pre-established

of

complete

what

we

to

axiom

universallyadmitted

that

Like.**
The
question then arose
only act upon
:
how
does
body act upon mind ; how does mind act upon
body?
could
The
each
two
act
were
utterly unlike : how
they
upon
is Perception possible?
In other words
other ?
: how
All the ordinary explanations of Perception were
miserable
failures.
If the mind
how
these
perceived copies of tilings,
are
copies transmitted ? EfHuvia, eidola,images, motions in spirits,
not
"c., were
only hypotheses,^ but hypotheses which bore no
examination
of two
unlike
:
they did not get rid of the difficulty
**

Like

here

all

scheme

could

substances

Leibnitz
mind

and

machines.

acting upon
therefore
the human

They

are

each
framed

other.
this

hypothesis :

"

The

human

body are two independent but corresponding

unconnected
so
adjusted that, like two

4^4

SUMMARY

THE

OF

EPOCH.

THIRD

clocks

constrocted

strike

the

this

to

hour

and

at

the

also

soul

wills

God

instant

same
**

I cannot

created

should

one

help coming

the

soul

in such

it should

its"4f all the

represent within
has
that
he
made
the
and
body ;

in the

changes
in such

that

''

die

at

paint it.

other

says,

first, that

simultaneous

that

as

the

notion,**he

manner

body

so

manner

that

the

it

that

as

which

laws

itself do

of

must

make

what

the

thoughts of
the soul
follow each
other in regular succession, must
produce
with the impressions made
images which shall be coincident
by
external
of sense
the laws
our
objects upon
by
organs
; while
which
the motions
each
other
likewise
of the body follow
are
coincident
with
the
so
thoughts of the soul as to give to our
volitions

and

really

were

so

actions
the

the

and

natural

same

very

the

as

appearance

if the

consequence

necessary

latter

of

the

former.**
This

hypothesis
difficulties

of the

however,

has

it

framed

was

all

to

ridiculed

much

been

explain.

to

ordinary views,

it

that

those

by
It

was

unaware
so

nant,
repug-

gained few, if anj',

adherents.

The

best

Leibnitii

edition

Leibnitz's

of

works

is that

by Erdmann

"

Nouveaux
Th^
Berlin, 1839.
in
time published (the first was
Essais
there for the second
are
since
been
Raspe*s edition, Leipsic, 1765); and
they have
form
by M. Jacques :
republished in a cheap and convenient
Paris, 1845.

Opera

PhilosopMca

CHAPTER
OF

SUMMARY

The

result

of

the

speculations begun
by Locke

by

considered

was

knowledge

sources

THIRD

to

and

as

derived

and

have

been

Hobbes,

considering
"

and

further

that

we

could

"

sensation

and

have

no

experience :

internal

of

veloped
de-

settle,for a long while, the dispute

direction
to give therefore
to
a new

established

fi'om

EPOCH.

of two
experience was
kinds, viz.,of external
there were
two
operations : therefore

That
and

not

THE

Gassendi

was

respectingExperience,
inquiry.
It

IX.

we
speculation^

"

reflection

objects
distinct

SUMMARY

That

all

only

of
that

things

know

this

had

was

doctrines.

denial

know

in

485

the

affect

us

in

in

things
other

words,

but

distinct
and

exhibit

of

all

this

philosophy

interpretation

remained

That

scepticism,

philosophy,

brought

agreement

or

themselves,

but

could

only

we

systems

Condillac's

historically.

for

he

Hume,

preted,
inter-

demonstration
did

not

of

put

Locke's

upon

system

idealism,

Berkeley's

sensualism.

rightly

which,
a

"

three

to

consist

only

never

Locke

impossibility

task

they

as

EPOCH,

could

we

THIRD

ideas.

our

To

ideas

our

THE

could

knowledge

disagreement
Finally,

OF

These

it

its
his

duced
proHume's

is

now

our

"poc^.

jfwxxl^

KNOWLEDGE

OF

NATURE

SUByECTIVE

TUB

I.

CHAPTER

LIFE

There

few

are

than

proud

of

exquisite purity

most
a

He

bom

was

county

of

Dublin,

and

made

"Ancient

arms.

learning,

literature, and

modern

enrich

and

mind

the

with

agreed

factions

Adverse

admiring,
of
to

Swift

the

with

him,

innocence,
portion

of

any

his

to

and

much

so

and

of

such

but

angels,
*

Sir

J.

The

Addison

fervid

turbulent

Atterbury

learning,

so

saw

Mackintosh.

his

much

did
this

not

in

temporaries
con-

loving,

severe

sense

endeavoured

speculations.
into

adorn

to

only

him.

humihty,

open

society,

heaven.

modest

till I

with

All

concurred

Pope

After

polished

man.

under

advance
the

Human

of

ascribing

ambitious

satire

the

wits

to

visions

Clarke

virtue

every

discerning, fastidious,

interview
much

Satirist

hostile

and

his

endured

converted
the

the

contributing

and

reconcile

accomplished

he

epoch

an

received

the

1709

contributed

arts,

in

In

metaphysics.

was

this

Berkeley

To

fine

in

College,

made

science,

exact

the

of

he

where

the

it is still

Trinity

Principles

in

epoch

an

London,

to

came

his

after,

year

which

Knowledge,*
he

the

to

Kilcrin,

at

Vision,' which
*

for

heart.

fellow.

; and

at

as

of.

Theory

1684,

be

united

he

or

educated

admitted

Cloyne

head

March,

was

1707

New

and

of

He

in

was

his

science

this

12th

the

on

in

to

reason

character

of

greater

was

Kilkenny.

published
in

he

of

thinker,

and

generosity

and

whether

point

moot

writer

better

Bishop

Berkeley,
as

has

England

whom

George
merits

extraordinary

BERKELEY.

OF

of

men

IDEALISM.

TO

LEADS

ESTABLISHED

BEING

His

racter
cha-

praise.

Even

said, after

knowledge,
think

had

gentleman.'

an
so

been
**"

BERKELEY

COMMON

AND

SENSE.

487

acquaintance with the wits led to his contributing to the

afterwards
became
He
Guardian.'
chaplain and
secretary to
he
whom
the
Earl
of Peterborough,
\a%
accompanied
on
of Europe
the tour
embassy to Sicily. He subsequently made
His

with

an

was

made

pounds

dean

life to

of

he

conversion

the

of

ideal

the

This

but

theory.

resigned it in
the

Island, carrying with

for

be

of

seven

dedicate

to

savages,
dred
hunone

expedition
generous
sail
for Rhode
He
set
and

books

the

of the

Government,
after
fulfilled,and

not

were

he

1724

he

forced

was

to

return

in vain.
the greater part of his fortune
When
he wished
of Cloyne in 1734.

England, having spent'

He

to

he

hundred

salary of

shame

single-handedendeavour,

of

years

order

libraryof

valuable

his property.
But, to the
him
it said, the promises made

bulk

to

him

In

American

North

Government

whom

eleven

worth

was

stipulatingonly with
and
pounds a-year. On this romantic
wife.
he was
accompanied by his young
the

with

Malebranche,

met

on

Derry.

him

to

a-year

Paris

at

discussion

animated

had

his

; and

Ashe

Mr.

made

was

Bishop

permit him
made
the evils of non-residence, he
leaving (ployne,whereby he' settled

resign,the King

alive

to

before
his

absence

on"

woiild

the

not

In

poor.

he

1752

; and

being keenly
arrangement

an

200/.

during

a-year

removed

Oxford,

to

suddenly seized, while reading, with

instantaneously.
palsy of the heart, and died almost
here
cannot
Of his numerous
writings we
speak ; two only
Principles of Knowledge,' and the
belong to our subject : the
We
'Dialogues of Hylas and Philonous.*
hope to remove
in

where,

he

1753,

was

of

some

the

encrusted.
wildest
not

man,

and

errors

prejudices with

world

the
"

coxcombs

not

been

"

name

is

in what
called
his
that, even
are
hope to show
moods,
a
plain, sincere, deep-thinking
Berkeley was
playing with paradoxes to displayhis 'skill.
a sophist,

BERKELEY

has

his

We

CHAPTER

All

which

"'

And

has
"

AND

heard

COMMON

SENSE.

able
Berkeley's Idealism, and innumervanquished it with a grin."* Ridicule
has
it. Argument
been
not
wanting.
of

"

have

sparing of
coxcombs

II.

vanquish Berkeley

with

grin."

"

Pop*.

1
SENSE.

COMMON

488

BERKELEY

It has been

laughed at, written at, talked at, shrieked

it has

been

few

is not

understood

honestlyread

have

to

AND

certainlynot

are

apparent.

so

writers

Few

appreciated his works

and

his

among

antagonists.

That

at.

; and

seem

those

reading the

In

criticisms upon
his theory it is quiteludicrous to notice the
iteration of trivial objectionswhich, trivialas they are,
constant
stood
Berkeley had often anticipated. In fact the critics misunderhim, and then reproached him for his inconsistency
but wth
theirs. They
with his principles^
not
inconsistency,
he
his words
which
had
force a meaning upon
expressly
him
did
then
he
and
because
not
triumph over
rejected;
sue
purwhich
their principlesto the extravagances
would
have
"

resulted from
denied

them.

Berkeley denied

When

the existence

of which

Locke

had

existence

the

of mattet, he simply
substratumy the existence

of that unknown
declared

inferencefrom
necessary
of
which
the nature
must
ever

to be

but
knowledge of qualities,
the
altogetherhidden from us.
Philosophershad assumed
existence of substance,i".,of a noumenon
lyingunderneath all
phenomena
a substratum
supportingall qualities z, something
in which all accidents inhere. This unknown
substance
Berkeley
denies.
If it is unknown,
It is a mere
he says.
abstraction,
of it ; for it is a
unknowable, it is a figment, and I will none
than useless ; it is pernicious,
the basis of all
as
figment worse
Atheism.
which
is seen, felt,
If by matter
/-^a/
you understand
our

be

"

"

tasted,and

touched, then

believer in its existence

the

with

vulgar. If,

on

that occult

exists

as

am

firm

can
be, and herdn I agree
as
any one
the contrary, you understand
by matter

is not seen, not felt,not tasted,and

the senses
do not, cannot, inform
I say I believe not
in the existence of matter, and
"

that

then
you
herein I differwith
"

matter

which

substratum

touched

not

I say

of which

philosophersand agree with the vulgar.

but
I am
for changing things into ideas,"he says,
not
rather ideas into things; since those immediate objects
of perception^
ing
which according to you (Berkeleymight have said,accordto philosophers)
are
only appearances ofthings,I take to be
the real thingsthemselves.
H'jlas: Things ! you may pretend what you please; but it
is certain you leave us nothing but the empty forms of things,
the

"

"

"

the outside
"

of which

Philonous

things

seem

to

What
me

only strikes the

you

call the

the very

senses.

empty forms

things themselves,

and
.

outside
,

"

of
We

AND

BERKELEY

490

sided

with

the

COMMON

SENSE.

recognise no

vulgar, who

distinction

between

the

of objects, and
less
reaUty and the appearance
repudiating the baseand
h3rpothesisof a world
existingunknown
unperceived,
called the sensible shows
that what
he resolutelymaintained
are
of things are in truth the very things themselves."*
it is that owing to the ambiguitiesof language Berkeley's
True
to the ordinary belief of
to
counter
theory does not seem
run
understand
mankind, because
the
men
by Matter
commonly
the
ence
the existtasted, the touched, "c. ; therefore when
seen,
of Matter
is denied, people naturally
that the
suppose
existence
of the seen, the tasted,and
the touch
is denied, never

suspecting that
tasted,

not

seen,

Matter,
not

in

touched.

its

philosophicalsense,
has

Berkeley

not,

is the
it must

not

be

he
confessed, sufficiently
guarded against all ambiguity. Thus
*
of the opening sections of his
Principlesof Human
says in one
It is indeed
an
Knowledge,' that
opinion strangelyprevailing
that
men
houses,
mountains,
rivers,and, in a word, all
amongst
sensible objects have an
real, distinct from
existence, natural
or
their being perceived by the understanding."
This
is strikmg
the key-note false.
It rouses
the reader
to oppose
a
coming
paradox.
Yet
and
answered
the objections which
Berkeley foresaw
He
Wimpey, Beattie, Reid, and others brought forward.
was
he
not
to
not
giving utterance
a
was
caprice;
spinning an
all
than
that
the
while
it
was
ingenious theory, knowing
no
more
an
thinker, patient in the search
ingenuity. He was an earnest
after truth.
Anxious, therefore, that his speculations should
be regarded as mere
dialectical displays,he endeavoured
not
on
various
occasions
from
to guard himself
misapprehension.
I do not argue
the
existence
of any
one
thing that
against
That
the
reflection.
we
can
or
apprehend either by sensation
do exist,really
things I see with my eyes and touch with my hands
exist,I make not the least question. The only thing whose existence
I
deny is that which
corporeal
philosophers call Matter, or
substance.
in doing this there is no
the
to
And
damage done
of mankind, who, I dare
miss it
rest
say, will never
If any
thinks we
detract
from
the
realityor existence
man
of things he is very far from
understanding what has been premised
"

"

**

in
*

the

the

Blackwood's
best

mastery

of

I could

think

June, 1842, p. 3 14, art.

nave
read,
Berkeley we

Mag.,

defence
""f the

plainestterms

subject.

"

of.

It
....

Berkeley

and

written

and

Idealism
with

'

perfect

BERKELEY

that thus

urged

will be

AND

much

"c., this

qualitieswithout
it

take

we

had

never
"

But

if

away,

one

for the

what

we

not

or

that

acknowledge

take

that which

away

in the

even
some

can,

reply, he will still believe

said to

be

if it be

But

of accidents

support

then, indeed,

may

existence,

any
say

mind;

the

taking away.*

of

philosophic sense,

is,that if

answer

my

take

we

for a combination
vulgar sense
extension, solidity,
weight,

as

accused

be

cannot

we

in the

taken

qualities,such

sensible

of

in the

taken

this

To

491

is true^ viz.,that

least

at

substances.

all corporeal
away
be
substance
the word

SENSE.

COMMON

imagination.t
be
perhaps may

one

his senses,

and

plausible,to

suffer

never

to

apt

any

argu*

certainty of them.
prevail
ments,
the evidence
of sense
it so ; assert
Be
please, we
jis high as you
do
the
what
I
That
and
to
hear,
feel,doth
willing
same.
are
see,
doubt
than I do Of my
exist,1.^.,is perceived by me, I no more
the testimony of sense
be
can
being ; hut I do not sec how
own
of anything which is not perceivedby sense ^X
allegedas a }troof
of a
similar cast
After
reading these passages
(and more
shall we
might be quoted) in what terms
speak of the trash
however

written

Idealism

refute

to

the

over

Where

the

was

of

acuteness

the

they tauntingly asked why Berkeley

his head
did not
run
against a post, did not walk over
cipices,
prehis
in
with
accordance
"c.,
theory,
no
pain,
no
as,
broken
limbs, could result ?" Where
was
philosophical acumen,
tribe of writers could
when
imagine they refuted Berkeley
a
^when
the
sense
appeal to common
they contrasted
by an
instinctive
beliefs of mankind
with
the speculativeparadoxes
of a philosopher, who
expressly took his stand with common
against philosophers?
se^^e
Beatties, when

and

Reids

"

"

Am

existed

Dr.

to

imswer

kicking

stone

as

Berkeley

is not
of

support

well

That

said.

directs

I break
kennel
and

what

my
and
;

clapt

is the

head

into

who

20.

wise

to

withhold

This

mind

and

stones

one

assent

passage

not

I had
than
at

it

ai

to

exist

against

he

means

no

(as a

such

an

that

no

disputes.

one

35, 6, 7, 40.

in my
rational

upon,

it is

; which

I resolve
comes

Perhaps

sections

I confess

imposes

nature

resolve

that

Now

madhouse.

philosophers
Inquiry ch. vi., lec
f

such

twenty

fools whom

credulous

post

supposes

attacks.

Knowledge,*

imagined

was

in the

consequence

against

after

his

formed

be

But

substance

accidents)Berkeley's argument

he
imaginary existence
could
image of substance
t
Principles of Human
"*

call

we

This

Berkeley, viz.,

what

that

denied

ever

of

refutation

Johnson's peremptory
if

believe

to

; I
way
actions

rather

good

and

rational

e39"ense."
"

as

dirty

up
of those

one

wise

taken

am

make

of those

all this

senses.

my

step into

hundrvd.

RM^s

IDEALISM.

49S

conceive

to

which

by

coold

power
idea of this

with

common

was

that

this

experienced
which

lasted

the

more

force

no

slightest

than

entire

an

sob-

impossible

whidi

fact

once,

evening, in
of argoment,

its sensible

substance, apart from

in

qualities^

of

denying the existence of matter

tiiocght with the vulgar, that

He

sense.

his

which

of

something

'

is

unknowable

it almost

find

illustration,by

of

Berkeley, therefore,
^

invisible

an

it difficoH

find

voaj

conceivable.

rendered

be

have

discossion

a
no

the

of

of mankind

snbstratom

We

verify.

remember

balk

such

any

win

inqaiiy

the

that

conceive

y/e

metaphysical q^ecublXHis

non-existence

the

; but

stzatum
to

in

trained

Men

which

informed

senses

he

could

him

have

not

sided
matter

occult

an

information.

no

The

certainlyexisted: it was
hard, polished,
I
and
cost
coloured, of a certain figure,
some
guineas. But there
\ was
tahU
the
lying underneath
no
phantom
apparent tabic
siQ)stance
invisible
table.
What
.' there
that
was
no
supporting
;' he perceived was
he
table, and
a
nothing more
; what
ceived
pertable

he

him

before

saw

'

"

it to

His

starting point
the

and

senses^

what

thus

was

of all

senses

it

believe

would

be, he

nothing

be, and

to

plain

the

dictates

more.

oi

bis

fiimished.

men

CHAPTER

in.

IDEALISM.

first step which

The

from

departure
senses

and
facts

from

he seeks
to him
convey
it is in proportion to the
to

be

explained

the

mere

that

for him

with

care

is

he

the

of

which

of
the

what

upon

he

reputation of being

be

to

speculation.

And

consciousness

fiicts of
one

his

phenomena:
analjrses the

of

usually supposed

extravagances

Berkeley's rigorous analysis

obtained

an

inquiry is

any

Reflecting
explanation

Sense.

Common

in

takes

philosopher

of

the

of

the

most

free

yet
has
travagant
ex-

of

of
"c.

speculators !
This is the problem : our
senses
certain sensible qualities,such
But

our

tells

reason

qualitiesof something

they

us

inform
as

that

cannot

us

existence

extension, colour,

solidity^

be
qualities must
exist as
extension,
mere
these

IDEALISM.

colour,"c

there

extended, coloured,

something

be

must

493

something ?
solution
given by the philosophers

What

"c.

is that

The
what

that

beyond

our

support

to

in which
So

is

substance

apprehension

can

are

we

do

we

admit

to

apprehend,

as

lies

it,as

substance

qualitiesinhere.

sensible

existence

forced

this

it

because

know,

never

; but

qualitieswhich

the

considered,

that, deeply

the

we

uniformly

was

of

the

is the

Matter

inferring

for

only reason
necessityfor some

synthesis of

attributes.
did

what

Now,

difficulties of

the

Berkeley ? With
very
the problem, he
boldly

the

synthesisa mental
it had
no
longer the
The

and

of

is said

designed by

those

of

It

to

not

solved

it

that

the

faculties

for the

and
support
inward
essence

into the

it is

into

run

impossible
of

nature

absurdities
it should

infinite

not

and

his

quiry.
in-

are

constitution

and

finite when
to

be

contradictions,

it

wondered
out

treats
at

which

of

extricate

it being of the
itself,
is
comprehended
by that which

ever

be

to

of

few, and
pleasure of life,

have

we

being
things. Besides the mind of man
things which
partake of infinity,it is not

if it

of

by making
wholly got rid of ;

matter

was

being an inference.
knowledge is the first object

nature

penetrate

perception

of

excuse

of human

nature
"

Thus

one.

subtle

finite."
This

is

plainlyenough launched
Bishop has no such disposition
He
the

fault

use

we

suspects

originallyin

make

of them."

that
our

"

we

to

may

sit down
be

faculties,and
He

Locke;

at

"

believes

too
not

that

but

the

worthy
in quiet ignorance."
partial in placing
in the wrong
is too
bountiful

rather
God

he
within
placed knowledge
our
reach, of which
here
lesson
desire.
the
man
was
given us the
Forgetting
where
the
Tree
in
of
Paradise,
Knowledge
placed
taught
was
within his reach, but the fruits thereof forbidden
him.
Upon
the whole," continues
I
inclined
that
think
to
Berkeley,
am
the
far greater part, if not
have
all, the difficulties which
hitherto
amused
the
blocked
to
philosophers and
way
up
themselves.
That
have
to
knowledge, are entirelyowing
we
first raised a dust, and
then
see."
complain we cannot
The
all philosophy is founded
which
is here
pretension on
doctrine
The
of Locke's
openly proclaimed.
consequences
rejected ; the premises are retained.
Berkeley's account
are
is the same
of the origin of knowledge
Locke's, only someas
not

to

have

has

**

"

IDEALISM.

494

what

defined.
explicitly

more

It is evident

*'

to

idio

one

any

of the

objects of human
knowledge that they are
the senses,
else sudi
either ideas
as
or
actually imprinted on
perceived by attending to the passions and operations of
are
mind
and
formed
the
by help of memory
; or, lastly,ideas
imagination, either compounding,
dividing,or barely representing
those originally
perceived in the aforesaid ways."
that the objectsof knowledge
said to be
Remark,
are
firstly,
This
ideas.
has
to
a
paradoxical air to those unaccustomed
metaphysics, yet it is the simple expression of the iacts of consciousness.
takes

survey

AH
its ideas

in

minds.

our

mind

the

are

we

is the fact

Such

attributed

be

to

are

things

any
to

"

^whether

take

ideas

these

external

any

that

changes

Whether

is obviously

about

conversant

of

conscious

of
copiesor representairves
state

be

can

place
in

changes

cause

the

are

this is

our

tion
ques-

makes
a
philosophy
question which common
sense
no
You
before
a
flower, and
scruple of begging.
see
you
you
that
external
an
assume
thing resembling that flower exists,and
that
is produced by it,as an object produces a
your sensation
of

"

reflection

of

dive

But

itself in

deeper

will find that

you

mirror.

This

into consciousness
the

comparison

of

is the

ordinary opinion.
interrogate yourself,and
mirror

the

is

an

tion
assump-

consciousness, not given

explain the
the
Moreover, granting
assumption, you will
then
make
the mind
with its ideas only;
immediately conversant
that objects reflect themselves
for assuming
in the. mirror, tiie
mirror
itself knows
reflections : these
it knows
only the
immediately; the object it knows
mediately i"., through the
is Berkeley keeping rigorously to the facts
reflections.
Thus
when
he says that the
of consciousness
objects of knowledge
made

only

facts of

to

facts.

in those

''

ideas.''

are

Secondly, remark
stands
this

both

Berkeley's use

sensation

for

confusion

on

of

and

language

of his doctrines.
reader

idea.
the

as

of the word
We
cause

It is well

''That

to

consequences
neither
our

of

no

therefore

regard

little misapprehensi
to

warn

the

"

thoughts,

formed

nor

passions,

by our
imagination, exist without
everybody will allow ; and to me it is no
blended

but

cannot

thereof.

Now

various

idea, which

sensations
or

combined

or

ideas

the
less

nor

the

mind, is

evident

than

ideas
what

the

imprinted on the sense, however

together {that isy whatever
objects they

IDEALISM.

495

exist otherwise

cannot
coniposi)^

in

than

mind

perceiving

I write

it and
on, I say, exists,ue,y I see
of my
it existed ;
feel it,and if I were
out
study I should
say
in my
study I might perceive it,
meaning thereby that if I was
The

them.

table

spiritactuallydoes perceive it. As to what

existence
the
is said about
of unthinking things, without
any
telligible.
uninrelation to their being perceived, that is to me
perfectly
is percipi; nor
Their
is it possible they should
esse
have any existence
out of the minds
or
thinking things which
perceive them;"
that

or

other

some

It is in this last

He

paragraph

had

identified

objects with

to

that

objects could

prove
in which

easy
mind

exist

to

the

that

ideas:

his system

of

having

done

exist without

not

ideas.

as

kernel

For

*'

what

are

lies.

so, it

was

perceiving
the objects

Realism
perceive by sense?"
**
what
And
assents
we
what^ I pray
perceive.
objects are
:
own
Berkeley, do we
perceive besides our
you," continues
Realism
is posed : certainlythe mirror
ideas or sensations
?
has nothing immediately present to it,besides
the reflections.
but

things

the

which

we

"

"

"And

is

Idealism,

it

not

plainly repugnant,"
any

dilemma

offer.

It is in

escape.
The

supposition of

**

For

of

abstract

so

the

as

to

colours, heat

things we

be

ideas
a

see

them

feel

notions, ideas, or

"

^what

wages
than

no

the

on

war).
to

tinguish
dis-

their

being perceived,
?
existingunperceived
Light
objects from

are

impressions

figures ^in a word,

and

"

they
on

but

the

so
sense

many
; and

tions,
sensa-

is

it

thought, any of these from perception ?

For
itself.
I
part, I might as easily divide a thing from
my
divide in my
indeed
thoughts,.or conceive apart from each
may
other those things which
perceived by sense
perhaps I never
so
divided.
trunk
I imagine the
Thus
out
withof the human
body
the smell of a rose
the limbs, or conceive
without
thinking
itself. So far I will not
of the rose
deny that I can abstract,if
that may
which
extends
properly be called abstraction
only to
the
conceiving separately such objects as it is possible may
really exist,or be actually perceived asunder
con; but
my

possible to separate^ even

in

Berkeley

of abstraction

cold, extension

and

to

apparently

is founded

of matter

strain

of sensible

is

there

(againstwhich

nicer

conceive

and

which

from

the existence

existence

the

and

there

can

of

of these

one

"

them, should

doctrine

continues

triumphantly

ideas, or any combination

exist unperceived ?
JleaHsm has no answer

that

"

IDEALISM.

496

ceiving or imagining power

of real existence

for

to

me

thing,so

any

sensible

the

truth, the

In

thing,and

same

beyond the possibility

or

perception of it.

or

extend

not

perception. Hence, as it is impossible

actual
sensation
feel anything without
of
or
an
it is impossible for me
in my thoughts
to conceive
the
from
sensation
thing or object distinct

see

that

does

cannot

therefore

be

of heaven

and

sensation

the

and

object

abstracted

are

from

one

another.
....

"

In

all those
"

^have

word,

all the

bodies

which

not

choir

mighty

the
compose
without
subsistence

any

of

other

any

existence

all,

at

spirit
"Though

subsist

else

or

indeed

in

their

long

so

exist

spirit,they

created

as

in

mind

earth

is to

esse

"

world

the

be

they are not

mind, or
my

either

must

the

of

of

frame

mind

perceived or known, and consequently,

do
not
or
actually perceived by me,
that

furniture

of

have

no

eternal

some

to.be nothing
objects of sense
else but ideas which
exist
cannot
not
unperceived, yet we
may
conclude
while
have
hence
existence
they
they
no
except only
since
there
other
be
spiritthat
are
perceived by us,
some
may
bodies
said
Whenever
are
perceives them, though we do not.
have

to

to

existence

no

this

mean

It does

soeifer.

and

created

am

moment,

to

it

/ would

mind,

follow
exist

or

of

bodies

that
not

what-

annihilated

are

the

vals
inter-

if you

can

during

them

this issue

put the whole

possible for

all

at

stood
be under-

not

-all minds

but

particular mind,

perception

content

conceive

but

that

the

therefore

not

our

the

without

or

every

between
"

hold

we

upon
extended

one

moveable

substance,

idea, to
anything like an
exist otherwise
than
in a mind
perceiving it, I shall readily
its existence, though you
give up the cause
j I shall grant you
believe
it exists,or
either give me
cannot
a
reason
why you
I say
exist
the
it is supposed
to
assign any use to it when
in

or

bare

for

any

of
possibility

your

general

argument

that

it is

idea, or

one

opinion being

true, shall

pass

for

an

so.

to
surely there is nothing easier than for me
in
books
and
imagine trees
park, or
nobody by to
a closet,
in
I
them.
is
there
perceive
answer
difficulty
so
no
:
you
may
is all this,I beseech
it.
than
But what
framing in
you, more
**

your

the

them

But,

mind
same

say

you,
in a

certain
time

ideas

omitting

which
to

you

frame

call books
the

idea

and

of any

trees, and
one

at

perceiving

IDEALISM.

498

we

have

to

afiy

gained

point ;

our

it be

whether

one

is invisible

which

intangible?
Realism

"

Idealism

is without

should

have

philosophy, which
such

assert

is like

colour

thing
some-

soft, like something which

or

shadow

of

theory

at

as

is

philosophers

No

wonder

in

not

were

attempt

The

irrefutable

successfully assail

Reid's

Dr.

defended.

so

rate,

any

answer.

an

given up

been

could

position.

; hard

forged, or,

not

were

to

sense

not, I api)eal

they are

say

(Sect.8.)

powerless against

are

if you

but

shall

we

; the weapons

the

of

armoury

fortress

that

built

examine

on

by and

bye.
far

facts of consciousness

reach, the analysis given

of
The
next
by Berkeley is unimpeachable.
question is one
it is a more
inference.
We
to settle whether
mere
plausible
are
hypothesis that ideas are
proximately produced in us by the
Will
of the Creator, whose
will is effectuated
mere
by certain
laws ; or whether
ideas are
the
proximately produced in us t)y
external
This
objects, which exist quite independently of us.
question, remember, is one which admits of no proof. It is not
of plausibility. It is not
to be decided
a question of fact, but
Our
by common
kfwwledge
sense, but by analogicalreasoning.
extends
farther than our
be nothing
ideas.
Our inferencescan
no
As

the

as

inferences.

than

more

Berkeley

has

far better

critics

imagine.

which

made

could

Matter

sensations

not

that

do

we

the

often

phrenzies, If, therefore,matter

if ideas can
production of ideas
"

the
which
done

of external

presence

alone

forms

with.
away
But
though,"

the

his

than

of the

That

argument
mdd

we

his

have

of objects is manifest
presence
have
them
and
so, in dreams
is not always neqessary
for the
sometimes

be

objects

"

for

argument

inference

force

the

see

postulate.

necessary

ideas without

and

the fact

from

He

for

reasons

the
the

out
produced withpretended necessity,

existence

of

matter, is

all our
might possibly have
sensations
without
bodies, yet perhaps it may be thought easier
of their production by
to conceive
and
explain the manner
**

supposing
and
as

be

bodies

external
so

it

that

said, for

he

"

bodies

might
excite

we

says,

at

least

ideas

though we
bodies, they, by their
ideas
knowing how
our

in

in

their
be
our

likeness

rather

probable there
minds.

But

are

than

things

such

neither

wise,
other-

can

this

their external
give the Materialists
the
nearer
never
confession, are
own
themare
produced, since they own

IDEALISM.

selves

unable

here

have

We

it is possibleit should

how

or
spirit^

maintain

who

in what

comprehend

to

499

existence

of

matter,

upon

mind."

Dualists

the

spiritand

act

can

in the

idea

imprint an

difficultystated, which

the

the

body

manner

(those
distinct

as

sufficiently^ive to ; and one which

rise to Leibnitz's
theory of pre-establishedharmony, and
gave
This
Malebranche's
to
theory of our seeing all things in God.
insuperable. It is all very easy to talk of
difficultyis indeed
in which
mirror
reflects itself.
the spiritbemg
the universe
a
such
instant
to
matter
as
Try for an
imagine a substance
itself in, or acting upon,
substance
another
having no
reflecting
substances)

have

not

property

in

common

one

been

with

it.

You

substances

cannot
even
imagine two
you
defined
and spiritare
to be.
matter

all

Dualism.

remain

with

the

God.

had

He

alone

the

one

no

laws

on

this of

matter

which

the

of

laws

creating

should

as

laws

into

come

they

of it.

in

were

us

them

light on it.
in conformity
ordained

is

"

simple and

and
effect.

by

cause

operate

more

the

subject

occasional

nature

is

no

as

and

The

been

have
mere

of

accord

throws

laws
is the

Realism

to

use

no

is this

distinct

so

over

were

produced

are

Creator

the

they act upon us

superfluous aid

"

gratuidirect.

also

matter,

through

He

created

the laws

destined

out
with-

act, and

to

is a mere
of matter, which
go-between.
bit of inference
scientific
hypothesis no
as
a

Now, as a
thoroughly

data

that

he

matter

These

of

agency
need

these

which

ideas

Nature.

of

through

The

tous.

before

as

our

suppose

vehicle

the

that

laws

To

dark

as

maintains

He

triumphing

Eight in saying that if

of matter, they could make

existence
would

right in

is

then

Berkeley

Nor

cannot.

which

"

acquainted
it

Berkeley

"

with

the

question,

and

with

the

think, deny that

founded, can, we
degrees superior to the hypoth"is of

was

is many

Dualism.
While

philosophers

teach

that there

are

distinct

two

eternal

Spiritand Matter, Berkeley teaches

substances, which they name
that
this one
there is only (7//^ substance, viz..Spirit. With
substance
he can
the world.
construct
According therefore to
the

fundamental

rule in

philosophy,that ' Entities or existences

sunt
not
to be multipliedunless upon
are
necessity {eniia nan
of a second
multipltcanda prceter necessitatem\the introduction
'

substance, viz.,matter, is superfluous, or

the

existence

proof.

of

Of

or
spirit,

the

thinking substance,

existence

of

matter

Moreover,

worse.

we

we

gable
irrefra-

have
have

of

no

proof

IDEALISM.

5o6

inference; it is inferred in order

to
I explain the phenomena
and
what
? those of perphenomena
of the thinking substance.
ception i.e.,the phenomena
If then Berkeley is more
rigorous in his analysis of facts,and
Caore
gonists
ingenious and plausiblein his hypothesis than his antawhatever:

it

is

mere

"

"

'

shall

suppose,
and

true

said of it that it admitted

conviction.

objects
or

annihilated
Reid

in

that

belief.

is irresistible

by the

he

be

well-known

the earth

to exist if all minds

continue

would

was

rightin

He

was

never

standing by
egregiously wrong,

however,
appeal to this

an

that

follow

not

was

in

belief

Thus

philosophy.

the belief

"

that

the

which

sun

a metaphysical
Berkeley
by rigorous demonstration, proved the belief

of matter

to

He

give.

irresistible and

of mankind

in the

Reid

false ?
I side with

"

round

false.

Why
Copernicus, who,

been

be

the

take

to

"

revolved

and
irresistible,

centuries

for many

have

existence

viction.
con-

this universal

This

facts

not

may

produce

can

Berkeley by

does

true.

strikingexample

most

is that

maxim, so loudly proclaimed

is refuted
and
school,* is altogether trivial,
by

must

Scotch

several

mankind

of

it.

of

"

answered
It

produced

refutation

no

belief

Berkeley's theory

"

therefore

supposing

irresistible

with

met

but

answer,

no

perception of them,
our
upon
other mind, for their existence

any

se, and

irresistible belief.

and

satisfactory

either

perception of

the

of

irresistible

dependent

objects exist /^

were

have

we

the

as

not

are

upon

that

And

inasmuch

Yet,

his Idealism

pronounce

Hume
no

we

has

no

the

vulgar;"
but he might have given the same
to Copernicus.
answer
Many
illustrious men
them) ridiculed the Copeniicaii
(Bacon among
but
all
in
the dogmatism, ridicule,and common
theoi^ ;
sense
the world
affect that theory.
could not
Why, we
repeat, may
have
been
not
Berkeley
a
metaphysical Copernicus ?
to

answer

To

Especially by

non-existence

the
of

no

Hume
scope

was,

who

Brown,
external

to

*^

still remain

would

more

an

must

not, you

was

appeal

to

his 'Kritik,'

the

Dr.
of

say,

that

says

world,

as

existence
so

as

Is the

of
the

admitting
shame

a
an

external

fact

belief

the

of

belief!

Idealism
to

philosophy

world

belief

on

had

well-grounded

the

never

be
and

the

that
was

as

for
sceptical argument
play of reasoning, admits
belief

the

irresistible

irresistible

dangerous
reason

reasoning

"

"nd

truly observeSi

Kant
to

his

prove

mere

is
reply." The
only reply he makes
had
that the belief
already admitted
of his philosophy was
it both
to prove

absurd, then,
to

he

that

prove

merely

can

to

be

as

is irresistible.
;

whole

false.
in the
it

forced

of
Tmere) evidence
oeen
questioned.

the

reallyis,it
to

bdief/'
The

How

Preface

ground
The

question

IDEALISM.

defective ;

to

not

that

your

irresistible belief

the

if his
he

in

it ; but singularly
wrong
refutation.

of

not

strong,

which

All

very

it.

opposes

proof, was in the right

come
strong enough to over-

supposing

that the

presumption

again and again that Berkeley is irrefutable,

We
should
be admitted.
knowledge
say that

of

irrefutable,if the pretensionsof philosophy

was

lies,

error

belief.

said

been

theory

as

his

your

of that

truth

against
Reid, in accepting this presumption
so
long as Berkeley's reasoning was

It has

with

is worth, is that

strong, presumption

was

wherein

show
this,you must
his fheory is at variance

prove

wherein

and

501

admitted.

be

will concede
him
his
theory : we
of the originof knowledge.
The
account
to us
error
appears
It lies in the assumption
that human
ledge
knowto lie elsewhere.
be
than the knowledge
of the changes
can
anything more
in
within
lies
It
excited
the assumpus
by objects without us.
tion
do

We

not

quarrel with

is true

that whatever

being,

that

of the

modifications

of

the

sentient

of those
tions.
modificaequally true of the causes
It lies in the
assumption that the subjective fact is
the same
the whole
of
time, the objective fact,and

must

also, at

his

be

fact.

have
to
assumption we
seen
without
made
by philosophy,
assumption
This

ready apprehension

of

the

have

the

which
with

arguments

assupaption will

this

combated

various

the

impossible ; and

be

philosophy
which

prepared

following

brief

fundamental

the

we

for

way

of

exposure

is

have
a

the

:
fallacy of Idealism
Berkeley's main positionis,that the odjectsof knowledge are
ideas
and
nothing but ideas.
The
The
conclusion
fore
thereposition is incontrovertible.
human
all
the
:
knowledge can
knowledge of idects,
only he
Not
and of nothing but ideas^is equally incontestable.
less so
the second
conclusion
with
ideas, and
: objectsbeing identified
we
/laving no idea of an objectbut as it is perceived,the esse
of
objectsto us is percipi.
do
admit?
In
admitting all this, what
we
Simply that
human
the
is not
all
"measure
of
knowledge
things.*'
than
be more
never
Objects to us can
ideas; but are we the
"

final

sophist
be
know

the

that

all

of

measure

is the

Man

dogma
objects as

existence?

of

the

measure

sober

ideas, is it

It

was

the

dogma

of

things.

It should

thinker.

Because

we

proper

conclusion

of

all

can

that

the
not

only
objects

IDEALISM.

50S

exist

only

ideas?

as

For

condnsion

this

rigorous^we

be

to

proof of our
knowledge being the absolute
of
of truth; it being really only the
standard
the
standard
intellect.
relation things bear to our
Idealist will say,
If you
The
know
cannot
anything beyond
have

must

some

'*

do

infer that there

is
you
will moreover
He
easilyanswered.

ideas, why

your

question not

conceive

to

you

in

the

percipient

The

; for

cannot

ideal

from

away
ideas

*'

of

perceiving mind,

your

what

mind, which
transport to
you
not?
In fact,to separate existence
from
are
you
synthesis, and
radically impossible. It is God's
we

under

nature

which

We

them.t
has

been

not

not

of

act

very

"

the

the

to

of

laws

things.
Perception

never,

nature,

come

into
"

we

of

ceive
per-

which
in the

because

is it

But

play.

con^

laws

anything

our

say,
the laws

the

conceive

cannot

of my
nature," and
according to
conceive
things otherwise, consequently they

otherwise?"

is

knowledge

can

which

in

forms

conceive

therefore

cannot

than

I cannot

exist

cannot

objects with

subject

very
things otherwise
say,

We

it.

ideas, we

our

our

as

object apart from

forced
are
by the

an

conception those laws

different
proposition to

to

know

we

invest

to

that, inasmuch

it is very
true
is identical with

answer,

knowledge of objects
by any freak of thought, imagine
our

cannot

man
'

this

ditions

exist

perception is

if*

To

an

they but the veiy

place where
some

are

oiyour

undo

to

You

imagining it,you include

mountains
imagine to
you

and

trees

Attempt

of

act

very

defy

is absent

mind

when

matter

^A

"

say,

anything existing nnperceiyed.

existence

imagine the

anything?"

absolute,

Idealist

The

relative

not

"

that

here

is the

man

that

assumes
measure

of all

See

before

t
and

argued

in

masterly

the

by

maimer

sense

critic in

of

the

Blackwood,'

quoted.
When

in

conviction

external

which

the

things, although

common

these

the

conditions

the object and

between

them.

of

the

knowledge

; because

representation it

is

has

mankind

of die
reality
only through the
der
Philos.
Natur.
Einleitnug/
"Ed.
is
Rev.,' Oct. 1830.) This
of
is
knowledge
our
subject
things
of

sense

known

become

einer
zu
representations.'* (*Ideen
Sir
W.
by
xix.,
Hamilton,
quoted
p.
mdisputable, but it is only saying that
to

metaphysical

identity(in the

perception," says Schelling, "I represent an object,

object
And
the
and
bility
inarepresentation are
one
same.
simply in this oar
discriminate
the
the
the
to
representation daring
object from
act,

"

lies the
of

this

is the

no

we

to

caanot

proof

that

it

discriminate
there

is

no

between
distinction

IDEALISM.

word)

of the

united

forces ;

The

as
never

can

ego

which

it

never

can

unite

indissolublybound

with

change

the

not

have

illustration

above

also

be

this

that
which

from
of

exist

not

the

So, although

forces.

otherwise

mind

under

this is

beings

no

in

than
of

sort

proof

the

quite different

under

identityof the

that it does

cannot

we

knowledge, merely on
an3rthingexisting,we
with

the

laws

admit

We

But
true

ground
forced

all our

ideas.
is limited

existence
that

when

it in accordance

conceive

to

our

conceive

would

we

to

faculties.

conceptive
the Idealists,that

do

other

to

Idealists, that

the

all

our

with
we

are

to

not

admit

all

our

that what

is subjective.

knowledge

is true

subjectivelyis

objectively.
believe

We

of

obvious
which

of

that

the

other

(perception);

two

exist in relation

not

admit, with
condusion, we
knowledge of objects consists in our
But

the

to

in relation

conditions.

In

admit

own

exist

cannot

non-ego

in both

excuse

relations

x"ther

some

of

illustration,
then, that although
(in the above case)
proof that hydrogen

one's

it be

it^
We

existence

Our

Ego.
framing

so

licence.

great

the

state

own

unlike

it.

caused

used

its

state,

We
only used as such.
say
the hydrogen can
only exist to the oxygen
in the identity of both, as water
; this is no
does

i".,

unlike

very

have

we

right

the

be

must

provided

It

changes.

bttt to water

question respecting the

the

begged

(hydrogen) apart

non*ego
instances

th^

because
it could
the
only know
oxygen;
it
the
its consciousness
would
find
namec}
state

hydrogen. In
would
water
(perception),which
(the ego) ; and it would
suppose
a
representationof that
was
own,
the

merging

suppose

us

its

of

hydrogen,

to

oxygen

and

hydrogen

In

Let

quid.

consciousness

; as

up

water, without

form

hydrogen to
the hydrogen in a terHum

attribute

would

"

with

endowed

oxygen

the

is not

(the ego)

itself and

to

^the ieHium
quid of two
non-ego
is the identityof oxygen
and hydrogen.
water
of the
have
in
knowledge
any
non-ego,
and

ego

503

in the
any

and

existence

percipient;

universal

Idealism

would

of

an

external

only

not

belief,but

because

because

it

world

the

pendent
quite indesuch

is

arguments

the

by

vitiated

by the assumption
of knowledge
being a criterion of all existences, whereas
class of beings.
let us
it is only the modification of one
For
understand
the precise nature
of the question. Idealism
agrees
with

Realism

in

controvert

placing reliance

on

are

the

evidence

of

sense

; it

IDEALISM.

504

have

ideas,we

rightto

no

it also is forced
this

that inasmuch

however,

argues,

to

assumption.

something

The

the

as

real

the

of

Creator

point Which assumption is more

beli^l the assumption of an
of them ;
sensations,yet the cause

on

unlike

tion

our

of

providentialscheme

eflfects of the

the

operationof

plays no part? The

assumption, as more
accepted.
Had

in which

matter

the assump*
sensations
are

or

our

laws, in which

with

consonant

mind

external

be dubious.

cannot

answer

psychologistsso

not

divine

matter

The

former

belief,must

our

unreasonably

an

with

consonant

"

irresistible

our

of ideas

cause

this is
; and
dispute,therefore,should be concentrated

Will

the

this

our

assume

assume

it calls

cause

knowledge is confined to
anything beyond ideas. Yet

as

assumed

be

that

the

seen
v"pc^sive^they would
that the mind
and of Ontology long ago.
Once
understand
the psychical (consequentlyrela*
is active in sensation,and
all knowledge
of
all sensation
and
becomes
tive) nature

have

the fallacies of Idealism

clear.

believe,failed

Berkeley,we
because

belief

assumption

the

it opposed.

opposed
started

Copernicus not

Had

metaphysicalCopernicus

he

the

to

with that belief than

less consonant

was

as

which

universal

the

assumption
hypothesiswhich,

an

contradictory to the senses, nevertheless afforded a

than was
better explanation of celestial phenomena
much
sible
poshave
been
the old hypothesis,he would
listened to.
not
on
Berkele/s assumption, if conceded, carries him no deeper than
the old assumption. Idealism
explains nothing. To accept
universal belief for a mere
be to renounce
it would
an
hyis not
and an hypothesiswhich
its conjustified
b
y
pothesis
j
however

"

f
'

But
that he
sequences.
conceded
be
must
readily
of all times

because
Those
attention

to

; and

its moral

(so

to

the

one

or

being

what

one,
you

practically.You

and

that

will,the
may

one

was

was

result

have

of
not

the

but

Berkeley'sIdealism
Spinoza, who taught that there
Substance.
universe,and that was
but

thinker

the greatest philosophers

he was
weak, but

as

course

of

was

remarkable

because

speak)will

is at bottom

there

and

impossible.

followed

have

deep

he failed

not
failed,

have

philosophywas
who

was

this

much

but

History with

fail to observe

one

decried
essence

how

system
in the

Berkeley also taught that

call this
Now
Thought.
is the same
: speculatively

certain

degrading associations

jfiii^WfOt%
THE

ARGUMENTS

OF

WEALMSM

CARJd/ED

OUT

INTO

SCEPTICISM.

CHAPTER
LIFB

Hume

David
been
we

"

admired
say

may
a

copy

has

written

OF

HUMS.

autobiography, which has always

simplicityand modesty. As every library

for its
every
of the

I.

an

which

house
'

History

of

contains

England,'

this

autobiography, we need not

than a few dates.
anything more
born
He
at Edinburgh,
was
went

to

France, where

Nature,' which

he

appeared

occupy
26th

In

scanty

his

'

11.

Treatise

all

at

"

is

space
In

sesses
pos-

prefixed
with

1734

secretary, in his

he

Human

on

It fell still-bom
from
1737.
the first part of his Essays.

appeared
1742
accompanied General St. Clair,as
press.

our

which

to

April, 17

composed
in

books

embassy

the
He
to

In 1752
he published his
Political
Turin, 1747.
Discourses,' and his 'Inquiry concerning the Principles of
Morals.'
He
cates.
was
appointed LiBrarian to the Faculty of Advocommand
The
of this librarysuggested to him
the
undertaking which has long been held his greatest title to fame
He
died in 1776.
the History of England.

and

Vienna

'

"

CHAPTER
HUM"*S
The
been

aided

as

much

SCEPTICISM.

have never
subtlety of Hume
his infiuence
and
speculation has been
upon
by the alarm his doctrines excited, as by the

marvellous
denied;

II.

acuteness

and

SCEPTICISM.

HUME'S

which

ingenuity with

could

refuters, Hume

no

they

S07

If

upheld.

were

with

meet

none.

Berkeley met
Antagonists

with
have

answerable.
uncompelled to admit that the sceptical reasoning was
it
would
have
been
modest
have
to
more
Perhaps
in
them.
At
dilemma
unanswerable
the
said it was
by
any rate,
Hume
has
which
which
one
placed philosophy was
great

been

interest

for

us.

shown

had

Locke

that

all

our

we

had

knowledge

dependent

was

experience.

upon

Berkeley had

that

shown

experience of

no

perception ; nor
we
independent
He
pronounced matter, therefore,to
experience.
could

of

world

took

line where

the

external

an

have
be

had

any
a

such

figment
flung

it,and

cast
Berkeley
fathom
the
to
deep sea, endeavouring
once
more
mysteries of being. Probing deeper in the direction Berkeley
that not
Matter
had
taken, he found
a figment, but
only was
If the
less so.
Mind
occult
substratum, which
no
men
was
material
be
inferred
could
had
to explain
denied,
phenomena,
said
founded
because
not
niust
Hume,
experience ; so also,
on
which
substratum
occult
have
inferred
men
(mind)
we
deny the
have
mental
that
All
to explain
we
ence
experiphenomena.
any
of
The
ideas.
is
and
substance
impressions
of which
of,
is a naere
these
ference
insupposed to be impressions,is occult
are
in which
these impressions are supposed
; the substance
is a mere
inference.
is but
Matter
to be, is equally occult
a
is but
collection
of Impressions.
succession
Mind
pression
imof
a

Hume

up

into

it

the

"

"

and

ideas.*

converted
into
Berkeley's dogmatic Idealism
of the
Most
speaking of Berkeley, says,
Scepticism. Hume,
the
best
writings of that very
ingenious philosopher form
either
of scepticism which
lessons
found
to be
the
are
among
modern
He
ancient
philosophers, Bayle not excepted.
or
fesses,
proin
his
with
title-page
however,
(and undoubtedly
great
his
book
the
against
truth),to have composed
Sceptics as well
Atheists
the
and
Free-thinkers.
But
that all his
against
as
in realitymerely
intended, are
though otherwise
arguments,
firom
and
this,that they admit of no answer
sceptical appears
conviction."
produce no
Thus

was

**

had

Locke
We

alreadyshown

that

mind

in

know

fer sezsz.
m
philosophy.

He

only
Hume's

stibstratum,

only

concluded

we

its

ignorant of spirit as
cannot
manifestation; we
are

argument
from

as

therefore
admitted

had

firm

premises.

of

stance.
sub-

know

foundation

it

HUME'S

5o8

Humie's scepticism, though it reduces philosophy

singular dilemma, viz.,that, of either refuting the sceptical
that

Remark
to

SCEPTICISJ^

arguments,

or

declaring itself

of

its

and

affects in

nevertheless

pretensions

to

be

vain

ordinary
ridicule
and
stupid
judgments
frivolous objection have
to
been, and
probably will continue
Reid, from whom
one
might have
be, brought against Hume.
pretending to
expected something better, is surprised at Hume's
baseless,

and

actions

or

construct

whole

the

science

in the

It

in

existence

when

the

be

perhaps

may

author

that of his reader

nor

"

is neither

there

an

the

way

Much

nature,

that

world.

of this conduct

complain
own

human

is to show

work

science

nor

of mankind.

upon

other

no

human

; and

believes

therefore

o"^

nature

unreasonable

neither

who

intention

could

to

his
not

not
disappoint him or laugh at his credulity. Yet I canthe
Human
that
of
Treatise
author
the
on
imagine
He
is so sceptical as to plead this apology.
Nature
believed,
be
that he
read, and
against his principles,that he should
till he reaped the honour
retain
his personal identity,
should
He
his metaphysical acumen."
and reputation justly due
to
in
the
continues
further in this strain,dragging
vulgar error
about
Pyrrho having inconsistently been roused to anger by his
his dinner
who
his mind,"
to
cook,
probably had not roasted
**
and
and
this forgetfulness to Hume's
now
every
compares
then
relapsing into the faith of the vulgar."*
banter ; if for
for banter, it is very
If this was
meant
poor
it is pitiable. But as such arguments
have appeared
argument,
of Reid*s
valid to a thinker
to supreputation, it is reasonable
pose

to

mean

'

"

inferior

that

shall

Hume

Nature
"

therefore,

speak in

shall

to

Should

men

the

which
it be

be

allowed

language
Reid

of

alludes
asked

here

which
this argument
I seem
I be really One
and whether

receive

also

may

me

to

that

them
for

speak
*

very

as

conclusive.

himself;

Treatise

on

and

he

Human

"

whether

sincerelyassent

to

pains to inculcate,
hold that all
sceptics who
in
that
is uncertain, and
is not
thing
our
judgment
any
of truth
and
possessed of any measures
falsehood, I should
reply that this question is entirelysuperfluous, and that neither
I nor
was
ever
sincerely and
constantly of
person
any. other
and
that
absolute
uncontrollable
Nature, by an
opinion.
and
well as to breathe
to judge as
us
necessity,has determined
forbear
certain
feel ; nor
viewing
can
we
more
objects in a
any
"

"

to

take

such

of those

Inquiry/ Intro,

i, " 5,

tiUME*B

stronger and

fuller light upon

with

bodies

long

as

when

this total
and

"

of that
of the

truth

fantastic

belief is

that

sect, is

only

to

of my
hypothesis, that
and
dierived
effects are

causes

and

displaying

intention, then, in

My

all

broad

make

antagonist,
faculty which

and

rendered

from
of

ing
concern-

custom

sensitive

the

ments
argu-

sensible

reasonings
nothing but

our

avoidable.
un-

the

reader

the

of

an

carefully

so

shine.
sun-

cavils

the

the mind

ing
surround-

in

them

nexion
con-

ourselves

the

seeing

or

establish

to

arguments

antecedentlyimplanted in

has

hinder

can

we

pains to' refute

really disputed without

scepticism, has
by

their customary

towards

eyes
the

taken

has

endeavoured

nature

our

than

awake,"

are

we

turn

we

Whoever

as

^b^
of

account

impression,

present

thinking

from

SCEPTICISM,

of

than

properly
If belief were
simple
a
cogitative part of our natures.
of conception,
of the thought without
act
peculiar manner
any
the addition
of force and
vivacity,it must
destroy
or
infallibly
in every
in a total suspense
and
terminate
of judgitself,
ment.
case
that
convince
But
experience will sufficiently
as
any one
in ray
tinues
although he finds no
error
yet he still conarguments,
think
and
and
to believe
as usual, he
safely
reason
may
his reasoning and
conclude
that
belief
sensation
is some
or
of conception, which
'tis impossible for mere
peculiar manner
more

act

an

the

...

ideas

reflections

and

destroy."*

to

It has

always struck us, as an

of candour
displayed by Hume's
quoted this very significantand
Let

us

not

to

the

existence

boasted

of

matter

Dr.

not

"irresistible

is

the

reason
"

for the
Thus

continues
cannot

cannot

concede

as

our

we

only refuge

belief in the
Does

all that

to, if

as

Dr.

not

play
requires?

mere

Hume

thrown

are

upon

against scepticism,

explicitdeclaration
help believing,though we
Hume's

that
can

do

we

give

no

belief?

the

adds
a
sceptic," Hume
and
to
believe, even
reason
defend
his reason
by reason
*

want

great

they never
indeed, we
by any one.

our

scepticalargument,

conclusion, that

Brown's

with

view," that

instinctive,fundamental

that

belief"

equally accord
believe, and

that

opponents,

sense

reasoning, is unanswerable,

Does

he

"common

admission

Brown's
of

what

ask

the

of

explicit passage
;
the passage
to have
seen
quoted
the
does
amount
foregoing declaration

remember

never

illustration

'Human

little further

though
and
by

he
the

Nature,^part iv.,sect, i.,p. 250.

on,

"still

asserts

that

same

rule

HUME'S

510

he

must

body, though he
to

maintain
has

and

be

to

We

may

of body

veracity.
to

our

what

point

reasonings."
After
this, let

inconsequences.
to

calm

He

Locke

task

us,

ask

to

of

philosophy

take

must

we

be

said

before

him

hopeless

was

given us the means

suffices
certainty which
will be

men

in

for

knowing
all
If

content.

his

the

it

that

all that

was
cerns
con-

With

wants.

our

usual

rance."
quiet igno-

also

knew

seen

attempt

any

in

sit down

or

our

practical

Hume's

had, with

of

in all

granted

mind

; he

body

be

clearly enough

and

to

men

ence
in the exist-

there

for

had

"

speculations.

believe

about

the

of

choice^

great importance
and

whether

has

that, reasonable

of

existence

leftthis to his

to

us

phenomena,

knew
God

not

reasonings

impotence

counselled

trivial.

seek

vain

wisdom,
the

has

induce

more

no

beyond

penetrate

arguments

affair of too

an

causes

which

signalized the

and

it

uncertain

'tis in

9 but
a

any

Nature

esteemed

ask,

is

that

not?

the

doubtless

well

pretend by

cannot

its

trusted

principleconcerning

the

to

assent

SCEPTICISM,

they
speculations deeper,

they seek

more,

impossible ; if they push their

of
the philosophical mission
they end in scepticism. It was
all
Hume
how
inevitably
(to adopt a phrase in vogue) to show
such speculations,if consistent, ended
in scepticism.
**

Men,"

he
to

this blind

"are

says,

carried

by

faith in their

repose

instinct

natural

or

When'

possession
prefollow

they
they always suppose

senses.

powerful instinct of nature,

jects,
obexternal
to be the
thtvery images presented to the senses
and
entertain
never
suspicionthat the one are nothing
any
but representationsof the other.
But
this universaLand
primary
of
all
the
is
slightestphilosophy,
opinion
men
destroyed by
soon
which
teaches
be
that
us
nothing can
ever
present to the mind
but an
image or perception. So far,then, we are necessitated by
brace
reasoning to contradict the primary instincts of nature, and to emof our
with regard to the evidence
senses.
a
new
system
here
But
philosophy finds herself extremely embarrassed, when
she
would
obviate
the cavils and
objections of the sceptics.
She

can

and

no

of nature,

longer plead
for that

led

us

the
to

infallible

quite

and even
acknowledged fallible,
pretended philosophicalsystem

.argument,
the power

or

of all human

even

any

and

different

erroneous

by

chain

appearance

capacity.

irresistible

system,

; and

of

to

instinct
which

is*

justifythis

clear

of argument,

and

vincing
con-

exceeds

HUME'S

"

Do

follow

you

assenting to

the

believe

the

that

SCEPTICISM.

veracityof
\

try

propensitiesof

instinct and

the

the

511

sensible

perception or

these

But

senses

lead

is the

image

in

nature

you to
external

object (Idealism).
"

"

Do

disclaim

you

this

rational

opinion, that
something external

principlein

order

embrace

to

more

perceptions are only representations

natural
here
?
You
depart from your
propensities and more
obvious
sentiments; and yet are not
able to satisfy
which
find any convincing
can
never
your
reason,
from
nected
experience to prove that the perceptionsare conargument
with external objects"
(Scepticism).
of

the

"

This

is the

it there

is

mankind

dilemma

no

which

to

and

escape;

for

"

of Hume.

Let

is reduced

philosophy

Hume

the

deserves

of

out

gratitude of
kind,
pass." Man-

having brought philosophy to this

the whole
As
however, has paid him with execration.
able
of this history has been
course
occupied in tracingthe inevitresult of all philosophy to be precisely this much-abused
scepticism,our readers will be prepared for a different appreciation
of this

nature

endeavour

therefore

us

scepticism,which

has

such

caused

the

define

to

great

alarm.

Scepticism, meaning
being frequentiy used
doubt, and
attached
signifyreligiousdoubt, has alarming associations
it.

sceptic is to call him a heretic.

unfortunately for Hume's
philosophical reputation,he
in
sceptic
religion as well as in philosophy, and mankind
To

call

man

to
to

And,

was

have

consequently identified the former with the latter.

to
as
Now, philosophicalscepticism can
a doubt
only mean
the possibility
of philosophy
^in other words, a doubt
only on
to which
one
particular subject. If I accept the consequences
"

doctrine

the

of Hume

judgment,
only

to

and

to

leads

on

^which

"

^entertain.

can

I must

less than

philosophy
and

which

forced

subjects uncertain

some

clearlytl^ only opinion

am

suspend

to

all subjects uncertain

pronounce

pronounce

questions
Locke, no

me,

Hume,

pretend

be

content

has

told

us

to discuss

What

the

All

am

or

The

is

latter

then

remain

to

my

are

the

in darkness

which

nature

relate

of

?
to

essences

causes.*
This

acknowledge, has nothing

scepticism,the reader must
It is maintained
by
very alarming in it,except to philosophy.
the vast
from
conviction,
majority of thinking men
some
others from a vague
of the futility
of ontologicalspeculasense
"

Comp.

in Series

I., pp. 255-6, our

answer

to the

audent

sceptics^

HUME'S

St2
It is

tion.

only

pretend

could

For, let

SCEPTICISM.

in discussion
passions roused
scepticism with heresy.

bad

the

confound

to

ask, in denying human

us

the

of

nature

the

reason

and

essences

causes

which

of

power

in

"

prehendin
ap-

it

denying

the
deciding upon
impenetrable mysteries of
creation, immortality, ** fate,foreknowledge, freewill absolute
the foundations
of religiousbelief?
does the sceptic shake
Polemics
touch
cautious
he in any way
does
religion?
angrily, but inthe

of

power

"

"

"

that he

declare

what

Upon

itself?

religionbase

does

revelation?

does.

the

do

What

Fathers

or

^upon reason,
^what
teach?
do
"

upon

"

teach ?
The
question is
highest theological authorities
is
that human
they teach
reason
important. Do
the problems of religion?
Do
to solve
they teach
to

reason

look

must

man

and

for

certitude

and

conviction

tinent,
perpetent
com-

that
No

forced

all

the

all

clare,
de-

energeticallydeclare, as they are

is essentially a finite,
limited, erring faculty,
reason
To
conviction.
and
certitude
to
produce
wholly incompetent
they

one

to

that

admit

reason's

other

is

would

competence
that

source

look

must

we

suicidal.

be

for certitude

on

is

It

to

some

points ; it

such

bow.*
higher authority we must
We
fact
of illustration, the
would
merely recall, by way
that
the
during the
stupid deism, so
widely promulgated
last century, was
proudly self-styledthe "Religion of Reason!"
The
philosophicalsceptic,though he may also be a religious
illustrious in
Several
sceptic, is not
necessarily so.
names
the
science will at once
to
occur
reader, as examples of this
scepticism united with fervent religiousardour.
We
harmless
then, accept the Scepticism of Hume
as
may,
beneficial*
It only destroys the
somewhat
as
now
nay,
cates
feeble pretension that
It indimetaphysics can be a science.
the boundaries
of inquiry.
It leads
from
impossible
us
instruct
It
how
to
run.
us
fly,to
securely we
attempts
may
destroys philosophy only to direct all our
energies towards
positive science.
to

some

"

the

In

what
wise

by
*

words
be

cannot

make

our

of

so-called

It would

be

acknowledged
the present

let

demonstrated
miserable

our

"

Gothe,

works

us

Sooner

deficiencies
of

discussion

should

We

force

us.

later

or

demonstrate
shall others

we

glaringto posterity

more

knowledge."

idle to cite authorities

position.

attetnptto

not

be

for this fundamental

ashamed

of

and

alluding

to

universally
it,did

not

THEORY

HUME'S

514

CAUSATION.

OF

infallible

an

of the other.
We
only find that the
consequence
in
fact
other*
The
the
follow
actually
impulse of one

does

one

whole

that

the

to

appears
inward
or

sentiment

motion

with

is attended

billiard-ball

outward

impression

in the

second.

senses.

This

mind

The

this succession

from

instance

is tiie

feels

of

no

objects;

and
single
cause
consequently,
the
which
idea
of
efl'ect,
can
anything
or
suggest
sary
necespower
This
is
the
whole
connexion
of his
(Essays, sect. vii.).
belief in power
theory. His
or
explanation of our
necessaiy
is not, in any

there

of

"

We

jt is

is that

connexion
know

title

The

Scimtifica,
had

Glanvill

whether

not

was

but

from

its continual

employed

What

call

we

remembrance

past

the

like

there
No

one

having
and

to

come

"

treated

by
to

it the

stumbled

effect

have

pass

have

can

can

upon

been

have

in

man

future,
has

it.

would

their efifects.

cause

of another

nothing

followed

by what

his mind

that

same

rather

or

no

clear

followed

as

it from

unworthy

of

a
our

to

whensoever
seen

tion
concepconceptions
future

call past,

accustomed

been

smattering of
any
that
much-debated
To

; but

else but

see

like

he

seeth

before, he

looks

them*''

philosophy

without

question of cause
fundamental
by all who
the

task.

confusions
That

task

of
we

physicians
meta-

will

brief; thinking,with Hume,

in all abstract reasonings there is one
that
point of view which,
if we
can
happily hit,we shall go farther towards illustrating
the subject than by all the eloquence and
copious expression in
the world.
This point of view we
should
endeavour
to reach,
the flowers
of rhetoric for subjects which
and reserve
are
more
adapted to them.*'
attempt.
'*

We

will

be

yet

like consequents,
anything he had

question considered
of

is

*^

have

is not

future

make

after

followed

shall follow

man

for the
we

relatively. Thus,
antecedents

by

of

futute,

the

also

antecedents

what
No

consequents.
of

none

causalityitself is
anticipatedit; and so had

experience,"says Hobbes,

of

of the

of

rate,
^All

language, indeed, of the latter is so similar to

with Dugald Stewart
that we
in
by Hume,
agree
it must
have
his theory :
suggested to Hume

The

believing that
'"

any

the

it ; for

accompanying
had

know

be the

to

ScepHs

theory.

; for we
mediation

the

At

Hume's

anything

Malebranche

Hobbes.

stated

through

conclude

cannot

we

insensible,'"

that

causes

him.

attract

to

one

Glanvill's

read

ever

is deductive

knowledge
simple intuition, but
that

Hume

clearly enough
of

So

of habit.

matter

at

all events

be

HVMB^S

THEORY

OF

CAUSATION.

515

It is not
Hume's
theory sins in two respects.
Imprimis*
a
it
is
correct
of
not
analysis
a
complete expression ofthe/ac/s;
invariable
When
the origin of our
he
that
sion
succesMi^.
says
is all that is given us in our
and consequent
of antecedent
he

experience of causation,
examines

the

whether

you

of

not

You

given

also

hesitate.

cannot

burn

to

power

of power

sense

causation.

the

fire has

every
contradict.
Ask

attentively may

matter

have

that which

asserts

"

yourself

in the

experience
that

believe

You

that

finger

your

who

man

billiard-ball

one

moving another when

impingiag on it that
of producing an explosion in gunpowder.
a
spark has the/^^
This idea of power
given in
(callit what you will)is as'^much
of antecedent
and
your experience as the idea of the succession
is given in it.
Otherwise, day might be called the
consequent,
it invariablyprecedes it. Dr. Brown,
of night,because
cause
with Hume
indeed, and his followers deny this.
They concur
idea of power
in believingour
to resolve itself into mere
priority
the

has

of

power

in the antecedent.

invariableness

and

invariableness
It has

have

been
the

rather

are

"

that

except
power,
We
admit that

image

the

can

of

event

priorityand

idea

our

of power.

no

idea

be

framed

be

can

to

the

power

of

form

"

says,

of power
in
represent the nature
formed

constitute

to

Tliat

the

by another, is

one

sense

believe

/.^.,

"

but
is

event

one

believe

to

of

another."

of power"
of power
idea

should

we

idea

any

infalliblyfollowing

event

one

enough for our argument.

followed
will infalliblybe
has

that

say

into

resolved

cannot," he

said
infallibility

very

be

to

We

opinions we
objected to us by a friend,for whose
that
assertion
our
respecting
highest respect,
very

is incorrect.

power

no

"

that

one

occasioning another.

by idea we understand
stand
underanything like an image; but it is precise enough, if we
The
by the mind.
by it merely a conception formed
of substance,
idea of power
is analogous to the idea of mind
or
but forcible.
in being thus vague
We
indeed, frame an
cannot,
than
frame an
we
can
image of mind;
image of power any more
The

but

we

the

idea

of

have

other.

cannot

power

strong

Because

separate

may

be

conviction
we

it therefrom

know
"

if

vague,

of

the

power
^because

existence

of

one

and

only in its effects,and

we

have

can

no

tion
percep-

causality,it being insensible (touse GlanvilFs

language),
entiled
than
entitled
to
to
it,
no
more
we
are
deny
are
we
its attributes,not
because
we
can
only perceive
deny substance
Mr.
itself. Hume
has this note
the substance
:
Locke, in
of

''

"

his

chapter

there

are

that

them,
But

we

at

never

the

give

us

idea

reasoning at the idea of power.

give us a new, original,simple idea

it

is another

cavil

the

idea.

of power

is useless
fact

to

But

rpmains,
have

burning, we

This, therefore, can

of this objection
assumption that reasoning cannot
have
we
answer
by the fact that we

; whence

that

confesses.

The

of

concluding
producing

this

ever

unwarrantable

new

will ; the
fire

by

of

capable

power

that

experience
and

matter,

idea,"

ongin

the

be

It

last

philosopherhimself

lies in

the

somewhere

reasoning can

no

this

as

must

anive

in

productions

new

be

CAUSATION.

finding from

says, that

Power,

on

several

there

OF

THEORY

HUME'S

5i6

at

comes

word

force

it what

Call

power.

that

when

have

had

the

experience of

the

we

matter.

an

you

experience of
which

power

the

burning is one of ^^ propertiesof fire. Or,

the matter
to state
rigorously,fire,when
more
placed in contact
with paper,
produces a change in that paper ; the capabilityof
the fire is said
producing such a change is called power
; and
that change.
We
to cause
only perceive the change ; but from
that we
infer the power.
Just as we only perceive attributes,
fire has

of

burning

infer substance.

therefrom

but

ordinary belief

The

than

more
a

cannot

perceive

in it.

Hume

mankind

in

antecedence

mere

This

fact.

of

fact

the

insists

and

and

Hume

others

they declare

power,

the

existence

of

consequence,

omit.
that

we

thing
some-

is therefore

Because
have

no

they
belief

the impossibilityof our

good deal upon
of our
connexion
perceiving power
perceiving any necessary
and
his theory of knowledge
between
is contwo
events
as
:
fined
to
copies of those impressions," it
impressions,"and
him
will not
enable
of course
to detect the fallacy because
we
;
of this power.
have
But
no
impression
can
we
say, that
forced to believe
perceive the power,
although we cannot
we
are
a

"

"

"

"

"

in it ; and
this belief is not
a
the very facts of consciousness.

matter

of custom,

but

is

given

in

We

perceive that some

power
work
of this power,
producing effects ; the precise nature
know
indeed, we cannot
perceive, because
we
never
can
things
When
a spark ignitesgunpowder,
we
per se.
perceive a power
in the spark to ignite gunpowder
that power
is,we know
: what
its
know
effects.
But
not
only
ignorance is equally
our
; we
of
it
what
the
is
know
gunpowder :
we
great
not; we only know
its appearances
It might as well be said that we
to us.
believe
in the gunpowder
from
because
know
we
custom,
really
nothing
is at

of it

i"er se.

as

that

we

believe in th^ power

of .the

spark to ignite

'^

HtjME's

from

gunpowder

THEoklr

second

grounded?"

is that belief well

is it grounded?

what

on

being established,

fact

believe in power

explained. Men

nothing of

se.

The

error.

s^I

reallyknow

we

npthing per

know

power /er se.

Now
to Hume's
let it be

because

custom,

We

CaOsAtioj^.

OP

Two
schools at once
The one
present themselves.
declares that the belief has no good grounds ; it is a
If I believe the

(Hume)
of

matter

will rise to-morrow, it is because

in future,
If I believe that fire will bum

custom.

it has

sun

always risen.
it has always burned.

it is because

habit

From

expect the

future will resemble

The

the past : I have no proof of it.

school declares that this belief in causation

other

intuitive conviction

an

that

the future will resemble

This is the language of Reid and Stewart.

have

admit

us

the belief

as

idea

"

is

past."

Dr. Whewell

fundamental

the

"

would

necessary

truth

to all experience.
independent of and superior
Both explanationswe take to be very incompetent. Custom

habit

or

can

belief is
"

When

the

have

nothingwhatever

strong from
uniform
many

as

do with it,because

to

singleinstance

from

as

instances

appear," says Hume,

objectis always followed by the same
event,

same

beginto

entertain

feel

new

the notion

of

and

cause

connexion.

sentiment
is
a

is the

of that idea which

original

manifestlywrong.

instance

One

the
second, suffices to originate

idea.
whenever

one

seek

we

7ve

and
then
then

in the
and

this

fcr." This

billiard-ball moving

without further
sentiment,'*
resembling the
any
is assuming that the general idea precedes the particular

repetition.As
past, that

of

**

We

sentiment,to wit, a customary connexion

between
one
thought
objectand its usual attendant ;
a

our

thousand.

conviction

to

When

the

same

we
causes

that fire will bum,

or

in
simplybelieving

our

help believingin

"

of the future

believe that similar effects will follow

in operation when
believe
are
we
"

that the

sun

will rise

nothing

and
experience,
our

experience;

in this belief the idea of either past

to-morrow

or

that

"

we

We

more.

are
not
can-

is irresistible: but

future has

ever
nothing what-

do ; it does not enter

into the belief. I do not believe
that fire will burn because I believe that the future will resemble
to

the

past, but

simply because my experience of fire is that it

it
has
Take
tion,
a simple illustraburns-ythat the power to bum.
if you will,but illustrative: A child is presented
trivial,
with a bit of sugar : the sugar is white, of a certain shape, and
"

is solid ; his

experience of

the

sugar

is confined

to

these

pro-

OF

THEORY

HUME^S

5i8

: he
perties
puts it in his
experienceis extended ; the

mouth

; it is sweet,

he

sugar

pleasant,as well

and

be sweet

CAUSATION.

wMte

as

and

experienceis not transcended.

Is it
pieceof sugar is given him.
so

"r

any

past^
^

'

him

is sweet.

Not

By

^because

"

independent of experience
"

no

his

forms

sweetness

our

in motion

of the idea

of the

part of his idea

we
may
say of the sun's
idea of the sun.
So of

it is part and

parcel
rising
billiard-ball putting ^a
one
experienceof billiard-balls is that they

So

second

^to

sugar is that lit

of

experienceof

he divest himself

effort could

because

it$sweetness,
sugar.

Very well;

another
days later,

if he puts the sugar in his mouth

ft will
in the least : he believes itis sweet, because

it is sweet

knows

of

Some

(knows) to

betieve that

sweet?

taste

he

idea

fundamental

any

"

make

solid.*^

for him
to
now
necessary
that the future will resemble the

intuitive conviction

^'

have

pleasant: his

believes

now

our

put each other in motion.

has

Custom

primarily
nothingto

experience of fire

only one

combustible

if

"

substance

"

we

should

we

If we

do with belief.
saw

it

only

believe

had

to
applied

once

that

would

it

thing
influence
some
however, secondarily,
in correctingthe tendency to attribute properties
to things.
Thus
friend
who
him
a child sees
a
an
gives
apple. The next
time the friend comes
he is asked for an apple,because the idea
has
of this friend is of a man
who, amongst other properties,
that of giving apples. No
apple is given, and this idea is
when
all our
firmatory
destroyed. Similarly,
experienceof thingsis conhabit
of our first experience,we
that
or
may
say

bum,

because

which

burns.

When

Custom

induces

Custom

be

to

the idea of

certain

to attribute certain eflects to

us

has

subsequent experiencecontradicts

our

wie cease

idea of fire would

our

attribute those efifectsto those

our

causes.

firstexperience,

causes

whidi

we

first

experienced ; and this is only sayingthat our subsequent experience

has destroyed or altered the idea we
formed
at first.
Remark
how
confusion is spread over
this subject by
much
the inconsiderate
say that

to
*

It will

introduction

of the word

child believes that firewill bum

perhaps

strange that

seem

we

it

Belief.
him

should select

It is absurd

if he

puts his

sweetness

as

aa

will
its simplicity.No
one
is as much
effect caused by the sdgar as
an
deny that the taste of sweetness
pain is an effect caused by fire. Bat people are apt to oyerlook that
causation is the operation of the propertiesof one body upoQ the properties
in sugar ; but the motion
of another.
a auality
They would call sweetness
Grif
they Bay is caused by anotner ball.
a billiard-ball

example of

causation.

We

selected

for

HUME'S

fingerin it j

else

one

about

fire,because
of his

will

he

some

talk

"

in

believe

believing that

to

will believe

He

belief is the

it is sweet, when
he
that lire will bum
or
as

it.

knows

he

CAUSATION.

OF

THEORY

he
sweet, when
than
of it otherwise
as

he

it

knows

that he believes himself

say

burned

it has

that

will be

think

when

519

proposition you
to propositions :

assent

sugar

cannot

'

is about

burns^

when

cold

make
but

to

knows

sweet,
proper
imas

is cold.

he

belief could
the
of the word
this improper use
Only from
intuitive
conviction
ideas; or of
an
theory of fundamental
that the futiure will resemble
stood ground for a
the past,"have
If the proposition, fire will burn
moment.
paper," were
put
he
believe
because
he
would
to any
it,
unquestionably
one,
knows
it,i,e. he has no other knowledge of the fire under those
"

"

circumstances.
will

bum

he

he

the

about

effect

nothing

in his
a

of

proposition.
opening

Belief

believable

for
not.

or

in

fire
that

his knowledge.
instance

any

implied proposition

some

really a reliance
in

to

is asserted

upon

upon

belief

"

upon

perience
ex-

more.

existence, as if it were

own

what

is

It

nature.

acts

fire

Although,

act

to

belief
distinguishbetween
propositions. It is follyseriouslyto

It is necessary

belief in

belief in

that

proposition,

said
he

if the

as

argue

were

of

course

be

him

to

four.

in the

lightpaper:

to

attempts

and

cause

make

two

properly

cannot

Metaphysicians
of

and

two

said to believe

be

therefore,
will bum
paper,"

evident

proposition as

that

as

paper
he
may

belief when

is

It

can

act

an

take

never

is inconceivable

doubt, before
But
though a

believes
say a man
similar to his belief in

place where
there

we

existence, and

cannot

man

be

must

call

can

the

contrary

some

sible
pos-

proposition

any

believe

in his

own

it is impossible for him

conceive
to
existence, simply because
that
believe
himself
he
will exist
non-existent, he may
as
is
of
which
is
etemally, because that
a propositionthe converse
conceivable

and

Bearing

maintainable.

this distinction

it is

improper to speak
not
improper to
universalityof causation.

it

is

in

mind,

we

of belief in any
speak of belief
That
the

"

"

may

simple
in

fire burns

that, although

say

the

causation,
uniformity and

act

of

"

paper

law of causation

is

an

is uniform

rience^
expe-

and
belief.
it
is
a
a belief
beliefand not an experience:
grounded
who
This
is
declare
on
denied, indeed, by some
experience.
it
have been
that, as our
universal, could
experience can never
have furnished us with the belief,
never
consequently the belief
not

universal

"

is

That

have

must

when

If

the
to

which

part

set

Kant

of

which

Kant

till

This

doctrine

then

be

is

given

has

anon.

which

theory

it

theologians

speculating
more

som'ce.

arguments

Hume
It

of

CAUSATIOIf.

we

shall

we

the

beg

must

examine
reader

to

judgment

foregoing

defective.
the

of

treat

his

suspend

higher

some

we

OF

THEORY

HUME'S

520

;
on

the

has

admitted,
his
has
also

constituent

name

excited
the

the

theory

must

be

bitter

of

tion
Causa-

pronounced
opposition

honour

of

elements

of

having
knowledge;

on

first

CONDILLAC^S

S2i

to

the

see

call

it,the

The

Sensational

**

which

success

For

known.

it is

as

correct

more

Locke's

met

name

the

century

with

in France
of

countrymen

English Philosopher, little suspecting

would

disclaimed

have

it.

witnessed

or,

In

to

School."

whole

the

extolled

Materialism,

of

growth

SYSTEM.

truth, when

their
you

Locke's

see

Descartes
that
he

could

homage,

i^ well

sopher
philohave

mentioned

name

writers
of the eighteenth century, you
by the French
may
read
Hobbes
for
had
to
generally
Hobbes,
they
retrograded
;
had
Locke.
developed
imagining they
We
confine
must
must
necessarilybe brief,and therefore
ourselves

Condillac

to

as

His

in France.

the

acknowledged

representativeof

work, entitled Essai sur rOrigim

this time
At
des Gmnaissances
ITumaineSy z.'pi^tai^in 1746.
he had no notion
of simplifying Locke
ledge
by reducing all KnowHe
modest
to Sensation.
a
was
Lockeist, and laid down
the fundamental
and
sensations
the operaprinciple that
as
tions
materials
of the mind
all
the
of
are
knowledge
our
materials
which
reflection sets in action
binations
by seeking their comLocke

first

'^

"

and
In

and

"is

relations."

(Chap.

his

celebrated

appeared

1754
In

it he

quits
"

Hobbes.

The

5.)

work, \ht

TraiU

Locke's

tions.
des Sensa-

principle for that of

principal object of this work,"

Gassendi
he

says,

knowledge and all our faculties are

the
from
derived
speak more
accurately, from
senses,
or, to
inclusion
The
of
sensations."
faculties,"as well as our
our
dillac.
due
ideas, in this sensuous
originis however
entirely to ConHobbes
never
thought of such
a
"simplification."
is monstrous.
The
Against it the epigram of Leibnitz,
error
full force, though
has
nisi ipse intellectus,
powerless against
this a mere
Nor
Locke.
slip of Condillac'^ pen : the error
was
the peculiarityof his system.
is radical ; it constitutes
ing
Speakto

show

how

i. "

all

our

''

of

maxim
which

various

philosophers,and

not

after Aristotle

quoting, with praise,the

nothing is in the intellect

previouslyin the senses," he adds, " immediately

attributed
was

after

comes

to

Aristotle, that
Locke,

for

we

cannot

reckon

the

other

this subject [!]. This

have
written
on
philosophers who
Englishman has certainlythrown great lighton the subject,but
All
the faculties of the soul
he has left some
obscurity.
and
he never
suspected
appeared to him to be innate qualities,
...

they might be derived from sensation itself."

True
enough : Locke
never
suspected such

an

absurdity.

SYSTEM.

CONDILLACS

B^qiuse sensation
for

suspecting

sensation

hiye any
tions;

being

is wrong
tions.
an

to

the

limbs, it only

such

warrant

the mind

notion.

and

transforms

could

"

talk about

to
.easy
do
sei;isations not,

it,then,

our

limbs, but
calls

exercise

the

them

into

action.

the

thcfrefore be

the

aujd demand.

The

again^that

is that

our

he

can

faculties

which

transformation
sensation.

It

sensations; but

transform

themselves.
mind?

Not

return

transforms

say

is,what

he

are

transformed

to

"

; the

cannot

the

charge,

Condillac

is
The

so.

sensations," and
We

the

What

"c.
states, faculties,

transformingpower.

All

answer.

itself

transformed

we

What

facultyof
be

not

presume,
them?
transforms

that

Condillac, who endeavoured

of transformed sensations^

is the aggregate of our

mental
*'
is made
of
transformed
up

hinx:

itself
memory
mental
faculties :

its faculties out

suspected that

once

is very

mind

sensa-

of

with the
are
right in saying that we
npt bom
faculties (a point to be touched
but he
hereafter),
upon
in saying that these faculties are
nothing but s^nsaNothing but the grossest abuse of language could for

that which

mind

never

of

is

construct

'*

his

from

might as well say that

of running. The
child

have

give him

instant

no

Condillac

exercised

never
"

remembrance
favour

has

Condillac

mental

should

develop

facultymen

the

reason

sensations,we

tillhe

run

not

them.

derived

in

argument

that

be

to

is the

Sensations

create

creates

cannot

any

for memory
any

play,is

themselves

had

never

we

is that

not

exercise

does

our

sensation?

a^

faculties into

our

faculties

memory,

but

do

they

If

calls

5^3

has

and
over
says over
sensations.
Hear

"

distinguishestwo

Locke

It would
because

reflection

be

exact

more

is in

its

ideas, sense
recognise but
of

sources

to

principle nothing

it is less a source
itself;secondly, because
which
canal through
they flow from sense.
This inexactitude,slightas it may
seem,
**

one

but

of

has

and
:

flection.
re-

first,

sensation

ideas

thrown

than

much

He
his system.
with
himself
contents
obscurityover
nising
recogthat the soul perceives,thinks,doubts, believes,reasons,

wills,reflects;that

op^ratiqns^because

we

convinced

are

we

find

in

existence

ourselves

and

of these
tribute
they con-

knowledge : but he did not

ciple
perceivethe necessity of discoveringtheir originand the prinof their generation, he did not suspect that they might
have
to
regarded them
only be acquired habits ; he seems
to

the

progress

of

them

of the

our

"

"*-..

1
CONDILLAC^S

524

innate,and

as

he

only

says

SYSTEM.
that

they

be

may

by
perfected

exercise."

enough from Locke,+ who would have stared to

in a word, all the
hear that "judgment, reflection,
the passions,
faculties of the mind
nothing but sensation which ironsare
farms itself
differently
(qui se transforme diflf^remment)."
is far

This

it is curious

As

the

see

how

sensation

itselfinto

transforms

will translate the Philosopher'saccount.

faculties,
we

these
^'

to

If

of sensations

multitude

degree

same

operate

time with

at the same

or
nearly so,
vivacity,

of

man

is then

only an

that feels ; experiencesuffices to convince us that then

all activity
the multitude
from the
of impressionstakes away
animal
mind.
dismissing
sensation subsist,
or without
entirely
only one
their force ; the mind
the others,let us only diminish
is at once
the sensation which
with
occupied more
particularly
out
withits vivacity,
and that sensation becomes attention,
preserves
in
the
else
its being necessary for us to suppose
anything
"

let

But

mind.
If

"

sensation

new

former,it will become

the

which

force

made

on

proves

this.

the

in its turn

the

and

us,

acquire greater vivacity than

attention. But the greater

had, the deeper the impression

former

the

longer is it preserved. Experience

capacity of sensation is therefore divided into the

have ;
sensation we have had, and the sensation which we now
them
both
but
at
perceive
we
we
perceive them
once,
The
differently
seems
: the one
as past, the other as present.
of
made
sensation
the
name
impression actually
designates
'*Our

upon

our

; and

senses

itself to

us,

as

it takes

sensation

it presents
that of memory
when
felt.
which
has formerly been

is only the transformed

sensation.
Memory, therefore,
When
is comparison; for
there is double
there
attention,
**

be

to

attentive

thing.
*

But

to

two
cannot

we

ideas

or

them, is the

to compare

compare

without

them

Extrait

same

perceiving

raisonn6 du Traits des Sensations.'

de Condillac
(Ewures
iv. p. I
J.
t It would be idle to refute here the vulgarnotion of Condillac's havipg
perfectedLocke's
principles
absurdlysays, of Locke's
; or, as M. Cousin
"
Sensations
of which the Traitides
Essay' being the rough sketch {ehauche)
"

"

(1803),vol.

is the
who

perfectedpicture; such a notion can

blindlyaccept traditionary
judgments.

give of Condillac

is

sufficient answer

only be

entertained

by

brief exposition
we
to all such assertions.
The

those

shall

CONDILLAC'S

difference

some

525

between

resemblance

some

or

SYSTEM,

them:

to

ceive
per-

The
of comparing
and
acts
Judge,
judging are therefore
only attention ; it is thus that sensation
becomes
successively attention, comparison, judgment."
The
faculties are
other
explained in a similar way, but we

relations

such

need

quote

attained
with

no

men

such

That

more.

it

favour

the

which

is to

did, is

distinctions,it is notorious,
but that such word-jugglery
pronounced
faculties

the

moment,
Condillac.
in

the

have

vivacity

effort of the

of

notice.

Now,

we

and

whether
You

ear

wish

; you

being said
is to

That

holds

what

to

listen

to

talking, yet
This

will

you

to

you,

you
attend

though inasmuch
as
of your
constitution, yoih
own
bore
attend
only to
utters, you
When

his will

to

have
in

If then^

tell

we

give due

sound

some

the

further.*

Condillac*s

Sensations
*

and

by

; it is the

man

not

what

wish

listen, do

or

do

we

in

sensation

safely left

is

to

the

fragment
on

your

not

only

tell

laws
the

what

hear

to

we

from

appeal
him

to

let

to

vivacity?
an

"

the

escape
hear
to

you

to

analysis

of

Out

strikes

room,

forced

are

attention," and
be

Suddenly

cannot

you

discover

we

loud-voiced

some

we

of

act

need

false; and
Judgment,
the author

the

Will

"

no
proceed
Comparison,
is oply
which

of the

Traite

des

his school.

Condillac, indeed, would

was
only a sensation

will itself
gross

is

is "double
may

for

loud-voiced
although your
is
effort,catch what
by an
do
by an effort of your will.
is being said elsewhat
where
to

predominance

Attention

which

comparison,

attention

something
which

attends

button-hole.

says.
part of the

; and

another.

up,

and

explained

as

with

your

it ; and

to

elsewhere.
say,

Take

that

he

another

at

continues

friend

be

calling thoughts

mind

the

conversation

who

attend
made

remark,

well

may

the

in

are

importunate bore,
of

Verbal

into
impressions and
brings them
ask you
to
interrogate your own
experience,
be
Attention
voluntar
not
voluntary as well as in-

deepens

politeness you

facility

consists
analysis. Attention
is ao
There
nothing more.

is not

It

vivacitywhich
say

his

sensation

succeed

attention

of

the

of

Metaphysicians;

is done.

thing
"

oi

pabulum

merely

have

ever

of words.

use

this should

is

seen

Will.

ih^

as

generation

You

artful

an

are

the

sensations, and
"

by

It

marvel.

strikingexample

led

be

may

should

system

for refutation.

get

out

of great

of

the

dilemma

vivacity,but

by saying that
assumption is

this

the
too

526

CONDILLACrS

said

CondiUac

precision in words.
fancied

absurd

as

sensations,

were

because

and
say

and

be

same^
green to be
ideas and sensations

of the

because

they

the

are

sensation.

only

who

its

simplest

only

lesser

for

ideas

all

us

sions.
impres-

is called
this

that

both

are

faint

idea

to

as

is in the

error

are

An

tells

they

the

vivacityin the

of

colours,

because

excuse

Condillac

will go
red
to declare

both

are

same,

"lse, supposition
They are not impressions at
is

npon

man

We

absurd

less

not

that

i^membered

rely

reasoning observation,

observation.

on

be

The

mind.

":all

to

but

common,

he

differently. It is,however,
sensations, because
or^inally the ideas

the

affections

did

mncli

so

them

it would

that

say

the

is founded

reasoning

further

weD-constracted

inexplicable in
to
analysis of mind

it would

as

only

is this

naming

call ideas

to

is

faiti);

Nor

by merely

elements

Mm

reduced

had

he

science

that

language {une langue

SYSTEM.

remem-

sensation.

We
degree
is nothing of the kind ; that so far from
that the idea
answer
being the sensation in a lesser degree, it is not the sensation at
You
have the
all; it is altogether different from the sensation.
idea of pain ; it shall be of a particularpain
that of toothache.
Now
although every man, who has experienced toothache, can
brafice

"

have

distinctidea
toothache),

very

and

talk

any

resemblance

of

sensation;

of it

defy

we

whatever

to

is

words, he

in

detect

to

you

think

can

sensation.

the

Try
is this wonderful;

Nor

cannot.

you

(in other

of,
idea

your
recall

to

die

sensation

is

To

thinking.
feelingsthought
feelingand thinking
suppose
both
the
under
the term
come
are
same
(although
may
feelin^^
it
is
by giving
some
new
general sense)
an
absurdity reserved
sensational

for the
of

whom,
:

as

sun

and

corresponds
idea of
called

they

in

although
think

some

the

error.

with

of the

of
When

other
we

different
the

body
an

it is not

image

of

ideas,

sensations

thing

latter
sensation

our

If it is

sun.

visual

our

like faint

very

assisted

been

case

all

seem

it,yet in

measure

image
might easily conclude
case

of

it is

round, yellow, luminous

an

In the

Thus

shape, do

assume

to

in this

have

sensations.

our

is that

reason

the

of

nature

inasfmuch

at

dest seniir.

ambiguities of language

by the
the

M.

penser

The

school, the last and not the least illustrious

Destutt
de Tracy, consolidated
it into an
rism
apho-

to
our

case
:

look
idea

it is the

improperly
the

sun,

we

that it was
senses,

say

of our
sensation.
a faint copy
is
there
no
difficultyin detecting

that

we

can

recall

the

sensation

of

CONDILLAC'S

fragrance or of sweetness,
of a thing, with our
power
wide

distinction

fatal to

introduction

the

instead

of

our

feeling it.
and

Thought
it have

thinking

of

power

is

There

in

truth

Sensation, which

been

of that

adoption

and

overlooked

much

it is
for

but

abused

idea

word

thought

whole

The

of

could

; nor

527

confound

we

between

overlook

SYSTEM.

its

shallow, and

Materialism,"

of

"scheme

it is

as

simplicity is gained by

pretended

called, is
a

vicious

of

The
into mind
construe
to
matter
language.
attempt
unscientific
spiritas that which attempted
belongs to the same
reduce
the phenomena
if matter
of Life to Chemistry.
Now
to
use

must,

in science

-^the

phenomena

to

the

of

laws

least, be divided

at

of the

the

Locke, that God

former

latter

"

organic

being

never

^in the

same

superadded

have

may
should

into

wholly reducible

admitting,

way,

matter

to

inorganic

and

the

with

faculty

all

still be

forced
rules of
sound
by
thinking,we
matter
as
physical^ from
philosophy, to distinguish matter
as
and
well
'Hhe
organic
as
so
inorganic; or, as Locke
says,
idea
substance
fication
of
general
everywhere, the modibeing the same
of thinking, or
the
of thinking joined to it,
power
of

other
considering what
modifications it
it has the modificationsoj solidityor not**
haSy or whether
also
must
unscientific,we
But, in regarding materialism
as
regard the hypothesis of a
spirit superadded to the brain
makes

it

spiritwithout

"

"

as

not

less

so,

rather

as

nay

more

so.

The

whole

dispute is
supposed

only acquired its importance from a

connection
with religious doctrines.
Condillac's
has
two
origin of Knowledge
theory of the
The
first is the reduction
points deserving a passing notice.
is the'dogma
of
of all knowledge
sensation.
second
The
to
faculties not
our
being innate.
frivolous,and

first is

The

thus

stated

pupils :

**

"

state

has

doctrine

the

by Diderot
Every idea

of ultimate

representation

or

"

of
one

Gassendi
of

and

Condillac's

It is

Hobbes.
most

celebrated

brought to its
necessarily,when
itself into
sensible
a
decomposition, resolve
since
standing
underpicture ; and
everything in our
must

of sensation,
by the channel
whatever
proceeds out of the understanding is either chimerical
be
must
blish
or
able, in returning by the same
road, to re-estaitself to its sensible
important rule
an
archetype. Hence
has

in

been

philosophy,

introduced

That

every

there

expression

which

cannot

find

an

SYSTEM,

CONDILLACS

528
and

external

sensible

is destitute
affinity,
The

be

thus

can

establish

its

signification."
drawn

be

to

hold

rule

is sufficient

it

which

to

of

consequences
will the
But

which

object

good

convince

to

reduced

from
?

such

that

us

rule

Hardly.
have

we

are

rent.
appaleast experience

The

sensible

ideas

many

whatever

picture
any
; or,
the
word
idea, we
philosophers might quibble about
would
thoughts." That we can think
prefer the phrase
many
If you
of Goodness,
Virtue, Honour, "c., is undeniable.
say
that
have
abstract
these are
ideas," and
fancy
no
they can
desire you
that they have
to prove
signification,
none
we
; to
ideas (thoughts) as the ideas
much
as
us, it is evident, they are
of sensible
objects. But should we grant that '' abstract ideas
do you
idea of a soul ?
beside the question, what
are
say to our
is certainly not
abstract
that
reducible
That
is not
to
a
;
is
sufficient
refutation
of
sensible picture.
That
a
example
one
the sensational
theory.
second
the
Now
for the
believe, was
point : Condillac, we
faculties
first to cfttch a glimpse of the important truth that our
cannot

to

these

as

"

"

"

"

"

innate

not

are

in

I bungle
\

/
j

not

are

"

attempting

to

generatioh

the

trace

borhwith

the

he

; but

connate

even

made

sad

these facultiesT

of

reasoning, remembering, imagining, and willing,is a proposition which will meet

tion,
with very little credit at first.
A
littlQ experience and reflecthat as the child certainlycannot
us
however, show
reason,
remember,
imagine, or will,these being faculties subsequently
that
the
mental
conclude
and
we
slowly developed ; so may
in
the
child.
The
new-bom
faculties are
baby
potentially
only
That

men

more

no

can

he

legs

by exercise.
than

an

Will, as

acorn,

one

either
What

"

though

foliagein

and
reason
a

psychology
"

oak.
has

no

CEuvres

or
new

mind

Every

do

to

with

foliage.

and

they contain

within

that

developed
be

other, cannot

Reason

But

said

them

to

and

infant

the

into

than

strengthened
and will,

reason

has

man

grown

both

less

no

developed, and
born

more

branches

the

learm

be

grow,

is

He

of his

run.

muscles

fittingcircumstances, will be

under
the

an

oak

every

the

and

is

acorn

must

Man

of

powers

can

learn, the

can

of his

muscles

he

than

reason

and, before
the

not

are

which,
in

reason

have

yet

as

foliage.
aspect
It is

this consideration

perhaps

the

most

VI.,' as quoted by Dugald

gives to

the

science

important discovery

Stewart,

"

Philos.

Essays,*p.

of

ever

i66.

SYSTEM.

CONDILLACS

530

indicated

developed.

than

mind

the

prove

to

This

ideas.
of

rror

Condillac*s

tendency

against

will

the

ascendant,
of;

and

but

the^

right

in

facts

to

give

now

facts
the

which

of

found

dogmatic
its

object

disprove
to

arise

to

innate
into

fall

facts

the

the

mind*s

activity

portion
cannot

each
;

are

one

by

way

ascendant,
dwelt

party

explain.

is

wrong

stant
con-

facts

re-action

of

are

are

and

in

the

treated

nothing

Each

on.

of

set

sensation

of
the

in

are

see

may

materialists

the

Now

but

system

one

to

to

doctrines.

spiritualists
the

to

easy

was

prominence

be

nothing
the

it

order

psychology

of

undue

generally

and

rasa,

granted,

history

reigning

in

Locke*s

was

simplification.**

"

the

this

tabula

being

once

Throughout

and

be

it

Moreover,

party
in

ing
exclud-

is

THE

PRODUCING

RIALISM

MATE^

AND

SCEPTICISM,

IDEALISM,

CRISIS"

SECOND

COMMON

OF

REACTION

SENSE.

CHAPTER
PmLOSOPBir

THE

'

DuGALP
of Th6ma$

'

Reid

with

biography ;'\and

As

He

In

in Abei;deen.

In

educated

wa3

occupied

as

be

may

of Moral

Inquiry

for
selves
our-

useful
in

Strachan

at

lo,

College,
Philosophy

into the Human

In

Sense.*

Conjmon

content

Marischall

at

the chair
his

764 appeared

Principlesof

the

on

he

1752

facts

born. in 17

was

materials

will

we

Writings
monly
"uncom-

was

furnish

which

of such

Reid

life

the

that

is scanty,

our

RSID*

of the Life and

Account

remarking

Thomas

Kincardineshire.
Aberdeen.

'

space
enumeration

bare

for reference.

Mind

his

of tfcose incidents

barren

with

""NSS

COMMON

OF

Sx"WARXQpens

I.

1763*

"the

substantial testimony of approInquiry received a, still more

bation
from the universityoi Gtlasgow," in the offer of the chair
Smith.
of Moral
by the resignationof Adam
Philosophy, vacant
In 1780 Reid. resigned his office, and
passed the remaining
years
his '

of his life in retirement

and

JPowers.'

Essays on the Intellectual

in 1796, having survived four

philosophy made

Reid's
years

past

Sense

Common
understood

by
*

way
We

of

was

be

on

in

arbiter
a

par

with

refutingBerkeley.

foUow

'Inquiry'
offered

to

as

Stewtuti
not

the chair

as

but

Chere
till

published
*'
testimony

Glasgow

at

at

f^rst,but

has for

paerited neglect. The

sinkinginto

been

died

.He

appeared

of his children.

great stir

1785

In

study.

Philosophy,

now

appeal

to

pretty well

Johnson's kicking a stone

Stewart
himself
Indeed
Dugald
Dr.

be

mu^t

Reid

some

could

1764,
approbation."

of

is

some

error

not

in

here.

1763

If
have

the
been

RBID.

53"

fullyalive

was

the

to

inconsequence
his

shield

of

such

and

argument,

an

by saying that the phrases

and
Instinct
Sense
Common
were
unhappily chosen.
not
mere
Unfortunately they were
phrases with Reid ; they were
principles. It is impossible to read the
Inquiry' and not see
endeavoured

to

"

"

master

"

"

'

Reid

that

his stand

took

Common

upon

Beattie

and

Sense

to the
Oswald, his immediate
disciples,are stillmore
open
charge.
and
of it,that adul*
It is genius," he
the want
not
says,
and
fills it with
false theory,"
terates
error
philosophy, and
This aphorism is the key to all his writings. Few
would
ever
that
He
of
him
a quiet,
was
pernicious quality genius.
accuse
neither
he
subtle
but
thinker
sober, patient
was
nor
profound.
;

and

"

"

"

know

We
from

those

stood

in

works

in which

questionable

that

did

you

such

of what

is past
I did it ; so

that

Common

gained

Sense

than

which

"

great lengths if

to

contained

in

to

were

we

the

'

examine

Philosophy

all

of Common

however, pass the supposed triumph

said that personal identityconsists in Consciousness
conscious
Reid, ^* if you are
is,"continues

that

be

cannot,

who
*'

less is to

vindicated

has

tenets

We

Locke,

over

he

us

carry

Sense.'

which

from

of vindication.

need

no

It would

the

few

of

thing a

twelvemonth

signifynothing

can

in remembrance

the

but

else

remembrance

be, that Identity consists

principlemust

Locke's

this consciousness

ago,

lose his
must
consequently, a man
personal identity with regard to every thing he forgets." Here
is altogether misstated.
Locke
Consciousness
does not resolve
itself into any
Reid
would
here have
as
single act of memory,
act
us
believe, nOr can personal identity be limited to any one
I have

the

connected
also

and,

consciousness

of

the

with

up

of

many

an

certain

remembrance

connected

is made

of

some

anterior

links, and

state,

state, therewith
anterior state, which

is

mental

and

although

so

some

The

on.

of these

was

chain
may

be

is broken.
I am
connected
with my
sight,not one
hood
boyof consciousness.
acts
by a regular series of transmitted
have
gotten
fornot
forgotten a thousand
things, but I have
day,
act
myself : if one
performed yesterday is forgotten to-

of

out

I may

all

are

not

forgotten;

and

to

remember

one,

however

soul dwell
its guidance ; let my
despise Philosophy, and renounce
observed
it be
Sense."
in
(*Inquiry,' chap. i. " 3.) Let
Reid's
his
that
is
the
as
always regarded
disciples
by
Inquiry
pa"sing,
written
in old age.
were
Essays
; the
great work
*

with

""

Common

"

'

'

RBID.

$33
r

those

Let
does

We

come

the

made

philosophical fame

Hume

considered

his contribution

admirers

this respect is that

language, and to
facts. How

alluded

be
the

word

ideas,

idea

"

the

to

metaphors

of

merit

in

some

abuses

of

"

being

taken

sole

always created,

has

scarcely
day, need
destroy the acceptation of

to

to

of

use

Reid

be

to

his

and

whatever

But

idea, it

not

are

as

"

"

thousands.

to

seems

refuted

school

for

present

attempt

any

"

Hume

and

and

tantamount

as

the

with

been

; this has

his

that

attention

the word

it,to

cursed

to

misled

has

some

theory. This

of the Ideal

advanced,

having called
examples

of

refutation

rest, the

be welcomed
image, must
be
Locke's
So far let us
use
grateful to Reid.
idea
of an
instead
as
signifying a thought

word

"

of

confusion

much

Aristotle

since

have

which

upon

It appears
to us, after a long
careful
a
perusal of what

glory.
his writings, and

with

that

philosophy

to

of his

monument

his critics and

to

refutation

the

by

as

acquaintance

great achievement,

Reid's

to

his

Berkeley and
he

consist.

now

declared

he

in the

it does

in what

us

who

consist

not

ness.
keep up the continuityof consciousof personal identity
fancy the sentiment
consciousness
of personal identity,show

sufficient to

Indistinctly,
is

"

abuses

may

tary.
salu-

as

of

the

image,"
crept in

have

quite clear that Berkeley

by refuting the hypothesis of
us

suppose.

discussion, take it for granted that

bats
philosophers did adopt the theory of ideas which Reid comthat theory.
Reid
also grant that
has overturned
; let us
towards
is made
What
advance
of the problem ? Not
a solution
The
dilemma
into which
Hume
threw
Philosophy
one
step.
Let

remains
As

us,

to

the

avoid

useless

same

I cannot

as

ever.

the

transcend

sphere of my Consciousness, I can

know
never
things but as they act upon me
as
they affect my
In
other
Consciousness.
words, a knowledge of an external
"

world

otherwise
and

This

than

distorts

Now,

it appears

to

my

Sense, which

forms
trans-

it,is impossible.

proposition

Scepticism.

as

may

be

said

ask, how
ideal theory ?
we

to

is that

form

the

ground

of

propositionaflfected by

signifywhether
affections of my
consciousness
be regarded as
images
whichever
?
remain
less purely subjectivcy
not
or
They do not
the main
Now
we
They are changes in me.
regard them.
way
positionof Scepticism is preciselythis subjectivityof knowledge.
Because
transcend
know
cannot
we
consciousness; we can never

overthrowing
the

"

the

What

does

"

it

"

'*

534

RBW,

"

things/^r

Reid

si.

acknowledgesthat

know

canoot

we

thing$

believe in them^ because in

he says that we
must
their existence is suggested.This is exactly
what we do know
the opinion of Locke; nay more, it is the doctrine of Hume
:

per

but

s";

for he says that we do believe in an

have no good reason
for doing so.
that he
Reid

observed

once

and

world, though we
J..Mackintosh relat"es
Brown
that he thought

Sir

in words

more

external

to Dr. Thomas

differed

Hume

than

opinion; BrpwQ

answered, '*Yes, Reid

believe in an
bawled
out
must
we
outward world ; but added in ^ whisperwe can give i^a- reason.
for our belief. Hume
cries out we^ can giverno r^asQn
for such
a notion; and
.cannot
we
whisp^s I own
g^ rid)of it."
^

"

"

than Reid

have seen, that

would at once
bis refutation of the ideal theory leftIdeaJlism and Scepticism
littleh^
untouched
the kpow*
; for either doctrine it matters
acute

mote

man

that- it is

ledge be

acquired,so

argument

brought forward

in the existence of
Laws

"

is

external world

Belief

of Human

he says that

an

The
entirelysubjectiye^^^.
Stewart
belief
the
that
by Dugald

"

^isfar

Berkeley'sIdealism

unphilosophical
attempt of
the world, he forgetsthat

one

of the Fundamental

philosophical
; but when
the
and
to
unhappy
owing

more
was

Descartes
Idealism

the existence of

to prove
was

known

in the ancient

thought of provingthe existence

long
any
of matter.
Moreover, although Stewart's formula is not open
to the same
as ^Reid's,
objections
yet it leaves the vital question
schools

before

one

untouched.
No

doubts

one

that

world.

Idealism

whether

that belief be

never

is

Law,
forced
say

we

is a Fundamental
objectiveexistence,

simply saying that

to

external

an

questionsthe fact The only doubt is

true.
as well as
objectively
subjectively

say that the belief in

To

believe in the existenceof

we

we

are

sa

constituted,that

we

are

to our
sensations* As-iwell
reality
bodies will
that fire applied to our

attribute external

are

so

give us pain.

constituted
We

are

so

constituted.

What

then ?

Have

we

We have stillto seek some

of
of the
constitution
the
of
laws
our
being the measure.
proof
is
existences
still
seek
how^
what
laws of other
to
true. of the
advanced

one

step?

Not

one.

"

be true of the objective.

necessarily
granting to Stewart all he claims,we see that be does
attain to the heart of the question; and, strictly
speaking,

must
subjective

In

founded

fact,Malebranche's
on

Thus
not

Idealism,which

theoryof Perceptionalmost

is veiy similar to Berkeley's,

is
identical with Reid'si

REID,

he

does

what

answer

matter

is

them.

*'

occult

You

substance

is

Stewart's

answer

do

merit

said

be

to

mean

shown

having refuted
If
ideal hypothesis ?
question, then has the

they

nature

not

to

assert

that

saw

in

men

was

God

to

that

has

out
so

belief in this

the

If you
do, you must
be quite beside the

to

that

no

in

for that

us

express

does

pretence

Idealism

mark.
for

our

principleof
If

purpose.

Reid

claim

the

Scepticism by refutingthe

and
and

instinct

be mad."

given

be

can

reason

originalinstinctive

an

what

upon

of

Belief

our

said

what

do

Law?

declares

ask

For

believe,is the existence

all
lying underneath
phantom-world

implanted

we

Hume.

questioned ? Berkeley

much.

as

men

not

referred

be

must

so,

is thus

constitution

this be

not

Fundamental

constantly

belief; it
our

Law

which

that

substance,

appearances.

Reid

to

Exactly;

it. But

ordained
an

only touches
Berkeley, to say that

that
their senses,
believed
and
is the
of human
law
This

believed

of

it be

Fundamental

at all ; he

Berkeley

can

reply:

would

of

touch

not

535

not

is

reason

to

settle the

hypothesis nothing to do with it;

if the
ideal hypothesis sufficed, then
refutation
the
of
has
of Dr. Reid," says a
talk
To
instinct nothing to do with it.
opposed a barrier to
very able writer, as if his writings had
evident
mistake.
the prevalence of scepticalphilosophy, is an
Dr. Reid
successfullyrefuted the principlesby which Berkeley
ideal

"

"

and

endeavoured

Hume

conclusions
which

from

existence

he

themselves
he

of

himself

world

endeavours

to

force

as

the

very

the

premisses

impossibility of proving the

from
or
experience, or
reason,
other principlehitherto known
to
'

instruction,or habit, or any

philosophers,'is the argument
he

adopted

; but

The

reasons.

material

their conclusions

establish

to

upon

by which
ordy argument
his theory of instinctive principles."

and
us

the

isippears,
then, that

It

inasmuch

as

Reid

declares

instinct to be

found

belief in an
which
we
can
our
only principle upon
external
world, his argument against Berkeley is treblyvicious.

the

First,because
although we
of proof that
not

is

the
must
oxa

utterlybeside
'

act

questioned; secondly, because

never

according

are
beliefs

true

to

our

we

see

the
that

question.
granting to

Reid

Second
QuarterlyReview,' on Stewart's
can
we
give no more
up separately,
paper bound
*

instincts,that is

thirdly,because

is to be the arbiter, the attack

reason

Thus

beliefvi^s

"

the

on

the

no

sort

if instinct and
ideal

glory

he

Dissertation.'
definite

hypothesis
claims

of

Having

th"

reference*

REID.

536

having destroyed
his

ideal

fancies

and

outpost,

an

the

hypothesis,

it to

the

be

theory of perception
justly enough declared

has

he

fortress.
be

only destroyed
few

words

on

here.

of

place
hypothesis to be gratuitous.
We
for supposing that the mind
have no
reason
perceives
of the things themselves.
But
he
images of things instead
overlooks, or rather denies, the fact that we
perceive things
mediately ; he says we perceive them
immediately. His explanations
but
he
and
are
confused,
contradictory
repeats the
own

He

assertion

often,

so

that

there

may
the

out

ideal

be

can

perceive things immediately

with
the
thing, and
perceives
we

medium

not

it

he

doubt

no

mind

the

meant

to

face

stands

to

without

immediately,

say

face
any

of

ideas, images, eidola, of the like. In this we believe

him
ideas
carried
against
utterly in the wrong
; his battle
him
that
is
It
far.
too
we
are
thing to say
affectedby the
one
things and not by images of things ; and another
thing to say
that
The
former
is correct
immediately.
we
perceive things
;
'

the

all

know

of tion,
percephimself
the
on

we

constantly contradicts

himself

Reid

and

with

contradiction

is in direct

latter

point.
carefully as I can, to what
as
attend,*'he says,
evident
in my
that the very thing I saw
mind, it appears
passes
I
and
the
the immediate
smelled, are now
yesterday,
fragrance
the
I
remember
it
mind
when
Upon
objects of my
the things
have
strictest attention, memory
to
to
me
appears
its
for
that are
and
not present tdeas^
objects."
past,
This
is his
position against the ideal hypothesis which
is in the mind
which
that nothing is perceived but what
assumes
it
that
do
not
which
we
reallyperceive things
are
perceives \
external, but only certain images and pictures of them
imprinted
"

mind.

the

on

position is

Reid*s
which

be

cannot

therefore
he

fragrance
felt again

having

fragrance

cannot

when

object of which
*

See

the

remarks

immediate

cannot

be

even

in

recall
what

meant

that

an

very

All
thought.
affected
by the

been

; we

have

meant,

not

things the rose, of

where.
object at all : // is else-

The

untenable.

thinks, is

he

The

fact of

"

When

on

we

can

rose

in

say,

is the

manner

Reid

affection.*

is to

remember
we

call

could

hardly
Perhaps
literally
express.
and
of the rose
the fragrance, the

the

his words

I think

think

; that

recalled

is the

Condillac's

rose,

confusion

not

an

idea

of sensation

of

and

the

rose.

thought.

I
1

RBID.

538
enables
sensation

he

''
will answer,
of that sensation

and

matter,

is

suggested to us a cause
body capable of producing it/'

there

quality of

the

of the

know

to

you

In
in

This

is Locke's

our

sensations

view.

point in Reid's theory is,that

The
have
senses
joined perceptions.

The

with

great

"

are

he

''

says

furnish

they

with

us

painful,and

others

pleasant,
time
they give

variety

double

of

province,"
sensations,some

indifferent

others

the

; at

same

conception, and an invincible belief of the

existence of external objects. This conception and belief,
which
of the senses,
call perceptions'^
Nature
we
produces by means
is laid that, owing to ignor*
which
much
stress
so
This, upon
said
been
of it,philosophers are
have
to
always in
ance
instance
of
Reid's
remarkable
of
want
regard as a
we
error,
denied
the
Neither
fact
of
Hume
subtlety.
Berkeley nor
of sensations
belief
in the
externality of the causes
:
our
that
these
occult
denied
had
substratum
an
causes
Berkeley
;
denied
that any
Hume
could be given for our
belief in
reason
force then
their externality. What
has
It is
Perception ?
than
that
belief,"according to Reid ; though to
nothing more
call perception a beliefis^ to say the least, a somewhat
inaccu^
But
he
of language.
rate use
wishes, and you grant
grant all
us

"

'*

"

with

that
in

of

existence

the

give
which

matter."

Hume

no

for

reason

Reid

cause."

Very

been

true

of

cause

those

that

; but

answer,

belief; we

our

can

sensations.
is not

cause

Very

know

true

; but

thinking
unwe

nothing of the

Perception is Beliet"
satisfactory
by his school

deemed

belief

accompanying

an

**

would

only retort,

can

has

external,

an

answer

is

there

"

would

Berkeley
can

sensations

our

"

tion
posi-

; which

has
reallyis only an abuse of language ; and which, moreover,
the further disadvantage of being available only as an
argument
againstHume, for againstBerkeley it is powerless. If Perception
is Belief,and we
be
perceive an external world, Hume
may
he says we
have
answered
when
belief.
But
for
grounds
our
no
is
that
answered.
believe in an
He
do
not
Berkeley
we
says
external

world

matter

^itis

"

that
nature
we

in

of the

cannot

; but
a

sensation
causes

Know

which
what

or

Essays

affect
causes

us

; he
are,

we

of

world
Reid

agency.

perception

those

on

is not

world

of divine

world

that

can

would

unthinking
not,

tend
pre-

distinguishthe

constantly tells us that

but only that there are

Intell. Powers,' ii,ch, 17.

RBID.

the

long as
inspection, so long
As

causes.

theory

Reid

that

says,

have

can

Idealism

in

Sc^tidsm

and

then

"

unanswerable.
attend

we

deavoured
en-

Deity.

the

are

any

assumption
viz.,

"

of any

our

by

as

his

of

Berkeley's premiss
material
thing which

minds"

our

system,

of the

agency

grant

we

conception

no

sensation

sonie

if

from

unrefuted

gratuitousness

immediate

the

to

respect

his

of

error

is in the

show,

to

with

remain

Berkeley

The

is removed

world

noumenal

must

perception.

of

539

This

"

we

is not

like

conclusions

of

fore,
premiss, there-

his

challenge : **This I
would
an
as
experimentum cruets,
propose,
stand
which
it brings the
ideal
fall
the
or
by
system must
; and
issue : Extension,
motion
short
to
matter
a
figure,and
may,
for
taken
be
of
this
of
the
all
them,
ment.
experione
subject
or
any
If
Either they are ideas of sensation, or they are
not.
idea of sensation, or to
of them
be shown
to be an
can
one
any
the least resemblance
hand
have
to any
sensation, I lay my
he

upon

disputes.
therefore
humbly
Now

mouth

my

common

in this

sense

triumph

to

give up

and

"

and

matter,

it

have

to

force

extension

is

not

suffer

must

It

the
not

was

to

reason

ideal

cism
scepti-

till after

peated
re-

significanceof this passage ;

have understood
it now.
To

all,we

at

in

us

"

abstract

an

But

understand

must

imctges of sensation."

excites

body

reconcile

the

sensation.
of any
no
one
copy
is not
the feelingof extension
a

to

{/nguiry,ch. v. " 7).

any
*'

sensation,", as

which

and

we
caught
persuals
not
^m'U positivethat we

are

"

all pretence

that

admit

to

of

Certainly, extension
if Reid

the result

if he

ideas

"

mean$

complex

to

say

idea by which

to

means

of

we

say

is
that

sensations

Uiat

the

express

idea

of

certain

to us
bodies, a property known
only through sensation
dl dispute, and
him
in posleave
must
we
cease
session
of his wonderful
discovery*
Reid's theory of Perception may
be thus
External
stated.
certain
occasion
sensations
in
us
objects
; with these sensations
existence
certain
of
perceive the
we
qualitiescapable of producing

property
"

of

then

them

The,

he

these

primary,

second, mediately,

in/supposing

that

different channel

he

curious

the

distinguishesinto primary and secondary.

we
perceive immediately: the
says,
example

of his want

primary qualitieswere

from

the

of acuteness

perceived through

secondary.
theory by which, with the aid of an '^original
instinct"
(some instincts then are acquired ?),he is supposed to
have refuted Idealism
!
that Berkeley might
see
Any one
may
a

And

this is the

REtD.

540

relinquished his ideal hypothesis, and

accepted
Idealism.
"unknown
The
for
perfect security
Reid
calls
qualities,"Berkeley calls ** divine
is merely nominal.
difference

readily have
Reid*s, with
which

causes,"
laws."

"

The

Thus

with

much

is almost

the

theory
given in sensation

is

call

you

belief) of

supposition
that

With

"

say,

perception
nothing more

; your
to

I admit

; but

of sensation

causes

to

qualities,amounts
one,

respect

would

Hume

is sensation

necessary
belief in external

our

Idealism.

harmless.

as

"

to

respect

(which
than

always

have
an

was

'

Hume,
all that

said

irresistible

have
is,that we
nothing but the
prejudice ; and my argument
have
none.*'
prejudice as a proof
we
reason,
it will in the first place be
Finally, with respect to Locke,
"

Reid's

that

seen

is neither

solution

less

nof

more

that

than

of
refutation
place, the boasted
school
the ideal hypothesis is always supposed by Reid*s
to be
view
of Locke's
refutation
of the origin of Knowledge
a
; and
Hume
Because
this is a very
Berkeley and
great mistake.
he
conclusions
which
from
to
wisely
pushed Locke's
system

given by

Locke

shrank, it

in the

second

of the
generally supposed that his account
the
indissolubly bound
origin of our Knowledge
was
up with
ideal hypothesis, by it to stand
This
fall.
probably is the
or
that Locke's
of Knowledge
view
meaning of the vulgar error
led
Hume.
Atheism.
In
leads to
It
to
disproof 'of this supposition
bound
is
I
dealism
not
indissolubly
we
firstly,
answer,
have
the
ideal
with
hypothesis, although Berkeley may
up
adopted that hypothesis ; secondly, Locke's
system is altogether
of
the
in his Review
independent of the h)rpothesis, and
of Malebranche
doctrines
he very
distinctly and emphatically
has

it.

denies

of

notions

on
"

observation

this

it is remembered

the

use

will be

wavering,

word

of the

ideas

"

all
"

as

better

ciated
appre-

language
reasonings are

Locke's

that, although
and

notoriously unguarded

founded
"

force

The

when

is

been

his

with

synonymous

"

thoughts."
or
conclusion, although we
Common-Sense
Philosophy
it was
Hume,
Berkeley and
In

think

it has

been

shown

egregiously failed
not

without

that

the

in

answering
by directing

service

exclusively to psychology. The

the
phrases so complacently used by Dugald Stewart to express
inductive
of his inquiries,of
nature
metaph)rsics and
expcr
rimental
philosophy of the mind," are
perhaps objectionable ;
the

attention

of mankind

more

"

"

but

few

will

deny

the

value

of

his

Elements,'

and

"

Brown's

REID.

works

Lectures,'

be

regarded
its

of

at

one

and

The

as

of

in

another

of

Philosophy.

failed

It

on

way

it

written

been
in

these

the

and

but

The

the

reader

attempt
foresees

dry,

was

protest

principles.

we

is

far

have

manner.

studying
brief.

also

allude

of

ago

against
in

made

was

altogether
that

protest

That

was

stripped

omit
it

may

work

engaging
should

School

which

long

more

enquiries

another

is

would

altlwugh

Scotch

Philosophical

in

it

but

and

named,

here.

doctrine,

Hartley's
;

mention

Mill,

James

known

recommendation,

one

Scepticism.

less

further

no

late

of

just

interested

philosophy

and

is

those
had

all

the

development

than

popular

as

by

hypothesis,

value

been
No

as

need

to

as

Mind/

the

the

physical

higher

it

of

'Analysis

The

popular

so

541

failed,

many,
Gerbut

worthy

more

to

Kant

a^i^xi
TO

RECURRENCE

CRITICAL

ORIGIN

KNOWLEDGE-^KANT*S

OF

PHILOSOPHY.

CHAPTER
LIFE

Kant

Immanuel

taken

with

but

severe,

Hiime, has
of

early bred in
examples of moral

was

his

form

to

KANT.

OF

bom

at

some

little interest.

fiEitherwas

own

tried

love

of

worth

as

inflexible

truth, and
must

example, except

among
that of

philosophical as
once
quitted the
never

had

before

materially have

him

such

contributed

principles.
that there

de Stael has remarked

Madame

His

integrity. His mother was somewhat

upright,speaking the truth, and exacting it. Kant

man

!"

Konigsberg in Prussia, 22nd

originallyScotch, a circumstance
family was
in conjunction with his philosophical connexion
was

"His

April, 1724.
which, when
saddler,

RE^

QUESTION

FUNDAMENTAL

THE

THE

SPECTING

(S^Vot^.

the

Greeks,

Elant.

He

of

is

scarcely another

life

lived to

so

rigorously

great age, and

murky Konigsberg. There he

and
happy existence,meditating,professing,
snows

of

passed a calm and

had
mastered
all the sciences ; he had studied
writing. He
literature.
cultivated
lived and
died
He
a
languages, and
German
he
his
of
the
took
smoked,
professor :
type
rose,
his
took
walk
daily
always at precisely
cofifee,wrote, lectured,
it
The
hour.
cathedral
the same
not
said, was
more
clock, was
its
than
Kant*
in
Immanuel
movements
punctual
he began and
He
was
early sent to the University. There
there
*

he

He

\ romenade

ended

mentions

his

career.

having once
bv reading Ronssean's

Mathematics
been

kept

two

""mile,* which

and
or

had

physics princi-

three

days

from

just appeared.

hii

LIFE

OF

KANT.

543

with
the success
at
first; and
pally occupied his attention
manifest
made
in
he
which
soon
pursued these studies was
various publications. He
predicted the existence of the planet
Herschel
Uranus
himself, after discovering it,admitted
\ and
it.
Kant's
having first announced
But
the

publicationsattracted

of these

none

of his

renown

Critique

of

Pure

him

attention

much
had

Reason

interest
matter
a
produced by
notice
first.
The
itself
at
attract
'Critique'
views, the repulsiveness of its terminology and
of

made
Nor

till

thing
everydid
the

novelty of its
style,for some
time
its real value.
This
covered
obscured
value
at
was
length disand
All Germany
made
known.
rang with praises of
chair
filled by a
the new
was
philosophy. Almost
every
Kantist.
books
and
Endless
few pamphlets (a German
some
write
has seldom
the courage
to
pamphlet : it is too small)
a
"

"

from
itipidly
principlesof

came

the

himself

of

of

and

Critical

the

Metaphysics,

Astronomy,

originated.
The
Critique*

had

as

defended

or

likened

had

him

b"th

to

not

he
was

tells

written

us,

science

the

the

in

product,

less

than

he

of

five

had

twelve
months.

sufficientlyexplain the defects of its composition.

his system,
In his long meditations
he had
elaborated
its
divided
and subdivided
it,and completed
heavy and useless
the
of
In
terminology.
composition he had no time
rapidity
of
for that all-important clearness
of style,nor
for the graces
the due gradation
which
structure
(depending as it does upon
These

'

had

also consummated

was,
It

attacked

only changed the whole

Copernicus had changed the science

He

)'ears'meditation.

either

Philosophy. Kant
disciples likened

The

Newton.

but

and

press,

Copernicus.

to

Copernicus
science

the

of the

two

facts

parts, and

upon

the

clearness

with

conceived) may be regarded

of a philosophicalstyle.
in spite of its defects
defects
But
pardoned by no public but a German
are

"

as

which

the parts themselves

the great desideratum

which

would

public

"

the

have
*

been
'

Critique
the* penalty of

celebrated, and its author had to endure

calls of curious
pestered with numerous
celebrity. He
was
leave
not
Konigsberg without seeing him.
strangers, who would
the admiring. Enthusiastic
added
To
the curious
scholars
were
their
undertook
Professor
long journeys to see
great master.
walked
into
his
Reuss
one
day
study, saying brusquely that "he
hundred
and
had
travelled
sixty miles to see and speak
one
became

"

KANT'S

544

with

Kant."

part of

Hfe

the

at

Kant

door

was

attacks

on

his

of his

works

died

was

the

on

if I

hands,
different

this

knew

and

my

his house

the

scarcely read any of the

enough of Philosophy in his
glad to escape from it to the

almost

powers

during his Ulness, talked

fear
not
death," he said,

far

from

and

February, 1804, in the eightiethyear

12th

retaining his

that

minutes.

day.

of his

much

you

few

self
him-

merely showing

He

had

he

with

system,

own

lecture-room, and

and

his age,

study for

that in the latter

numerous,

himself

contented

of his

so

entirelybanished.

topics of the
He

he

spoke

never

subject
study

visits became

The

his

POSITION.

HISTORICAL

say

if I

God

had

for

"

the

to

to
night was
be
praised !

how

be

ever

He

approaching

know

caused

last.

latterly,

end.

"

die.

to

my
The

of

raise

would

case

misery

the

I do

assure

last,I would

of

any

of

be

his

creatures,"

CHAPTER
rant's
is

II.

historical

position.

widely spread through England,

is regarded as
dreamer."
that
Kant
He
of
sort
a
was
a
the superb
Mystic ; and the epithet ^^transcendental'*
expresses
which
feels for the
common
sense
vagaries of
contempt
of the
dreams
Kantian
philosophers. The
philosophy," and
"transcendental
nonsense," are
phrases which, once
popular,
still occasionally to be
with in quarters
less so, are
met
now
There

notion, somewhat
"

"

where
Now

little expects
bound
are

one
we

to

find

to

them.

that, whatever
the
mysticism
are

say

the

errors

of

dreaminess
last qualities
Kantism,
or
to be
predicated of it. If its terminology render it somewhat
and
obscure
repulsive, directlythe language is comprehended
and
all obscurity falls away,
a
system of philosophy is revealed
which
for rigour, clearness, and, above
all, intelligibility,
passes,
surconsidered
hitherto
degrees, systems
by many
easy
enough of comprehension.
that
is plainly intelligible,
Convinced
the
of Kant
system
neither
the generality of his
himself
Kant
and
finding that
nor
"

expositorshave

"

succeeded

"

in

"

overcoming

the

repulsivenes$qi

KANT*S

546
Sensation

that

HISTORICAL

only furnished

party maintained

second

which

only

not

qualities we

these

idea

this

and

himself

Locke

of matter.*

"c.,

also

are

antecedent

innate

Knowledge
Sensation, but which

Elements

were

derived

never

from

Such,

Experience only

informs

add

which

us
we

the

of

qualities:

call

Substance

to

substratum

we

to

are

confesses

it ; ergo^

ideas

had

innate.

inquiry the

of

course

become

of

untenableness

this fact

and

to

was

explained :

be

the

Descartes

apparent

closely pressed by his adversaries, gave it up.

possessing ideas apparently not derivable
our
remained,

instance, is

for

which

substratum

of

add,
compelled
sensation
we
gained through any
never
such
Other
ideas,
Causality, Infinity,Eternity,
as
independent of Experience : ergo^ says this school,
of

to

the

In

there

This

Experience.

our

all sensation.

transcended

absolutely
iciea of Substance.

portion of

that

were

POSITION.

himself,
Still the
from

of

theory
whea

of

fact

experience
the doctrine

hence

Leibnitz, that although all Knowledge

begifiswtth Sensation,
it is not all derived from Sensation
furnishes its quota,
\ the mind
and
what
it furnishes has the character
of universality,
necessity,
doctrine, slightly
consequently of truth, stamped on it. This
modified, becomes, in the hands of the Scotch, the doctrine of
of

**

originalinstincts
Kant

of the

Sensational

first

Fundamental

object

was

therefore

of the

the

abstract

Causality, "c,
the

adversaries

himself

set

carefully

Criticism

Kant

ordinary explanations would

two

the

of

the

mind.

the

interrogatinghis Consciousness,

On

by

on

this fact he

; and

of Belief.'*

Laws

fact insisted

the

School

His

operations of

"

of

"

recognised

also

examine.

to

"

could

Ideas

we

be

not

other

such

into

that

for the

account

have,

resolved

found

as

Time,

Experience

neither

phenomena
Space,
alone

hand, although
priori^ could
they be supposed
since
absolutely independent of Experience,
they are, as it
the
of
forms (necessaryconditions)
only
our
Experience.
were,
There
said
he
the one
of
two
not
Knowledge,
are
sources
; on
side external
Objects, and on the other Human
understanding.
has
but
and
is
that
the
union
of object
one
Knowledge
source,
is the union
and
of oxygen
and
water
subject. Thus
hydrogen ;
on

nor,

but

cannot

you

hydrogen
The
*

has
; it

whole

Vide

of this.

say

Epoch

world

that

only

water

one

is to

cause,
us

has

two

causes,

viz.,the union

and
oxygen
of the two.

series of Phenomena.

Third, chap, vii.,of this Series, for Locke's

Are

these

explanation-

KANI^S

POSITION.

HISTORICAL

Appearances ikit production of the

or are
they the pure presentation of
Realism

or

Neither

Mind

Mind
it

materials
These

forms
the

sensations
did

modes
that

"

act

furnished

forms

it,and

conditions

or

them

the

"

would

result

be

no

object
their

In

these

on

its

of

perception possible, since

mind's
of the
operation. If we
is,supposing objects acted upon

upon

the

Perception.

own.

they

stitute
con-

had
us,

ism
Ideal-

and

make

alone

also

not

certain

imposes

Mind

The
or

materials

the}'appear

things themselves

the

; yet both.

certain

has

which

to

co-operatingproduce the appearance

union
Perception is effectuated.
The

547

only

and

we

than

more

wind

harp ; Experience
playing on the -^olian
make
would
be impossible. To
Experience possible, the mind
must
objects in a synthesis of the objects and the forms
grasp
conditions
of the perceptive power.
or
that

of

His

the

criticism

in

establishingthat
and
against Hume

ideas

directed

was

on

on

the

ideas

hand,
Experience ;
one

independent of
other, in establishingthat

have

we

against Locke

the

these

bility.
universality,necessity, and irresistiand
his criticism proved
the point is important
But
that these
be
not
ideas, although universal,and certain,could
called absolutely true : they were
This
true.
only subjectively
position ; since although Hume
falling back into Hume's
was
effect of habit, and
called
Kant
belief in causality the
called
it a law
of the
mind, yet both
agreed in denying to it any
truth ; both
of things per se
objective
agreed that a knowledge
was
impossible.
We
regard the result of Kant's investigationof the elements
of Thought
as
nothing less than a scientific basis for Scepticism.
He
the
likens his philosophical reform
introduced
reform
to
into Astronomy
of men
Finding the labours
by Copernicus.
unsatisfactory,Copernicus bethought him that perhaps success
his efforts if he shifted his ground, if,instead of
might crown
turned
round
the earth, he were
to
assuming that the sun
have

of

character

"

"

the

that

assume

says, that the

the
of
order
and

laws

of

we

cognitive faculties.
us

erroneous.

were

the

to

assume

it is
Both
An

founded
the

name

examination

And

and
of

Kant

following

him

if

to

better

objectsobeyed

he
an

on

So

sun.

knowledge

that the

constitution.

mental

critical,because
to

round

ordinary assumption of our

external
objects, seemed

if

our

turned

earth

calls

examination
the
the

his

versed,
re-

the

system
of

our

comparison appear
cognitive faculties

KANT^S

548
as

was,

have

we

differed

Kant

did
the

of

the

viz.,that

operations of the
certitude

Descartes

is the

we

the

; but

he

admitted

indeed

that

world

those

from

Leibnitz
obtained

ideas,
analysing the

our

after

Kant,

se,

but

laws

little

was

the attempts
is the result

nothing

things per
mind, discovered

the

result

know

can

the

of

as

same

; and

deduce

to

of view.

deduce

of mind,

of

differed

point

the
to

know

never

can

of

in method

in result, it in nowise

his attempt
from
the laws

world

attempt

although the examination

positivelychanged

of the kind

; and

Berkeley

by Hume,
we

other

phenomenal

Consciousness
and

every

from

nothing

than

more

; and

philosophical

of

matter

great

Spinoza

Copernicus

in method.
Kant

said, the

often

speculation since

POSITION.

HISTORICAL

own

certain

principlesof
principlescould not be

that all within the

applied to things beyond the Mind
; and
than
He
more
phenomenal.
cognition was
no
sphere of our
then
his investigation,and
reviews
declaring that he has gone
of human
domain
and
the round
of the
sured
meaUnderstanding
it exactly, he is still forced
that
admit
to
that domain
has assigned to it invariable
island.
limits.
is only an
Nature
but
it is surrounded
It is the empire of Truth
by a stormy
;
illimitable
which
discover
and
we
nothing but
sea,
upon
that sea, the navigator, deceived
illusions. There, on
by masses
of ice which
and
disappear successively before him,
appear

believing that

at

he

moment

every

is about

to

discover

land,

guided only by one

hope ; he is the
plaything of the stormy
always forming new
plans,
waves,
experiences, which he cannot
always preparing himself for new
without

wanders

renounce,
the
To
human

repose

yet which

and

he

can

Understanding

has

never

obtain.

experience is not
its fixed laws, and
those

Sceptic ELant says,

"

No

deceit
laws

are

true."
the

Dogmatist he
Things /^rj^.

"But

this

can
Understanding
its
know
own
never
occupied solely with
It perceives only the
of
How
Ideas.
Things.
Appearances
it be possible to know
would
of
Noumena
? By strippingthem
pressed
imthe forms
which
Sensibilityand Understanding have
our
be Appearthem
to
cease
ances).
(i".,by making them
upon
forms
annihilate
of these
But to strip them
must
we
substitute
Consciousness
must
for
we
our
present Sensibility
faculties
and
Understanding a faculty or
capable of perceiving
do.
cannot
Our
This, it is obvious, we
only
Things per se.
communication
with
this
Senof
Objects are
precisely
means

To

"

says,

It is

KANT^S

sibilityand

this

forms

which

under

HISTORICAL

very

The

knowing Things/^
such
Faculty.
difference

The

is

said

Kant
limited

Hume

Hume

said

; it was

; it

enough
impossible.
differences

so

when

Kant,

sidered,
deeply conUnderstanding was
Philosophy impossible.

treacherous

not

was

it went,

as

circumscribed

in the

tliat

but

but

it could

Philosophy

not
was

maintained

led him
to utter
by Hume
in Religion, as subjects on
which
The
veracity of Consciousness
firm and
certain
a
by Kant, was

Scepticism in Philosophy and

could

reason

far

as

not

it

aware

pronounce.

went)

basts, though
Morals, as we
be

have

the

far

as

decisive,We

it may
led to important
appear,
principles. The
application of Kant's
dacity
men-

of Consciousness

to

the

difference, slight as

This

(as

and
that

it rendered

trusted

was

is

answer

Understanding

be

to

far

such,

as

the

that

The

j^^

between

this.

treacherous, and,

go

Objects

to

them."

know

we

give

Dogmatist, therefore, Kant's

the

same

no

which

Understanding,

549

reply is virtuallythe
that the Understanding, from
the
He
Hume's.
as
proves
know
of its constitution, cannot
nature
Things per se.
Have
other Faculty capable
we
question then arises,
any

To

of

POSITION.

maintained

limited

shall

the

of

see

one,

which

on

hereafter.

would

not

his

resulting from

consequences

veracity of the Understanding.

and
him
Hume,
confessedly between
he

Religion

critics do

Kant's

of the

that

build

to

have

left

Yet

it

appear

exposition

the

battle

have

been

as

might

the

not

field

and

was
pected
sus-

entirelyto

his

antagonist.
is,we trust, now
prepared to follow with interest
In giving
the leading points of Kant's
analysis of the mind.
The

an

reader

indication

of

the result

we
analysis itself,

will read

hope
the

we

of

analysis,before

that

have

analysiswith

so

far

interested

giving
the

the

reader

sharpened
; seeing
them
leading, he will not deem
dry.
famous
And
first of the
are
question : How
syntheticjudgments
This
is the nut
A priori,possible1
Kant
has
crack
to
with
first let us understand
Hume.
But
Kant's
language. He
divides all our
classes, analytic and
judgments into two
thetic.
synThe
analytic judgment is,as it were, but a writing out
that
of our
a
we
experience. When
triangle is a figure
say
three
with
sides, or that a body is extended, we are judging
are
adding nothing to our conception of
analytically
; i.e. we
that

he

whither

dry details

are

attention

KANT'S

S50

body

triangle,we

or

judgment,
of

the

on

is

contrary,

such

that

attribute

between

two

points.

are

two

and

as

those

does

is

The

priori.

those

that
road

shortest

the

result

former

involve

not

synthetic judgments

of

is ductible.
e^,y Gold
before
ductible
can
we

of which

straight line

classes

synthetic
analysing it The
bute
attriwhen
we
predicate some

only

are

thing, the conception

There

POSITION.

HISTORICAL

ct posteriori

experience

from
know

that

is

Gold

absolutely
predicate ductilityof gold. But the
d priori judgments
are
independent of experience : e.g., b.
two
points ; which
straightline is the shortest road between
pendent
is recognised as true indeexperience may
confirm, but which
versality
of uniof experience ; above
all,it has a character
bestow
which
not
though
experience could
; for
in
is
how
line
instaiices
show
a
us
straight
experience may
many
it
that there
the shortest
cannot
road between
two
points,
prove
is absolutely
had

Kant

no

shorter

to

combat

Hume

declared

simply

and

and

that

We

that

truly

an

in

road
Hume

case.

any

the

on

experience of Cause
experience of Antecedence
to

cause

any

effect

Causality,

of

question

Effect

and

our

attributing

our

must

and
was

was

Sequence
mere

matter

of habit.

causation

is

believed
irresistibly
is

not

in the

given

said

So

observer.
other

source

than

antecedence

and

facts
but

in, the idea must

things observed,
also

mere

it

upon
sequence,

sequence

; but

; we

antecedence

of

inasmuch
have

then
he

This

^bif.

this fact of causation

and

the

given

not

Hume

explanation,since
In

in

replied Kant,

True,

is

found

seek

in the

obviously

is
If it

source.
we

quence,
se-

causation

as

some

must

and

it in the

observer

not

no

sufficient

ought to attribute causation to all

that of Day and Night, for example.

we

what

have

have
next

an

We

have

attribute

of

first antecedence
causation

given in our experience ; the

is not
second
given in our experience, but is independent of it.
d priori synthetic judgment.
This
.is therefore
second
an
By
such
means.of
judgments we are not only able to say that one
of another, but also we
enabled
to make
are
thing is the cause
have
Cause,
this wide
generalization : Every Effect must
a
Here, as in the proposition of a straightline being the shortest
Idea
have
road
between
two
not
points, we
given in exan
perience,
and
an
idea, the universality of which, experience
could never
verify.

predicated of

them.

The

first is

we

HISTORICAL

KANTS

We

led

thus

are

to

has

the

551

add

does

it adds

what

that

experience,but

of

Mind

that the

assert

sense-experience; and

to

POSITION.

further

is

something
pendent
only inde-

not

character

of certitude

universality which

claim.
The
experience can
never
tainty
cerlimited
it
of experience is always
have
the
never
can
;
it
however
rich
for
of
character
after a
universality,
be,
may
it
Thus
thousand
be
it was
proved erroneous.
years
may
black : a wide experience
were
universallybelieved that all crows
it
had established
were
found; and experience
^yetwhite crows
it had been
in error.
forced to acknowledge
the
So with
was
motion
of the sun, once
because
founded
universally believed,

and

"

upon
which

experience. That which

shall be universallyand

men,

cannot

Mind.

of the

often

so

held

irresistibly
true,

as

necessarily maintained
but

it is

abstraction

an

it is founded

the

on

tion
constitunot,

of

all

by

in the

the truth of Mathematics

because

because

but

be

to

origin in Experience,

Hence

said,

Relations,

is

as

Forms

and
of

laws

necessary

constitution.

mental

our

its

have

is

synthetic judgments, d priori, there is a ground of

certitude.
The
tude.
that certiveracity of human
reason
on
reposes
know
therefore, says Kant, we
Although
never
can
whether
conceptions of things,/^ se, are
our
adequate, we can
what
know
form
of them
must
conceptions all men
; although
know
if our
has any objective truth, we
cannot
knowledge
we
its
truth.
of
certain
be
subjective
can
Certitude
A
of
principle
having been found, nothing further
In

these

its confirmation

for

was

necessary

this

principlecould

that it formed

People

Logic,

they end
endless.
Why
Physics

which

are

Logic, Mathematics,

universal

reducible

laws

of

human
way,

the

the

to

and

Generalities
and

certain
their

.*\

they

higher branches
do

contingentbut
is

not

occupy
variable
the in-

with

composed

propositions.
principles,are nothing more
These

is invariable.
invariable

laws

are

Mathematics

rules

of

self-evident

mind.

study of certain

the

properties. Logic
to

human

nature

of

variable

the

propositions,reduced
the

showed

of all science.

Sciences

with
and

Kant

far

is this ?

are

themselves

science.

in how

dispute,said he, respecting Mathematics

or
if
of
branches
pute,
disdo
and
higher
Physics ;
they
in metaphysics disputes are
by agreeing. But

because

Simply
of

of

ascertain

to

not

the

or

basis

the

basis

the

do

be

than

These

invariable

is,in the

properties,which

do

than
cause
besame

not

KANT^S

552

exist in nature,

according

which

but
the

to

PSYCHOLOGY.

of

laws

of the

conceptions

are

mind,

the

mind

furnished

data

upon

acting,
by

of all that is variable

and unbeing made
certain
in those data.
lateral
E^,^ the essential propertiesof an equiis
abstraction
of any
triangle,
body which
being made
and only the propertiesthemselves
being considered.
triangular,
abstraction

nature,

again, science

Here

the

on

reposes

of the mind.

laws

have
that
seen
physics, since the time of Galileo, men
the
o
f
They propassive disciples, nature.
they are judges, not
pose
this
solve
vestigate
h
an
problem, they inpriori problem ; and, to
experiments, and these experiments
they make
nature,
It is reason
that
directed
by reason.
they follow, evea
are
is
the
it
when
nature
principles of that reason
operating on
;
which
they seek in nature, and it is only in becoming rational
that physics'become
Again we find science reposing
a science.
In

the

on

the

Thus,
and
It

which

laws

sciences

this certitude

is

basis

the

form

physics, are nothing less

is, therefore,in the nature
of all the

to

mind

of the

laws

than

be

to

the laws
the

of

Psychology thus becomes

Kant's psychology we
now

the

It
of

has

knowledge

our

That

; and

that

the

titude
cer-

piinciples of

the

address

philosophy

of all

groundwork

ourselves.

III.
psychology.

experience does

furnish

not

the

whole

it does

what

mind,

mind.

furnish

has

the

character

of

contingency

variability;

and

mind

the

That
an

that

shown

been

human

necessity.

CHAPTER
rant's

of the

human

found

universalityand

are

logrc,mathematics,

of

also

furnishes

inseparable condition

could

be

not

this

That

of all

an

element,

and

knowledge, without

this element
it

is

knowledge

element

has

the

character

of

universality and

necessity ;
And

that
and

It

now

the

principleof

all certitude

is

sality
precisely this univer-

necessity.
remains

for

us

to

examine

the

nature

of

the

mind.

KANJ^S

554

diverse

multiple and
invariable
would

the

There
the

are

invariable

two

are

of

forms

of material;

name

our

; time

therefore,

we

we
sensibility,

our

Time.

the

the

in all sensations.

elements
elements

I^

S^ace and
sensibility. Space is the

external

sensibility,as

the

by

by the name
form.
of
conditions
primary

invariable

the

discover

must

element

oi

element

discover

PSYCHOLOGY.

both

form

They
of

form

as

our

internal

and

will,you

can

external.

sensations

Analyse

divest

never

conceive

given

conceive

the

annihilation

in

the

things
of

but

as

space.
you

you
You

cannot

ceive
con-

conceive

can

space

were

materials

of sensation

; since

cannot
objects annihilated,
of space.
Not
being given in

constitute

you

conceive

but

therefore

must

form

still
annihilated, you must
Space, therefore,is the indispensable
the
form
of our
external
sensibility.

exist

sensation

of

is not

It

the.

space
If all matter

to

space

condition

external

without

bodies.

without

of

them

bodies

of

may

the

material, it

the

the form.

time
of our
that
is also the form
reasoning proves
both
internal
and
extemaL
We
sensibility,considered
as
conceive
cannot
things as existing,except as existing in time ;
time
conceive
but we
can
as
existing,though all things were
annihilated.
Things subjected to our sensibilityare subjected
is the form
of our
to it in succession ; that
sensibility.
the
conditions
of all sentwo
indispensable
then,
sation
are
Such,
Similar

the

"

two

materials

presented

of

and

space

with

forms

time

to

us.

cannot

which
It

we

is evident

have

been

invest

all

that

these

of the

question,ITave

two

ideas

in the

given

materials,
experience; ergo, they are

from
consequently are not deducible
calls ihtm^ pure intuitions.
d priori^ or, as Kant
settled
this point, he
into
enters
Having
examination

varied

the

space and

his

time

celebrated
any

objective

reality?
reproduce his arguments, which, however, may
ourselves
fine dialectical
be studied
exercises,but content
as
That
result is easily foreseen : If space
with giving the result.
and
of our
the forms
and
time
not
given in
sensibility,
are
are
in
the
materials
at
presented, we
experience, not given
may
have
of our
that they
existence
out
no
sensibility.
assume
once
the
discovered
forms
of sensibility,
must
we
Having thus
the
discover
its
forms.
understanding to
interrogate
function
of
It is emiis
the
to judge.
The
understanding
We

need

not

PSYCHOLOGY.

KANT'S

555

faculty; and
by it the perceptions furnished
into conceptions {JBegriffe).
through our sensibilityare elevated
have
should
had
If we
sensations, but no
only sensibilitywe
that
indebted
It is to the understanding
are
we
knowledge.
indebted
Thus
the
for knowledge.
to it?
are
we
:
,And how
linked
to unity
they are
variety of our sensations is reduced
other
ing.
to interpret each
by the understandtogether and made
be
in itself can
sensation
A
nothing but a sensation j
sensations
be nothing but many
sensations, they can
can
many
But
sensation
alone
constitute
linked
conceptions.
one
never
to another
connecting faculty the diversity of many
by some
^the resemblances,
reduced
sensations
to unity
existing amidst
united
and
of
the diversity,detected
together is the process
of the understanding,
forming a conception, and this is the process
and
consciousness.
of imagination,memory,
by means
with the external
Our
world, are affected by
sensed, in contact
The
result Kant
calls
objects in a certain determinate
manner.
a
representation iVorstellung)in reference to the object represented
in
reference
affection
the
intuition
to
{Anschauung)
an
;
moulded
itself.
intuitions
These
are
by the understanding
is converted
into conceptions ; the sensation
into a thought.
bility
The
understanding is placed in a similar relation to sensiexternal
to
sensibility stands
things. It imposes
as
it by sensibility,
furnished
the
in
materials
certain
forms
on
the
forms
and
the
of space
sensibilityimposed
same
as
way
it.
These
the
of
standing
undertime upon
forms
objects presented to
the laws
of its operation.
are
active

iiently an

"

"

"

"

"

To

function
of

these

discover
of the

judgments

there

are

of

ask

must

we

understanding

In

^Judgment.

"

other

four:
heads

judgment

every

How

subdivision

under

be

classes

many

words. What

every

may
each

of

is the

ourselves. What

the

are

possible judgment?
quantity, quality,relation,modality. Under
conditions

forms

They

"

variable
inare

of these

one

classed.

of

these

classes

form

of

may

be

that

action

and

follows

"

I.

In

judging of anything
quantity, we judge of it
these
unity or as plurality
as
two, we
judge of
; or, uniting
it as totality. II.
be
So of quality : it may
reality,negation,
liriiitation.

or

accident,
Modality
Such
make

may

Relation

and

cause

are

no

III.

be
Kant's

comment.

the

effect,

that

or

of

substance

re-action.

and

IV.

possibility,
existence, or necessity.
them
need
we
Cat^ories, Upon
little better
those
than
of
They are
of

famous

KANT'S

556

Aristotle, which
tedious

be

logic

Kantian

with
In

(
'

declared

before

we

were

PSYCHOLOGY.

to

we

this

on

useless.*

be

to

into

further

venture

subject: let

us

It

the

therefore

would
of

arcana

content

selves
our-

results.

Categories

those

standing.

find

we

the

the

of

farms

pure

under-

render

the
variable
inthought possible; they are
conditions
of all conception ; they are
the
investitures
furnished
by the understanding on the materials
by

bestowed

They

sense.

declares
he has answered
the second
Categories, Kant
half of the
question, How
are
s)mthetic judgments, a priori^
possible? The synthetic judgments of the Categories are all
have
the faculties of the
d priori. But
not
we
yet exhausted
mind.
understanding
Sensibilityhas given us intuitions (perceptions),
still
has
is
there
another
given us perceptions, but
of
the
the
crowning faculty
reason
faculty
( Vemunff)^
pure

By

the

"

forms

of which

have

we

Understanding
der
Urthdle) ; reason

is

seek.

to

defined

the

faculty of judging { Vermbgen

is the faculty of ratiocination
of drawing
from
conclusions
given premises ( Vermogen der SchlUsse).
reduces
-the
Reason
variety of conceptions to their utmost
unity. It proceeds from generality to generalitytill it reaches
be reduced
the unconditional.
to
Every conception must
some
still more
to some
general
general idea, that idea again reduced
idea,

and

on

so

principle,such
Reason

not

the

"

till

arrive

we

at

ultimate

an

and

unconditional

God.

as

only reduces
particular from

particulars to
the

general, \L also

I say
thus, when
is mortal," I deduce
this particularproposition from
Peter
the
mortal;" and this deduction
general proposition, All men
are
is evidently independent of experience, since
Peter
being now
have
I
the
to
alive, can
no
experience
contrary.
of
These
two
to some
reducing
particular
a
general,
processes
and
of
deducing some
particular from
a
general, constitute
deduces

general

**

**

ratiocination.
Reason

has

borrowing

the

three
term

pure
from

forms

experience ; they
their domain
the understanding;
coherence
of giving unity and
to
"

Compare

by

Sir

W.

p. 244

(SeriesI.). If

Hamilton,

in his

paper

or,

ideas.

Plato,

of

that

are

as

above

them,

wholly

are

dependent
in-

sensibility above
"

their

function

that

conceptions.

metaphysical
on

calls

These

is reason,
our

Kant

Cousin.

"

refutation

"Ed.

be

Rev.,'

needed,
Oct.

see

1829.

CONSEQUENCES
The
such

all
of

understanding

This
In

the

all

557

certain

sar"e

form

can

sensations, thoughts,

the

in

possibilityfor

these

This
phenomeiia.
a
soul, in short.

Having

thus

idea

is that

reduced

all

unity, viz., soul,

varieties

world,

of

task

our

find

the

higher,

two

soul,

and

an

the
ego

and

having

the

of

the

of

these

personality
"

ego to
reduced

also

and

of

an

conditional
un-

all

the

unconditional

presuppose
world
and

world

the

of

be

to

ground

noumenon

"

varieties

completed;

ideas

thinking being

ultimate

the

the

an

seem

of both

source

the

God,

would

these

that
the

to

non-ego

of

the

passions" require

and

general idea, as
modifications, as

some

of

modifications

all the

way

universe.

of the

is that

idea

embraced

we

PSYCHOLOGY.

general conceptions,
selves
animal, tree; but these general conceptions themas
man,
subordinate
still
to a
more
general idea, embracing
are
in
the
these
general conceptions
same
as the conception
way
several
embraces
particulars of bone, blood, muscle,
man

"c.

"

KANT^S

OF

unity, viz., the

yet, on looking deeper,
third
a
a
unity still
"

of the

therefore

are

viz., God.
ego
three
ideas of
"

the

operation, the /ar^y2?r/"j of its existence.

reason,
and
what
They are to it what space and time are to sensibility,
the categories are
to understanding.
ideas are
But
these
simply regulative: they operate on
ceptions
conthe
sensations
as
understanding operates upon
; they
face
with
to face
discursive,not intuitive ; they are never
are
their objects : hence
is powerless when
reason
employed on
it can
matters
draw
beyond the sphere of understanding;
but
it
conclusions.
If
false deceptive
to
nothing
attempts
if
it
its
solve
the
to
sphere
question
"attempts
operate beyond
the

laws

of its

"

raised

respectingGod

the world

and

We
the

have

OF

KANT'S

We

have

to

now

tradictions.
con-

PSYCHOLOGY.

given brieflythe leading points

mind.

endless

IV.

CHAPTER
CONSEQUENCES

it falls into

"

trace

the

in

analysisof

Kant's

of

consequences

that

analysis.
The

ideas

great
which

question at
are

issue

was.

Have

true
absolutely objectively
^

we

or

have

Before

we

not

this could

any

be

/
'

it

answered
Have

we

which

not

we

had

we

not

PSYCHOLOGY,

this

question :
independent of experiencef

answer

ideas

any
such

ideas,

other

could

we

"

pretend

never

question : our
experience could only
to
relative, contingent, subjective;and
absolute
be
in possession of
must

the

solve

have

if

Because

to

necessary

was

or

KANT*S

OF

CONSEQUENCES

558

was

'

Critique

ideas

was

laborious

derived

not

second

the

answered

Kant

into

experience.

but

he

demonstration

answered

he

necessary

in

existence

the

of

and

the

affirmatively. His

question

experience,

from

that

solve

question we
objectivetruth.
*

of

be

first

to

no

of

resolvable

way

question negatively.
ideas were
declared
that
He
our
essentially subjective,and
did not
have
He
could
therefore
not
objective truth.
deny the
the contrary he affirmed
existence
of an
external world, on
it,
denied

But

that

can

we

the

first

know

it : he

is

say,

affirmed

it

that

was

essentiallyunknowable.
The

existed

world

various
known

which

phenomena
to

us

knowledge

as

known

to

the

; // must

us

"

is

not

it is in

our

world
as

only the appearance

remain

ever

The
us

the

of

noumena

perceive, exist.
only as it is to

we

it \sper se, but

of it. It appears to

be

can

^that

"

unknown,

fore
there-

because,

under
the
to us, i,e, come
being known, it must
appear
of our
be invested
conditions
and
with the forms
of
sensibility,
under
the conditions
and
of our
standing,
undertime, and
come
space

before

and

be

with

invested

the

categoricalforms.

the subject
object and subject face to face. Before
be affected
can
by the object that is to say, before a sensation
the object must
be
modified
is possible
in the sensation
by
of our
the
forms
alteration.
Then
sensibility: here is one
sensation
become
before
be subjected to
can
thought, it must
the categories of the understanding : here is another
alteration.
Now
the object per se
divested
of the modifications
to know
ue,
it undergoes
^is obviously impossible ;
in the subject
for it is the subject which
knows, and the subject knows
only
under
which
the conditions
produce these modifications.
in its very
jective,
constitution,implies a purely subKnowledge,

Suppose

"

"

"

"

relative character.
ergo
of the
subject is vain

sphere
are
deplore that we
sphere from which we
bird, when
in

vacuo

"

feeling the
thinking that

To

attempt

to

and

hopeless ; nor
cabin'd, cribb'd, confined

never

transcend

can

resistance

escape.
of the

As

the

is it wise
"

well

within

might

air,wish that it
there it might fly with perfect ease.

to

that
the
were

Let

therefore

us

instead

KANT^S

OF

CONSEQUENCES

of

crossing perilous

to

Let

our

in search

seas

learn

us

with

ourselves

content

man.

PSYCHOLOGY,

559

kingdom,
cessible
inackingdoms
own

of

weakness.

our

of things per se
{Dinge an
knowledge
remains
composed as
Sich) is impossible, so long as knowledge
is
at present ; consequently ontology, as
impossible.
a
science,
if
be
knew
we
asked,
(Dinge an
never
noumena
But, it may

First

Result.

Sich), how

do

we

"

that

know

they exist ?

Their

existence

is

can
postulate. Although we
only know
ances
appearconclude
the
forced
of things, we
to
that
things exist.
are
of a rainbow, we
discover
it is only the
that
Thus, in the case
these
of certain
drops of water
drops of water:
appearance
less
again, although owing to us their shape, colour, "c., nevertheexist.
drops
They do not exist as drops of water, because
but
but
unknown
there
is
of water
an
thing
somephenomena
are
;
when
affecting our sensibility,
as
which,
drops of
appears
affirm
this unknown
Of
something we
can
water.
nothing,
exists
because
We
it
it
that
affects
necessarily
are
us.
except
affected.
We
that
that
also
conscious
of
conscious
are
being
be
ourselves.
affects
which
must
something different from
us

the

necessary

This
A

the

of causation

law

inasmuch

phenomenon,
is

never

be

conditions

us.

it is

an

poses
presupappearance,
but this noumenon,

which

"

Result.

Second
necessary
From

as

to

thing
appears;
is
It can
postulate,
only negation to us.
necessary
it can
under
the
only be known
positivelyknown;
and understanding,ergo as a phenomenon.
of sense

noumenon

which

reveals

postulate, but
the

existence

The

"

its existence

it appears

foregoing

of

that

an

is

external

only

we

are

world

is

logicallyaffirmed.
unable

to

know

never
anything respecting things per se; consequently we can
that
it
has
truth.
of
knowledge
objective
our
predicate
But
relative,can
our
knowledge being purely subjective and
?
embrace
No.
have
to
are
we
certainty
scepticism ?
no
we
Our
Third
Result.
knowledge, though relative,is certain.
We
ideas
ideas independent of experience;
and
these
have
have
the character
of universality and
necessity. Although we
conclude
that
entitled
not
to
subjective knowledge
are
our
is completely true, as
the
of
an
expression
objective fact,
that
conclude
within
forced
its
to
are
sphere it is
own
yet we
"

"

true.

Fourth

Result.

"

^The

veracity of consciousness

is established.

CONSEQUENCES

560

KANT^S

OF

PSYCHOLOGY.

Fifth

Result.

certainty of

the
It is here
of

we

Those

consciousness

is established

amazing importance
who

him

of

Kant's

analysis

with

having
reproach
have
attended
can
Hume,
scepticism,
only
Critique of the Pure Reason,' which certainly does, as

before, furnish

scientific basis

knowledge
to us
things external
are
is
impossible.
ontology
attain.
mind.
led

that

we

we

said

It proves

that

cannot

we

conceive

them

his

to

that

assume

in

that

word,

with
This is the goal they both
Hume.
goes
of the
This is the limit they agree
to set to the powers
the different views
of mind
But
they took of the nature

far

So

as

scepticism.

for

is relative; and

our

Kant

difference

the

to

knowledge.

as

it extended,

noted

before

we

having

Kant

of

that

See

the

shown

that

certainty

consciousness,

far

as

practical,not

it is

escape
The

"

it is

not

to

attempt

To

j"er
And

belief
on

demonstrate

by

is utterly

Reason
the

certainty^ not

which

on

cannot

reason.

of

existence

the

believing in
is, I admit,

escape
of mine

fact, from

deduced

ideas

the

incompetent

God
to

is

the

an

task.

things
things to
noumena
impossible attempt.
world
God
irresistible
that
the
that
exists,
exists,
are
yet

attempt
se

This

ultimate

an

impossible attempt.

cannot

; it is founded

conclusion

I find

consciousness

virtue, I

virtue.

theoretical

demonstration:

; and

If in
and

world,

world, and

the

God,

was

consequences.

the

God,

veracious

the

respecting

that in conhaving shown

sciousness
certain elements
derived
not
were
given which
were
experience, but which
necessarily true; it followed
were
in
whatever
found
consciousness
was
perience
independent of exwithout
be
trusted
to
dispute.
was

from

of

ended,

in

like
*

veracityof

the

morals.

the

see

mind.

the

With

"

"

to

to

penetrate

know

of

essence

is

"

also

know

"

an

convictions.
that derived
certitude, therefore, besides
this is moral
demonstration
from
is
and
certitude, which
It is morally certain that
I cannot
belief.
grounded upon
say,
I am
God
morally certain that God
exists,"but I must
say,
There

is another

"

"

"

exists.*'
Here

Reason

;*an

theoretical,
as

knows.

is

then

the

basis

for

investigation into
but

This

as

practical.
activity

must

principle\s freedom of will.

the
Man

have

Critique

reason,

is

some

no

being

of

the

longer
who

Practical
as

acts

purely
as

principle,and

well

that

JCANfS

562

PRINCIPLES.

FUNDAMENTAL

CHAPTER
EXAMINATION

Kant's

I.

m^rks

PRINCIPLES.

important

for

points

our

sideration
con-

"

the

out

FUNDAMENTAL

three

presents

assigns

It

KANT's

OF

system

V.

limit

to

the

of scientific

domain

of

powers

and

reason,

inquiry.

this

In

clearly

it is seep-,

scepticism with terrible weapons.

has
another
II. It proclaims that knowledge
origin besides
the
ideas
and
that
thus acquired are necessarily
experience ;
is established, and
this
the
of
consciousness
In
veracity
true.
scepticism is defeated.
furnishes

tical,and

III.

founds

It

belief in

; the

of morals

this

upon

consciousness

veracity'of

future

in

state, and

system

existence

the

of

God.
the

In

certain
that

of

course

it would

that

all minor

expositionwe

our

details

lead

us

might

For

discussion

be

The
be

that

contained

three

found

in themselves

is the

one

in

points above mentioned

to present
only one

the

first
"

second.

viz.,that

we

are

gives up philosophy as a
matter
intelligence. Scepticism is
beyond the reach of human
of legitimate speculation.
the only result
But
made
against
conclusion
such
stration
we
practically guarded by the demonare
a
of our
of experience. This
having ideas independent
this second
is the second
point to fall to the
point. Were
the second
With
ground, nothing but scepticismcould remain.
unable

to

know

point must
The

point

things

criticism

beyond our limits ; certain also

the
fundamental
set aside, and

here, and

admission

the

from

far

principles alone be considered.

will,if closely examined,

callingfor

abstained

stand

or

"

fall the third.

point, therefore, becomes

second
of Kant's

system,

that

must

the

engage

our

central
whole

and

vital

attention.

in Germany
and
subsidiary criticism,as is current
France, respecting the impossibilityof separating the objective
of a knowledge
the
which
is confrom
subjective elements
fessedly
be
in
both subject and
aside.
set
object
safely
one, may
the
vital
Let the possibilitybe
granted ;
question is not connected
All

such

with
Kant's
to

the

it.

assuming
pure

reason.

The

same

for the

The

may

be

said

practicalreason
vital point in

of the
that

of
illogicality

which

his system

he

is, we

denies

repeat,

KANT^S

qiie^ionas

the

ideas

have

we

563

independent

of

ex"-

all-important.
its

importance

conviction

The

certain

with

into this world

sent

are

we

is

gives it

what

And

whether

to

This

perience.

PRINCIPLES.

FUNDAMENTAL

connate

if

that

principlesof

be false ; that if,for example, the

principles cannot
is antecedent
all experito
principleof causality is one which
ence,
the mind, we
and is inseparablefrom
forced
to proare
nounce

truth, those

it

ultimate

an

the

truth.

question.

As

led
to his
confessedly was
on
as
causation, and
own
system by the speculations of Hume
that is the most
important of all the d.priori ideas with which
is supposed to be furnished,we
will content
the mind
ourselves
with
examining it. If that be found
dependent on
ence,
experiall the a priori ideas must
be likewise given up.
This
is
Now.to

the

nut

we

question.

Kant

; its kernel

have

to

And

first of necessary

crack

is the kernel

of the

whole

Whewell

calls

Necessary

Truth/

Dr.

truths, as

ideas.

i/fw/

That

straightlines

two

can

is

meet

never

\^'
^-^y.

the
of 4,
definition
necessarily follows from
d, priori truth, a truth
To
call it,however,
an
straight line.
perfect
of
to
us
an
seems
experience,
independent
example of very, imof
the
mind's
An
is
made
operations.
analysis
attempt
been
that it could
have
to prove
gained through experience,
never
That

is

to

say,

because

it

it commands

itself could

universal

assent,

and

because

perience
Ex-

necessity. Dr. Whewell's

straightlines out as far as
us
argument
still unable
them
to infinity
to follow
we
are
can, we
; and, for
all our
experience can tell us, these lines may possibly begin to
we
approach immediately beyond the farthest point to which
have
what
followed
Now
them, and
so
ground
finallymeet
the
for believing that this possibilityis not
fact ?
In
have
we
other
do we
the axiom
know
to be
words, how
absolutely true ?
Clearly not from experience.
We
Yes ; clearlyfrom
ence
experience. For our experianswer.
is precisely this : they cannot
oi two parallel \mts
enclose
tell
Dr. Whewell
experience can
space.
says that, for all our
to the contrary, the lines
us
possibly begin to approach
may
each
other
perfect
this imdistant point, and
he would
at some
correct
is
The
d
truth.
experience by
preciselythe
priori
case
The
reverse.
tendency of the mind unquestionably is to fancy
that
the two
lines will
at
meet
some
point ; it is experience
is, that

which

corrects

never

let

this

give

follow

tendency.

it

two

There

are

many

analogies

in

^t'

KANT^S

564

PRINCIPLES.

suggest the meeting of the

to

nature

FUNDAMENTAL

experience which

reflective

It is

lines.

two

furnish

can

with

only

our

proof which
independent of all

us

the

triumphantly refers to ideas

proof have we that two parallellines cannot
experience.
the property
?
enclose
as
Why this : as soon
they assume
space
of enclosingspace they lose the property of straightness: they are
tively
longer straight lines but bent lines. In carrying out imaginano
lines
into
have
the two
we
infinity,
a
tendency
straight
this
them
correct
to make
we
can
only
rence
approach ;
by a recurWhewell

Dr.

so

What

experience of straightlines :
image of a straightline, and then

to

our

enclose
"

we

must

that it cannot

see

space.

in

supposition,conceive

there

That

asserted.

make

two

any
Seven."
That

of

and

three

make

to

imagine

never

by

cannot

intuitions

of numbers

that

of three

and

We
Two

cannot

make

to

gine
imathought now
likely; but that he
had

been

is to
two.

them

learn

and

Three

asked

reckon, he would

five

We

of

is very
If he

to

they

and

freak

any

seven,

the relation

known

have

doubted.

Number.

Three

this,is untrue.

question before he had learned

seven
quite as easilyas

be

it otherwise.

imagine

thought

two

of

is

of that which

reverse

cannot

conceive

cannot

Whewell

Dr.

could

We

five.

freak

by

truths

such

are

the

example, all relations

take, for

may

no

we

tinct
dis-

Necessary truths," says Dr. Whewell, " are those in which

that it
not
only learn that the proposition is true, but see
the
in
which
is
possible
imbe true
false
but
not
only
negation
;
cannot
even
by an efifort of the imagiwe
nation,
; in which
or

not

call up

must

we

as

the
gined
ima-

have

say,

he

Children

would
have

they learn other

Herschell, are
"

The
Apples and the Marbles," says
things.
of ginger-breadand
through the multitude
put in requisition,
their ideas
nuts
acquire clearness, precision,and generality.'*
the calculation
of three added
But
though, from its simplicity,
"

to

ask

is with

two

him

tillhe
of
sum

he
and

thought"
to

may

730,"

we

it is

should

truth, but presume

an

act

twice

caniiot

answer

"
freak
easy
calculation)imagine the total

erroneous

very

calculation,
the error, and
declare 730 to be the sum
total,
that 365 added
to 365 make
Necessary Truth
in the least dispute the necessity of the
not
and

720;
discover
"

say,

(/.^.,
by

be

He

; yet if you

instantaneous

365, he
might certainlyby a
are

many

reckoned.

has

an

man

grown
suddenly how
a

although

that

he

when

himself

he

repeats

would

not

his

disputethat

h^

KANT^S

had

arrived

FUNDAMENTAL

565

through Experience, viz., through

it

at

PklNClPlES,

relations

his know-

he reknowledge which
/
members
to have
school
laboriouslyacquired when
a boy at
The
having, we trust, established that the
foregoing remarks
Truths
of Geometry
and
form
Arithmetic, which
class of
one
obtained
d priori^ independently
the so-called Necessary Truths, are not
the other class, which
of Experience, we
to
pass on

ledge of the

have

must

it is not

is

wide

not

by

Every effect

writng

mere

''

Kant

of

out

our

ceptions
con-

explanation,in different terms, of

generalization. Experience can

mere

It is

mean.

we

chosen

that

This

cause."

a
:

what

shall be

example

Our

numbers,

of Generalization.

Truths

call

would

we

of

individual*^ causes
effects ; and
and
only
Experience
although in our conception of an effect is certainlyinvolved the
conception of a cause, and in so far the judgment may be supposed
an
analyticjudgment, yet if we look closer the ambiguity
be

will

of

disappear.

word

cause.

existence

The

But
of

some

that which

Thing we see
Thing which

have

had

have

can

us

correlative

as

does

the

imply
our
ment
judgis purely synthetic*
the

not

it; and

caused

effect must

Experience

no

before

antecedent

an

that every

assert

we

implies

other

that it must

When

effect

word

the

cause

have

warranted.

assert
we
cause,
Is the idea,

?
No
other
channel
therefore,acquired through some
; and
of Innate
the upholders of the doctrines
Ideas, Fundamental
of
the Understanding, and
sary
Necesof Belief,Categories
Laws

Truths,

thought, which
cleared

to

appear
a

guaranteeing

of

idea.

But

necessary

of

is this.

confusion

incapable

under

little well-directed

very

The

up.

labour

to

us

to

assume

Experience, is

to

confusion

analysismight

of
have

^perience is

Our

the truth of any

therefore
that

forget that what

universal
the idea

viously
oband

dependent
is in-

experience may

and
it may
universality
suggest; and the boasted
guarantee
ideas is nothing more
less than the sugnor
necessity of our
gestions
not

to a law
understanding, operating in obedience
from
particulars,converting
nature, and generalizinjg

of the
of human

fully;

let

admitted
'*

universals.

into

them

That

us

by

now

every

this idea

hear

will

presently explain this more

Dr. Whewell, whose
explanation will be
We

Kantist.
of

cause

is not

cases)by

this

derived

from

consideration

prove

(as in former

make

involving this idea,which

assertions,

are

Experience,
:

that

we

we
can

rigorouslyneces-

universal

and

sary

contain

we

far

as

as

can

see

of arithmetic

apply

must

We

and

We

geometry.

truly as

observed.

ourselves

to

and

as

in

every

which

occurrences

what

produce

causes

it

that

come,

will

what

particularevent
;
these
are
points
;

"

of the

are

we

false

be

to

doubt

to

those

What

what
is the
effects ;
of any
cause
be the effect of any
peculiar process

it

cannot

past, present,

events,

of it

position
pro-

generally

and

suppose

certain

as

this

and

probably

cannot

we

are

universe, just as

of the

have

all

to

but

single instance.

in any
truths

we

we

"

Cause

have
Event
must
a
every
know
to be true, not
only

"

that

part

true

in itself any

assert

and

from
derived
ence
experiknowledge
far as experience goes, and
never
as
can
evidence
of its necessity. We
whatever

; whereas

be

only

can

PRINCIPLES.

FUNDAMENTAL

KANT'S

566

which

on

have
But that every
must
event
enlighten us.
than
she
can
some
more
Experience cannot
cause,
any
prove
add
the
of
She
the
evidence
to
truth,
can
disprove.
nothing
often
she may
doctrine
then canhowever
This
not
exemplify it.
have
been
acquired by her teaching : and the Idea of Cause
which
the doctrine
and'
involves
it depends, cannot
which
on
*
have
into our
the region of observation."
minds
from
come
is one
minor
which
There
must
point in this argument
we
notice first. Dr.
Whewell
that
the
proposition
every
says
have
event
must
a
cause,*' cannot
possibly be false in any one

experience

may

**

instance.
admit
for

but

"

nihil

The

that

Nothing,

ergo

often

been

has

Cause,

and
such

chain

ot

the

it

causes

Let

of

Cause.

viz., that

Cause

and
as
argument
;
and
effects
must

formula

of

have

made

Now

the

itself

it declares

Causation,

Ex

nihilQ

itself

that

Every

answer

have
as

had

reason

a
pugns
re-

the

somewhere

very

of

out

obvious

must

stop, in that
"

against the Atheists,

Nevertheless

infinitum.

equivalent
is this : *^ Every
an

its existence

employed
not

would

declaration

existence

must

cause.''
not

the weakness
"

ad

on

it falsifies the
have

is
could

have

given

so
an

World

must

of causation

Cause

some

himself

he

substitute

must

formula

this formula

fit'' And

which

one,

we

abstract

presupposes

prove

is

there

it clear

make

to

event."

existence

to

think

We

if

this be
of

thought quibbling ; it is only an exposure

the theory of causation.
If that theory be

Causalityis

"

rect
cor-

Necessary Truth, objectivelyas

as
falls to the ground,
against Atheism
well

the argument
subjectively,
*

of

Philos.

Ind..'

"c.,

vol. i; p. 159,

KANT^S

FUNDAMENTAL

For,

would

the Atheist

chain

of

and

causes

must

you

no

in the

is

ultimate

// the

not

to

stop

there.

This

dilemma

denial

of

admits

Curiously enough
maintained
Hume
by David
to

be

inlet

the

it is

than

more

b.

doctrine

for

the

because

why, then, is
assume

rational

more

that

is in the

psychological

so

or

unlimited

is in the

only loophole

"

the

ence
Exist-

right to

no

many

doctrine

years
There

posed
sup-

is,in

theological scepticism
causation, except the necessity of

of

in

necessity

truth, no

the

escape-hole

one

Causality being anything

law.

assured

somewhere

stop

of but

Atheism,

have

You

ultimate

fall into

you

are

we

must

case

either

infinity
;

to

the

that

fall into

you

Existence

extended

declare

first

of which

; if you

prior cause

any

the

second

Existence

an

be

must

and

In

cause.

scepticism;
World

effects

567

dilemma,

is the

this

argue,

somewhere

stop

has

PRINCIPLES.

our

belief in it.
The

find that

it is founded

nothing
To

than

more

this

prove

child

of this belief

nature

candle

entirelyon

we

shall

that it is,indeed,

experience
"

experience generalized.
of causation.
begin with a single case
finger in the candle ; he then believes that a
will

will

always

burn

the

child

is led

is that

; and

examine

now

our

we

his

bums

will

we

his fingers.
believe

to

Now
that

are

we

candle

the

asked
will

how

always

usually afforded is,that

is irresistibly
led
believe
in the uniformity of nature;
to
other
words, the idea of causality is 2, fundamental idea.
his

bum

We

And

finger?

the

answer,

the

answer

child believes

the

candle

it

he

in

will burn, because

experience he has of a candle is precisely this experience of

its burning properties. Before
his finger, his
had
burnt
he
simply of a bright thing which set
experience of a candle
was
his experience,the
extended
"c., alight. Having
now
paper,
candle
is to him a bright thing which
sets
"c., alight,
paper,
and
which
pain to the finger"vhen placed in contact
causes
the

with it.*

According

to

the

association,the flame of
finger applied to it are united, and

well-known

law

of

pain to the
fore
form
one
experience. This particularact of causation is therenothing but a simple experience to the child ; and for the
perfection of this experience it is in nowise needful to assume
of events," or
connexion
belief in the
that the child has
any
a

candle

and

"

See

pp.

517-8, where

the

argument

is stated

more

fully.

kANTS

S6S
in the

uniformity of the

"

PRINCIPLE^.

FUNDAMENTAL

laws

of

Nature."

Is
for iScatparticular belief.*
is necessary
belief in the general proposition
for the

idea

fundamental

No

it then,
"

have

think

We

"

cause?

In

not

belief will be

effect

Every

"

must

sary
neces-

particular

every

causation

of

act

of

For

our

belief in

experience.
simple
that
of
is
than
there
other ground
no
general proposition
duces
dewhich, generalizing the particularacts, from them
reason,
the universal
proposition.
belief
in
is no
than
more
particularlaws of causation
Thus,
the

result

the

the

hdUf

in

if we

experienu; and

our

experience will resemble

other
possible belief
no
cannot
by experience : we

have

we

formed

burning

not

as

has

that

been

in

us

experience which
As

burn, and

things

believe

we

beliefs

our

because

answer,
that
than
we

possibly believe
our
experience

that

which

the

of

candle
candle

transcend

cannot

is

the

them.

made
in

belief

the

to

of

future, because

it does

why

the past,

future

our

asked

are

causation,

universal

it is the result

we

in

prove

may

generalization ;
this very act itself is strictlylimited
and
by experience : diat is
mind
led by the laws
of our
to say, we
to judge of the
known
unare
Thus, having found
according to the known.
every
has come
which
under
event
thing
cognizance produced by someour
that every .possible event
conclude
we
prior,/"., cause,
We
have
must
judge of the unknown
by the known.
a cause.
of
Familiar
this
illustrations
generalizing tendency are those
and
of classes, and formed
of nations
rash judgments
formed
on
it
the
of
fact.
Thus
heard
experience
single
a
we
gravely
various

asserted

itself to ?

French
of

baby
the

with

French

long

unseen,

reflective person,
and he could
not
all French
This

assume

very

he

is denied
that

the

point
Ideal.

at

could

believe

babies.

a^sttmption made
the

nose."

unknown

this

he

the

thinkers

the

issue.

noses."

long

did

What

purppse
We
will

the person

his

that

Fundamental
for

divest

not

Had

by

had

of

act

mere

asserting it had seen

it had
Now
the only conception
a long nose.
in
mind
that
of a
this
was
baby
person's
the type according to which
That
was
babies were
Not
being a very
judged.
To

baby, and

of

babies

all French

''

that

this reduce
a

that

ways

never

of his

himself

conception
seen

whom

we

Idea

is

of

saving

other

are

was

now

the

of

true

babies, he
They

combating.
this

but

expose

not

French

necessary;
their theory,

presently

conception,

is

mere

assumption
mental
fallacyof Fundaan

of

KANT^S

$70

the

characters

him.
ask
you
have
effect must
you

of

the

Ask

an

he does

that

in

have

two

existence

in the

PRINCIPLES.

FUNDAMENTAL

if he

boor

world, and he will deem

you
he
if
believe
ordinary man
and

causej

; he

know

not

Ask

common.

the

chances

will ask

that

are

that

mad
that
he

every

will tell
it

explain why

to

you

beh'eves

must.

and
confine
ourselves
to
to
Nay, to leave ordinary men,
shall find that, with respect to
them
philosophers, amongst
we
of the thinking
than
one-half
class of phenomena,
one
more
does not imply a
is firmly convinced
world
effect
that
every
referred to are
those of human
class of phenomena
cause
: the
volitions.
the Will

those

declare

all

are

not

determined

not

the doctrine
of Freedom
of
espouse
that is to
volitions are self-caused

who

that

volitions

our

say,

All

our

"

by

any

If, then, speculative men

class

of

is

phenomena

effect,what

becomes

speculative

men

that

believe

led to

be

amenable

not

selves,
them-

to

priorfact.

can

of the
can

by anything external

caused

the

to

law

of

universalityof causation

conceive

the

laws

of

and

cause

and

cause

large

one

if

And,
effect

to

and
do not
ordinary men
phenomena,
conceive
these
laws to be universallyapplicable, what
becomes
of the necessity
of mankind
?
siderable
requirea conAnd, if the mass
them
and
quantity of argument
explanation to make
the
of the instinctive
understand
becomes
proposition, what
belief!
the fallacyof
Fundamental
We
Ideas,"
promised to expose
be

absent

from

some

"

have

and

arrived

now

at

stage

of

the

inquiry

in

which

this

cular
argued that a belief in a partiof causation
is only possible on
the assumption of a
act
fundamental
in
idea
of causality inherent
the
mind; that,
had
have
the formula,
although a child may never
Every effect
this
have
must
a
Cause," presented to his mind, nevertheless
formula
have
is implicitlyin his mind, otherwise
he would
no
for believing in the
exist as a
reason
particularact ; it must
brieflyperformed.

be

may

It is

**

fundamental

might

We

idea

idea.

of

as

man

that
a
rationallyargue
without
previously having

child
a

cannot

fundamental

have
idea

an

of

humanity.
The
idea of causalityis
fallacylies in this : the fundamental
a
generalization. Now, of course, the general includes the particulars
and
but
it
does
it
noX
them,
though
precede
includes^
;
yet
the

error

is in

supposing

that it must

and

does

precede

them*

tCANT^S

FUNDAMENTAL

PRINCIPLE^,

57*

that his whole

knows
boy, as Locke
body is larger
says,
than his finger; but
his perceptions of the
he knows
this from
of the axiom
that the
whole
is
two, not from any knowledge
A

"

than

greater
have

not

such

Dr.

part."

would

Whewell

knowledge

had

he

unless

that

say

he

could

fundamental

the

idea

side with Locke

in asserting that the mind
whereas, we
never
begins with generalities,but ends with them ; and, to say that
because
the general axiom, implies the particularinstance, or
that
the
particular instance
implies the general axiom, that
therefore the axiom
is independent of Experience, is to cheat
one's-self

The

with

words.

results of

is belief

argument

our

founded

are

experience

the

upon

in

belief

I. The

causation

particular acts

of

of

causation.
II.

future
have

irresistible

The

tendency

will resemble

of events

course

experience only of
experience, we cannot

our

than

as

have

we

Kant

and

Dr.

the

past, is simply that

we

as

with

doctrine

the

that
say
the
unknown

We

the

is

follow

not

triumphant proof

from

of

the

same

clusion
con-

maintained

fact of
very
by the known
of
that

"

should

draw

we

being compelled to judge of

irresistibly
our
anticipatingthat the future course
resemble
the past
of our
incapacity to believe
effects

we

transcend

cannot

this

From

them.

Whewell.-

the

wise
things really existingother-

conceive

variance

anticipate that

to

the

past, and,

known

strikinglyat
by

have

we

causes

our

will

events

the

same

this very

"

of

"

fact

ideas
not
having no
acquired
pendent
had i priori ideas, these, as inde-

our

If we
through Experience.
enable
to
of, and superior to, all Experience would
us
other standard
than that
judge the unknown
according to some
of the known.
is possible for us.
But
other
standard
We
no
that Things will not always have
cannot
by any effort believe
have
the propertieswe
experienced in them ; so long as they
continue

to

exist

must

we

believe

them

to

exist

as

we

know

them.
is irreof causation
sistible
Although belief in particular acts
and
universal, yet belief in the general proposition,
have
a
cause,'* is neither irresistible nor
Every effect must
universal,but is entertained
only by a small portion of mankind.
Consequently the theory of ^ priori ideas independent of all
III.

"

experience receives

no

What, then, becomes

We

are

forced

to

support

the

from

of Kant's

system

conclude, th^t

Idea

of

Causality,

inasmuch

as

his

stronghold

KANT^S

572

"

the existence

a
was

of d

sustain attack, the

cannot
priori i^oas
Kant
not
Scepticism is inevitable.
was
"

of the enemy
sceptic; but he deceived

entrance

PRINCIPLES.

FUNDAMENTAL

himself

in

supposing that

any safeguard from Scepticism.

The
veracityof Consciousness, which

striven

he had

so

his system

laboriously

his
Practical Reason
and on which
establish,
was
based, is only a relative,
subjectiveveracity. Experience is
the only basis of Knowledge
know, leads
; and experience, we
to Scepticism.
be
Our exposition,
closed.
lengthy, must
already somewhat
It has, we
believe,embraced
every point of importance in the
Kantian
doctrine;and those who desire greater detail will find
it in the Geschichte der Utzicn Systenu der Philosophiesby Karl
Michelet
Kritik der Reinen
Vemunfty
; or better stillin Kant's
and his Prolegomena zu einer jeden kUnftigenMetaphysik.
An
translation
Kritik
of
the
has
been
and
English
published,
a
French
M.
Tissot
but
their
to
cannot
one
by
we
speak as
;
"

"

to

^'

'*

merits.

."

iamt]"

"poc]""

DEMONSTRATION

THE

KNOWLEDGE

ONCE

AND

"

THE

OF

FIRST

MORE

TO

Gottlieb

lying

19th
His

childhood,

moral
he

old

the

pious

songs

eagerness.

enjoy

child
into

gazing

sky

his

the

to

years,
to

It

inspired,

luxury

in

ease

far

solitude.

distance,
him.

when

it with

neighbours
that

sudden

The
with

melancholy

in

or

boy

sun

has

pleasure,

become
not

into
to

on

renowned

forgetting

also

hours
the

at

the

boy

this

does

He

the

tative
medi-

for

and

down,

roam

to

vent

stands

comment
a

ings
long-

yearning

twilight.
it ;

vague

pale and

he

goes

in

wander

mirth,
give

to

mournful

the

remark

the

This

There.

an

listened

Johann

in

longings.

unspeakable

simple
mixed

him

there

him

wanderings

early

boisterous

many

own

was

made

before

taught

his

young

that

solitude,

of

and

probably

was

great

learned

studies
his

of

and

long

had

formed

which

companions,

o*er-arching

that

constantly

the

those

is at

home

returns

recur

stories

and

read,

various

stories

recitals

these

indulgence

after

the

never-tiring

of

on

related,

are

capacity

he
to

which

these

Franconia

him

taught

With
:

school

to

proverbs

which

away

Lusatia,

anecdotes

child,

precocious

"

and

village

Upper

intellectual

sent

who

and

fields, leaving

silent

be

father,

element

and

Saxony

to

erudition.

of

with

was

enough

enchanting

the

He

his

stock

in

touching

many

extraordinary

by

from

things

Rammenau,

at

Pulsniz,

and

which

of

energy.

was

born

1762.

May,

signalized

was

FICHTE.

was

Bischofswerda

between

the

I.

OF

Fichte

IDEALISM.

IDEALISM.

CHAPTER

JoHANN

TO

LEADS

SUBJECTIVE

LIFE

OP

SUBJECTIVITY

it

and,

so

in

man,

they

that

they

OF

I'^PE

574

had

*'

always said that there

Fichte's
with

his

the

curious

in

which

Catechism,

before

clergyman.

Aix

in its influence
favoured

it

relate

we

exhibits

father

Fichte's

that

hope
give

must

we

heroic

on

mand
self-com-

interestinglight.*

very

fell into his hands

which

first book

The

But

his

and

which

occurred

soon

career,

anecdote

touching

in the

entrusted

soon

was

of

far to realize it.

went

he

that

of

subsequent

and

rapid

so

reading family prayers

one
day seeing him
hope
in itself and
important
very

office

cherished
event,

was

progress

the

remarkable

something

was

indeed.

Remarkable,

boy."

FICHTE.

Bible

the

and

history of* Siegfriedthe Horned,'

the renowned

was

after

powerfully uport his imagination, that he lost

careless
all pleasure in any
became
other
and
employment,
punished. Then,
neglectful,and for the first time in his life was
of
which
the
tells
in the
oft our
to
cut
us
spirit
injunction
right
it seized

and

it

if

hand
beloved

so

offend, Fichte

to

cause

his

it in

book, and, taking

resolved

hand, walked

flowing past the house, with the

the
bank,
Long he lingered on

stream

it in.

this

sacrifice

to

slowly

intention
ere

of

to

throwing

could

he

the

muster

self-conquest of his life ; but at length,

all his resolution,he flung it into the water.
His
summoning
fortitude
he
the
as
saw
dearly loved,
treasure, too
gave
way
for ever, and he burst into
floatingaway
a
passionate flood of
the
the spot, and
father arrived on
tears.
Just at this moment
the
he had
weeping child told what
done; but either from
silent as to
timidityor incapacity to explain his feelings,
was
courage

for

his

motive.

true

Fichte's

father
this

and

life,in which

springing
those

from

for which

first

Irritated
inflicted

this

at

him
upon
formed

his

of

treatment

present,

ment,
punishunusually severe
occurrence
a
fittingprelude to his after
he was
often
so
misunderstood, and the actions
the
convictions
of duty, were
exactly
purest
he had

to

most

an

suff'er.

When

sufficient time

had

be
in some
to
elapsed for the offence
measure
forgotten,
the father brought home
books
of these
another
seducing
; but
dreaded
Fichte
being again exposed to the temptation, and
children.
of the other
begged that it might be given to some
It

about

was

occurred.
*

Fichte

have

For

The
both

which

this time

clergyman of

anecdotes

appeared

abridged

that

we

in

the passages,

are

the

the

other

event

village,who

the

indebted

to

very

before
had

taken

the

narrative

to

fancy

interesting article

'Foreign Quarterly Review,*

otherwise

alluded

No.

is unaltered.

71,

on

We

OF

LIFE

Gottlieb, and
day to ask him
sermon

and

the

the

to

when

village,and
Mittiz,who

on

having

at

morning,

he

was

for that

it all from

such

his mother
as

put
asked

him

to

to

too

told

half

clean

token

repeat

was

as

to

He

accustomed
he

bearing

could

send

answered

little

quence,
conse-

could

large

the

first

became
his voice and manner
more
sermon,
he proceeded, entirelyforgettingthe presence
fervid and
he became
abundant
so
company,

of

the

repeat
soon

nosegay,

castle

quiet simplicity;
recollect

his

Sunday

the

to

von

the

for, and
a

the

express

on

sent

was

Baron

to

sermon

was

and

accustomed

thought it

the

as

of

lord

of
jest,that it was
boy in the villagewho

frock

as

the

castle,happened

Gottlieb

well

as

circumstance

nobleman,

for the

of respect.

much

The

in
a

smock

his

with

was

late

Little

memory.

in

another

visit at the

been

argument,

HofFmansegg,

von

day

there

arrived
as

Count

of

course

its illustration.

in

one

was

the

of

account

quoted

texts

mentioned

regret

in his

assisted

often

tolerable

very

of

the

to

575

instruction,happened one
how
much
remember
of
he thought he could
Fichte
of the preceding day.
made
the attempt,
in giving a
astonishment
of the pastor, succeeded

to

the

FICHTE.

sionally
occa-

questions
but

when

morning's

animated, and,

as

of the

formidable

in

eloquence,

his

interrupt him, lest the

be
of the circle should
destroyed by the serious
playful tone
The
subjects of the sermon.
preacher had, however,
young
made
made
his auditory ; the baron
impression
some
on
enquiries concerning him, and the clergyman, wishing for nothing
than
his favourite,gave
such
more
an
opportunity to serve
that the Baron
determined
the charge of
to undertake
account
an
He
his education.
departed, carrying his protkgk with him, to his
castle of Siebeneichen, in Saxony, near
Meissen, on the Elbe ;
he
and
beheld
the heart of the poor village boy sank
the
as
the mountains
and
hall, and
gloomy grandeur of the baronial
first
His
dark
it was
oak
forests by which
surrounded.
sorrow,
his severest
in the shape of what
a
trial,had come
misjudging
of
world
good-fortune, and so
might regard as a singular piece
deep a dejectionfell on him, as seriouslyto endanger his health.
he
His patron here manifested
the really kindly spiritby which
the
had
into the feelingsof
been
actuated
child,and
; he entered
him
of a country
removed
from
the lordly mansion
to the abode
passionately fond of
clergyman in the neighbourhood who was
the truly paternal
Under
of his own.
children, and had none
of the happiest
of this excellent
Fichte passed some
care
man,
that

the

count

necessary

to

576

LIFE

OF

FICHTE,

/^

y^

and to his latest day looked

of his life,
years
tenderness
and
gratitude. The affectionate

back

to

them

with

of this amiable

care

him
little domestic
couple, their sharing with
pleasure,
every
him
in
and
been
indeed
treating
respect, as if he had
every
their son, was
always remembered
by him with the liveliest sensibility,
and
favourable
influence
certainly exercised a most
on
his character.
received
his first instruction
in the
family, Fichte
in
he
left much
which, however,
was
to
languages of antiquity,
his own
receiving what might be called a regular
efforts,seldom
lesson.
This
plan, though it undoubtedly
invigorated and
imperfectly acquainted v/ith
sharpened his faculties,left him
in some
and
his subsequent proretarded,
measure,
grammar,
gress
kind
His
at Schulpforte.
soon
perceived the
preceptor
In

this

of
insufficiency

his

own

attainments

pupil, and

for

advancing
his

the

progress

obtain
for
urged
promising a
patron
the
what
Fichte
advantages of a high school.
appeared to him
He
afterwards
was
accordingly sent, first to Meissen, and
to
the seminary at Schulpforte.
the
There
in full force, and
with
system of fagging existed
the
its usual
dissimulation
on
one
side,
tyranny
consequences,
Even
and cunning on
the other.
native strength
Fichte, whose
of character, in some
him
from
fluences
inevil
guarded
measure,
been
fatal
mind
of
that
have
feebler
to
might
a
a
his life at Schulpforte was
that
order, confesses
anything but
his
found
himself
favourable
to
integrity. He
gradually
of
the
his
conduct
reconciled
to
necessity
ruling
by the
around
him, and
opinion of the little community
compelled
artifices as others, if he would
to
practiseoccasionally the same
with all his talents and
not
industry be always left behind.
of contending forces the boy of thirteen,
this microcosm
Into
and
nurtured
amidst
silent forests,now
found
lonely mountains
himself
The
monastic
thrown.
trasted
gloom of the buildings conof fields
at first most
painfully with the joyous freedom
wander
he had
accustomed
and
been
to
at will ;*
woods, where
desert.
but still more
painfully the solitude of the moral
Shy
himself
within
he
and
the
which
tears
and
stood,
shrinking
his companions
to
furnished
only subjects of mockery
were
forced back, or taught to flow only in secret.
Here, however,
the useful
lesson
of self-reliance,so well, though
he learned
so
of sympathy
in those
around
bitterlytaught, by want
us, and
of

so

to

from

this time

to

the

close

of his

life it

was

never

forgotten.

LIFE

578
carried

to

immediately

rector, Fichte

the

before

intended

had

FICHTE.

OF

and

escape,

the

at

confessed

that

related

the whole

time

same

he

that
straightforward simplicity and openness,
for him, and
not
interested
became
the rector
only remitted his
the
elder
for
chose
lads, another
him, among
punishment, but
with
the
him
who
treated
kindness, and to
greater
master,

story with

such

he

whom

Fichte

had

died,

become

with

and

prospects

attached,

warmly

became

gloomy

were

his patron
Theologiae when
His
being a clergyman.

Candidatus

died

him

all

hopes

in

the

of

; but

extreme

he

relieved

was

anxiety by being ofifered the situation of private tutor in

afterwards
He
made
tance
acquainsoon
a
family in Switzerland.
He
other
also
with
literary men.
some
Lavater, and
with
last
him
which
to
formed
life,
through
was
attachment,
an
from

niece

of

Klopstock.
The
remarkable.
tutorship was
parents of his
his plans,
neither
perfectly comprehending
pupils, although
were
they did comprehend,
approving of that part which
nor
admirers
moral
character
such
of
his
stood
nevertheless
they
that they were
mit
induced
in such
of him
to subrespectful awe
a

Fichte's

"

"

their

We

judgment.
their

towards

conduct

children

He

in the
history
fancy, quite unexampled
he
them
which
laid
before
kept a journal

in

which

we

had

him.

It

growing
it lasted

character,
from

was

for two

years

been

has

which

his character

forced

was

to

Leipsig,
and
an

was

ended,
to

seek

where
became

important

; and

as

soil that
which

was

at
some

he

such

held.

it should

made

length, in

it

was

mutual

of

about

event

to

him.

Hear

find

to

his

name

last

the

in

respect

dissatisfaction.

in Greek

He

He

in what

terms

he

went

This

speaks

of it :

"

"

have

been

living for

the

last

four

or

five

sophy,
Philo-

and

private
gave
acquainted with the writingsof Kant.
lessons

firm

irksome, insupportable,

of subsistence.

mode

other

week, and
which
they

long ;
lasted so long

not

have

evidence

But

relations.

know
anything we
we
might expect

censorship could
that

sionally
occa-

points
plan is,

Fichte's

of

secret

afterwards

remarked, strong

is,as

and

this domestic

But

into the

much

as

such

us

doctrines

the moral

illustrious.

lets

of

every
of
conduct

of

faults

the

This

guilty.

truthful

and

noted

had

he

been

Fichte's

; but

his

to

tutors

respecting certain

parents

the

children

their

well-meaning

all

that

presume

to

respect

suggestions to

make
in

with

conduct

own

months

in

LIFE

life I

Leipsig,the happiest
head

my

like

so

froth.
took

could

579
I

remember.

can

here

came

with

grand projects,which all burst one after another,

the
much
so
soap-bubbles, without
leaving me
as
many
At first this troubled
me
a
little,
and, half in despair, I
have
taken
I ought to
Since
I
long before.
step which
full of

what

alter

not

what

FICHTE.

OF

within.

was

videlicet

and

"

without

was

to

myself into philosophy

I threw
here

I resolved

me,

I found

the

antidote

true

Kantian

the

"

alter

to

try

evils,

all my

for

this
joy enough into the bargain. The influence which
of
it (which, however,
philosophy, particularlythe ethical part
the
is unintelligible without
of
Kritik
der
a
previous study
whole
of thought ;
Reinen
Vemunft'), has had upon
system
my
and

the

revolution

which

it has

in

effected

is

mind

my
the

be

to

not

declaration
that
I
especially I owe
whole
and
that
in
I
free will,
heart,
now
see
my
and
that under
this supposition alone
can
duty, virtue,
morality
the
existence.
of the
have
From
proposition
opposite
any
the
flow
actions
most
must
necessity of all human
injurious
in
it may,
in fact,be
to
society; and
part the
consequences
which
of
classes
the
the
morals
of
higher
source
we
corrupt
it
Should
remain
hear
much
of.
one
so
adopting
virtuous,
any
described.

To

you

believe,,with

look

must

we

for the
of

innocuousness

"

in

granted
the

but

enjoyment
to

but

us

to

of

management

suited
no

to

to

strengthen

us

our

enjoy
such

; my

frame

slave.

man's

As

of

the

truth, that

the
of the

trouble

that

in the

than

it is their

are

to

of

want

for

that

here

joy is

every

exertion

further

the

not

that

required of
by no means
at
myself, therefore, not
not
without, I endeavour

am

does

people either.

As

man's

no

have

prospects

not

deep
well

at

none

suit me,

long

as

can

all
to

quillity
tran-

enough

master,

and

all,for the
nor,

to

present

I shall

time

I
\

us,

say

maintain

I have
been
certainlydo so.
of
Kant's
some
working at an explanatory abridgment
Kritik der Urtheilscraft
(CriticalInquiry into the Faculty of
cifraid I shall be
before
Judgment), but I am
obliged to come
the public in a very immature
state, to prevent being forestalled
my
for

independence

toil,and

life is

is

mind.

church

this

the
perhaps I owe
position,however, is

external
of

that

this

to

constitution

fate

own

And

be.

elsewhere

many

convinced,
and

only self-culture.
concerning the things
but

With

of labour

but

appear

purity

their actions.

well

furthermore

am

of

land

doctrine.

the

logicalconsequence

his

of

cause

S8o

by

hundred

It

ineffectual

several

Konigsberg.
the

Kant

at

once

to

in

August

the

not

to

sented
pre-

received
was

which

Revelation/

him

warmly.
and

poor

un-

have

were

yesterday began
meditation

my

some

but

growing older,
distress
able

is

on

the

an

introduction.

subject

one's

his

kept

he

for
that

If

me

that

my

speak

to

hardship.

that

whom

is

It

that

this

true

I have

not

...

speak
given me

not

has

Kant

it shall be

one

any

I could

find

certainly shall

was

myself in such
besides,
country;
more
delicate,

in my
own
becomes
of honour
of

work

found

then

was

more

my
far away,

fortnight.

ideas

investigation

out

I have

resolution.
any
M.
Borowsky, to

to

excellent

finances, and
a

Critique.'

and

so

me

'

my

new

carry

my

Hfe

sense

and

more

make

to

to

led

revise

to

convinced

in my

first time

embarrassment,

been

possible

'

superficial. I endeavoured
imagination
to-day; but my
do
I
have
reckoned
nothing.
have
just enough to subsist on

and

went

desperate. We
fragment of a journal which

excogitated, which

in

he

introduction,
eight days, and

celebrated,

affairs

the

"

of

course

were

an

that, after
Fichte

Fichte's

Kant

time.

the

is

of

ever

in

written

work,

child

the

himself,

settle

letter of

himself, though

2Sth

In

admiration

Critique of every
recognised his peer, and

confession
the

of

title of

influential.
own

his

of

attempts

with

Kant

But

"

publications. Should
it to you.''*
will send

Instead

Kant
bore

FICHTE.

vamped-up

its appearance
I
in
was
consequence

make

at

OF

LIFE

Kant

to

himself.
"

Sept,

ist

Kant.

to

might accept
I

work.

to

Kant

the

write

to

"

"

that

"

received

It

as

am

home.

but

my

failed

courage

me

I finished

Received
with

his

my
an

usual

letter

to

Kant,

invitation

I went

to

him

I resolved

me.

never

and

as

he

to

here

my

it.

from

informed

cordiality,but

printed,probably because,

sent

dinner

to

to accede
quite out of his power
I
frankness
fortnight. Such amiable

forestalled.

municate
com-

reluctantly

journey.

be

was

must

itself;while, on the other

placed does not allow me
from
can
perhaps borrow

for my

necessary

purpose,

Sept.
^rd Sept.

another

which

tutor, however

offer

even

which

him.

to

2nd

it would

in

sum

"

He

not

return

must

resolution

situation

it,does

small

for

to-day

made

incertitude

the

hand,

have

"

Kant
me

request

he
anticipates,

that
for

was

LIFE

1 have

"

and

done

leave
"

6/A

the

Sept

sell the

rewrite
"

it

\2th

Dined

of my

with

Is that

How

will this end

Then

all my

paint

'

was

The

immense
mistaken

will be
will

when

him

I told
who

to-day;

will become

What

to

work

to

says so.
but could

of

me

going

was

do

to

nothing.

week

hence?

gone."
without

read

be

emotion.

They
life
philosopher
a
our
:
than
little more
a
perpetual and energetic combat.
and
Critique was
published anonymously,
gained
it
because
was
no
applause ; partly,
doubt,
generally
for the production of Kant
himself.
The
celebrity he
not

picture in

life of

the

acquired when
procuring him
which

wanted

money

curious

which

work,

to

proposed that I should

It
Hartung the bookseller.

It is Kant

true

extracts

myself

who

Kant,

SepL"rl

These

I shall set

Providence.

to

Critique
is admirably written,'said he,
MS.

581

FICHTE.

nothing lately^ but

rest

"

OF

chair

the

made

was

authorship was

the

him

disclosed

Philosophy

of

the

towards

end

of

the

was

Jena,

at

of

means

offer

the

of

1793.

Jena was then the leading University of Germany; and Fichte

might flatter himself that at length he had a settled position,in
which
he
his
But
might calmly develop his scientific views.
Even
himself
was
here, at Jena, he found
a Fighter'sdestiny.
His endeavours
to instil a higher
soon
opposing and opposed.
his anxiety for their better
moral
feeling into the students
of endeavouring
culture
only brought on him the accusation
"

"

undermine

to

religiousinstitutions

the

of his

country;*

and

his

brought on him the charge of Atheism.

is a grave
Atheism
!
The
charge, and yet how lightly made
in instances
of this levity; yet
history of opinion abounds
than
in appearance
was
a charge less groundless
scarcely ever
theless
Neverit was
that against Fichte ; but
only in appearance.
the cry was
raised,and he had to battle against it. It
have
been
that the Government
would
is understood
willing to
speculative views

Fichte

had

would

made
hear

not

found

an

Erlangen,

at

Berlin
"

those

we

What
^vhose

work

which

raised

the

cry,

if

explanatory modification
; bu,t he
wards
afterhis resignation, and
of it ; tendered
soon
asylum in Prussia, where he occupied the Chair
sort

any

and

bitter satire
intentions

of

afterwards

will select

common-place.

the

publication of

the

overlook

incident

one

! and
are

at

yet

purer

so

Berlin.

typicalof

constantly

than

From

their

his

at

career

his character.

is this

charge

neighbours,

that

made
the

against
satire

The

1813.

It is

revealed

has

bursts

of

rigour

of

the

his

with

lectures

wounds

and

single arm

"This

country

it

die in the

to

attempt

respondent ring through

stamping of feet make
ai^swer
a

heart

German

there

Fichte

trumpet.

in the ranks

for the

It

It

army.

in

herself
the

on

of

1813

in

this

was

**

"

of

duty

more

ing
bleed-

the

to

against

hatred

lend

to

one

every

to

is the

corps

the

crowd,
then

of volunteers

of

commencement

sound

the

at

as

through

of
and

ing
depart-

memorable

the

campaign

that

his

manner.
truly womanly
for the
Foreign Quarterly
"

wife

noble
We

must

distinguished
trespass

of

account

her

again

conduct

end.

HostiHties

were

the victories

without

rolling drums

the

and

clapping of hands

is moved,

; passes

of

Loud

freedom."

her

hall ;

of Fichte's

and

with

recover

the

present

descends

places himself

campaign

still

grows

to

his country.

save

shouts

every

topic

the

points

He

warms

the

as

same

he
exclaims, "will be suspended
lectures,'*
in a free
them
will resume
We
the campaign.

of

or

he

fiery

marvellous;

of

course

end

spirit.

He

modest.

frequently drowning

without

fresh

upon

from

he

them

On

drums

enforces

to

hear

to

rising into

the

affairs.

of

his

ot

oppressors

country,

and

arrives, calm

governed by
eloquence,
leads them
He
before.
logic as
state

day

dignified calmness,

usual

animated; the rolling of

his voice, and
giving him

till the

that

lecture

to

but

present

his

is

Fichte

them.

to

crowds

in

assembled

are

duty
ideal grandeur his impassioned eloquence

duty whose

that

on

"

students

professor,who

their favourite

FICHTM.

OB

LIFE

S8a

of

openly

now

Grossbeer

commenced

Dennewiz

and

; and

the

averted

although
threatened

the
the
of action, and
to
Berlin, its nearness
scene
sanguinary conflicts that took
place filled the hospitals
many
with the sick and
tions
wounded
at length, the
public institu; and
made
becoming entirely unequal to the demands
upon
the
called
the
them,
authorities,through the public journals,
on
inhabitants
with
their
assistance
to come
to
extraordinary contributions,
and
the women
of
the
sick.
to take
charge
Among
of

danger

the

of those

foremost

Christian
and

duty

approbation

in this sacred
*

have

We

cribing

the

was

who

wife

passage

as

from

on
one

of

themselves

Fichte, who,

of her

other

some

of

our

occasions,

former

taken

lucubrations.

this noble

to

with

husband, engaged
her days
She devoted

vocation.
here,

devoted

the

heart
to

the

the

full

and

and
sent
con-

soul

distribu-

libertyof

trans-

LIFE

tion

of

the

of the

on

sick and

unknown

her

eveiningto

winter^s

583

FICHTE.

medicine, and

clothes,food, and

beds

late

OF

to

dying;

friends

after she returned

and

again

often

home,

around

cares

pious

out

went

to

acquaintances.
of this
After
about
five months'
uninterrupted exertions
kind
in the
hospitals, she began, however, to feel alarming
in January, 18 14, was
of illness,and
attacked
by a
symptoms
contributions

collect

from

her

and

"

violent
It

fever, which

nervous

attained

soon

; and

recovery

her,

to

which

the

on

peril, Fichte,
attendance

such

had

he

beloved

illness ; and
gratitude with

were

It

was,

probably,
she

who

which

he

the

that

exertions.

the

of

serious

joy

recovery,

exercised.

he had

induced

be

not

of

transports

and

sciously
uncon-

infection.

fatal

most

return, his
however, the crisis

innocently
a

the

on

symptoms

of

following day, the commencement

was
evident, but Fichte could
his

the

moment,
to him

communicated

was,
the

self-

his

find, on

of self-control

power

that

at

hailed

hours

two

witnessed

leave

to

wonderful

With

speak for

to

those

estimate

to

hope of

philosophicallectures,

of

course

recommenced.

now

of her

able

scarce

in the greatest
was
and
anxious
close

subjects, scarcely hoping to

still alive.
This
companion

abstract

wounded.

she
day when
engaged i"
during her illness,was
compelled

continued

he

leave

to

as

very
been
had

who

the

prevailedamong

height

her
upon
the
deliver
first of

commandy

and

had

the

On

indisposition
relax

to

of

any

continued

ever,
sleeplessness, howhis mental
effect on
faculties,
soon
produced its usual
in the course
and
of fourteen
days the attack terminated
fatally.
His
death
was
worthy of his life,for he fell a sacrifice to
conjugal aflfection and Christian duty." (" Beati qui in Domino

customary

The

moriuntur.")*
There

are

few

of

Fichte

that

than

adamantine

and

to

have

Academe

men

So

since

of Luther.

'Foreign Quarterly,'No.
it is founded

Fichte's

son

respecting

on

that

been

cold, colossal,
a

Cato

the teacher

Major

of the Stoa

of
beauty and virtue in the groves
an
intellect,a soul so calm, so lofty,
has not
cussion
mingled in philosophical dis-

immovable
time

have

admiration

more

of

robust

the

'*

clear, like

and

erect

; fit to

inspire
admire

all

must

we

discoursed

massive^ and

spiritstanding

degenerate

among

which

characters

Fichte's

source
; to "which
the noble
thinker's

For
The

71, p."!40.
*L.eben
all

life.

are

the

und

man

article

rises before
is well

worth

Briefwechsel,* 1836,

referred

who

desire

us

ing;
read-

edited

further

by

details

amid

contradiction

clouds

and

manded

has

avail.

What

of

from

and

like

debate

winds.

Ridicule

been

alreadytried
the wit of

was

POSITION.

HISTORICAL

FICHTE'S

584

granitemountain

of the best

amid

that could

be con^him
but
it
not
could
against
;
thousand
wits to him ?
The
cry

that old cliflf

of granite; seen
choughs assaulting
summit^ these,as they winged the midway air,showed

thousand
the

scarce

so

Fichte's

thinker
and as
in his

their cry was

seldom even
audible.
be true or false ; but his character as a

beetles and

as

gross

opinionsmay
be slightly
valued only by

can

a man
approved by
death,he ranks with

only

in

from

Thomas

better

ages

than

action and
class

ours."

close

we
Carlyle,

our

of

those who

know
it ill;
in
his
life
and
suffering,
men

With

who
common
were
this eloquent tribute,

memoir

of

Johann Gottlieb

Fichte.

CHAPTER
FIGHTERS
The

HISTORICAL

II.
POSITION.

Criticism ' of Kant, althoughreallyleaving

scepticism
in

'

possessionof

the

nevertheless believed

field,was

to

have

cated
indi-

The
domain, in which a refuge might be found.
that
itself
domain
this
tible
indestrucon
an
suggested
thought soon
Kant
had
erected.
driven
the piles
be
temple might
foundation
made
was
a secure
deep down into the earth
; but
had declined building.
Kant
criticism " a path
of
Jacobi,for one, saw in the principles
he could
which
that justas sense
travel. He
maintained
on
to Kant, a faculty
rial
whereby we perceivematewas, according
a sense, a
so also was
reason
faculty,whereby we
things,
the
perceive
supersensual.
evident that men
would
It was, indeed, soon
not
content
had
the
Kant
which
themselves with
reduced
mere
negationto
It
the
of
se.
was
our
things
knowledge
positive
/^r
part of his
to extend.
system they accepted and endeavoured
of all the subsequent history
This attempt forms the matter
of German
Philosophy till Hegel. We will however
briefly
the
of
result
which
of
Kant's
the nature
the
state
discussions,
a

new

"

"

system had rendered

Kant

imperative.

cessary
postulatedthe existence of an object as the necorrelate to a subject. Knowledge was
both objective

had

v^

PICHT^S

586

fast by it.

hold

ever

HISTORICAL

All

the will and

from

from

POSITION.

conviction

my

it ceeds
profrom
will
;

faith,and

understanding

the

from

not

is but

the

all the
culture
true
understanding, must
Let
the first only be
towards
the
firmly directed
the
Should
Good, the latter will of itself apprehend the True.
and
latter be exercised
developed while the former remains
lected,
neg-

also, and
proceed.

not

nothing

can

sophistical subtleties
inane.

that

I know

of it but

come

refining

vain

in
facility

into

away

absolutely void
of thought alone,

the

seeming truth,bom

every

ultimately resting on taith,is false and

carried
knowledge, purely and simply such, when

and

spurious,for

not

conviction

the

leads
to
consequences
Such
knowledge never

that

we

then

utmost

nothing

do

can

conclusions, which

finds

human

If in
we

"

exists

which

reality

into the

born

creature

faith.

for

than

more

and

do

few

things, why
capacity, nay,

why

when

urged

are

so

in these
for there

produce

"

just as little

from

with

and

can

the

the

path

faith which

his existence.

in

"

We

sort

inferences

Not
do

this.

the

good
that

sensuous

lives

It is
that
we

detach

this

bitterness

of

holds

What

who

one

no

with

could

this

possess
view of

our

us

prisoned
im-

of

our

deep
are

we

to

enjoy.
himself, and

are

to

itself upon
him
taneously
simulin faith,and
he
all bom

forces
are

who
He
blindly the irresistible attraction.
follows
he will believe." *
sees
by sight,and believes because
the limit, set
of
Here
by Kant, is overleaped : a knowledge
Biit it is not
realities is affirmed.
a
enough to affirm such
the
this
is
mission
of
it.
To
knowledge ; we must
prove
prove
Philosophy.
Fichte, who
thought himself a true Kantist, although Kant

who

is blind

this

does

common

this interest

From

resist

which

none

all

we

beyond
this instinct,or exercise

boundaries

natural

If

this natural

go

even

towards

are

in the

to

follow

us

we

reality that

in

interest

of

db

mere

all modifications?

instinct

the

capacity and

through

on

intuitive

this

tion
perception and reflecmental
for regarding our
sentations
preall
less
neverthedo
we
pictures,why
for
them
a
basis,a J2^^imagine

mere

as
regard
more,
j/rdJ/w^^
independent of

unconsciously seized

has
alone

in

"

them

reason,

him

knowledge
discover
no
ground

can

we

world

mere

as

the

its

to

anything in the
not
previously placed in the premises by faith,and even
'. Every
its conclusions
not
are
always correct.

it has

the

endless

and

We

London,

follows

adopt the translation

1846.

of Mrs,

Percy Sinnett

Destination

of Man.

BASIS

distinctlyand

very
that

materials

the

nothing

more

Doctrine
to

science

needed

was

he

BASIS

supposed

are

ideas

which
warranted

not

fundamental

in quest

that

this idea

me

something

"

Idealism

of

is

an

in my

I have

evolved

spontaneously

mind

Choose

by

myself

from

the

me

is

What
a

When

different

voured
endea-

assumption is

consciousness.

is

Dualism

or

this

But

us.

primitivelygiven.
explanation, we are forced

only,

fact

this* he

objects through

external

of

facts

It is that

fact ?
this

This, and

the

by

famous

SYSTEM.

objects excite in

these

his

of

III.

perceive

to

by Kant;

in

undertook

FICHTE'S

OF

declared

co-ordination

systematic

task

Fichte

discovered

been

CHAPTER

We

587

( Wissenschaftslehre).In
priori all knowledge.

construct

had

than

this

and

Science

of

SYSTEM,

publicly repudiated him,

for

materials:

these

FICHT^S

OP

idea.

leave

this

we

else

or

not

some

it in

excited

has

either

admit

to

the

certain

me.

them.

between

to conceive
idealism, and unable
Elant, unwilling to embrace
the ego spontaneously evolved
within
itself ideas
how
of that
ence
which
it regarded as
different from
itself,
postulated the exist-

of
this

but

non-ego,

followed

he

Locke

of, can

conscious

object given,
the

laws

very

existing are
of something
"

-this dilemma
here

we

our

we

forced

out

of

bring
a

us
us

idea

an

to

reason

to

and
?

in

but

only

of

called

this

is

there

majority of
of it ;

Only

ourselves.

know

given.
that

independent
Simply to this

necessary

which

much

so

consequence

Are

that

these
of
:

us

as

ideas
To

are

is

forced

we

we

there

there

In

only know

can

we

consciousness

suppose

assume

nothing of it.
philosophers.

knew

we

nothing

know

within

passes

the

and

Truly, said Fichte, we

that which

that

declared

is

no

by

non-ego

are

what

images
does

that the very assumption,

of our
tution
constimental

postulated, is,after all,

a product of
nothing but a postulate of our reason
; is therefore
the ego.
It is the ego which
thus creates the necessity
for a nonthus answering to the necessitycreates
ego ; it is the ego which
^
"

non-ego,

must

be

BASIS

588
the

Ideas

wanted.

nonego

PICHTB'

OF

SYSTEM.

nothing

and

ideas

but

given

are

in

the products
These
of
are
primitive fact of consciousness.
the activityof the ego ; and
asserted, the
not, as is so commonly
The
soul
is no
passive
products of the passivityof the ego.
active principle creating
It is an
mirror
reflecting images.
The
it not
soul
them.
is no
lifeless receptivity. Were
brinabe
would
with life and activity,
sible.
imposperception
ming over

the

One

perceive

not

does

stone

is

liquidthat

the

Consciousness

is in its very
its activityit produces

if in

it is forced

nature

If

forced

of

act

forced

are
a

is conscious

these

changes

assuming

accidents

to

to flssume

noumenon

answer

this

know

if you

Substance

to

of

changes,
external

some

cause

substances

and

But, you

phenomena

^what

ledge
knowsay, you

accidents

possible;/

are

is

yet
"

our

of these

basis

the

soul's

thepurecKtqf
all

the

cause

but

stratum,
sub-

some

and

cannot

it, your
is nothing more

assumption,

know

It is you

less than

nor

who

cu

anotha^

; and

assume

the

you

nothing

but

the

synthesis of accidents*

it

And

synthesis.

mental

Thus

have

call substance.

you

is

its

of

as

product ofyoitr reason^

form of the activityof the ego.
assume

does

noumenon.

mere

what

mould

form

another

phenomena.

to

"

whereby

that

images

external

an

substance

as

cannot

yet you

is

but

change in the ego f

ego ? another
admit
You
"know
that we
cannot
is limited

"

assumption

ego

attribute

to

is this very
the

the

poured into it.

an
activity. Well, then,
essence
images, and if by the laws of its

that these

assume

is this

what

activity?

to

another.

perceive

not

founded

Fichte

which

was

admitted

the

the basis

Idealism

upon
basis of

ness,
conscious-

of

all certitude

,* and

not

the ego to an activity,and

idealism, but reduced
only founded
all knowledge to an
act.
The
activityof the .ego is,of course, ah assumption ; but it is
the only assumption necessary
for the construction
of a science.
That
once
admitted, the existence of the non-ego,
as
a product
of the

ego,

Every

one

follows
will

which

as

admit

is known

necessary
that A=

consequence.
A

or

that

is A.

This

is

of proof.
need
and has no
intuitively,
It is the propositionof absolute
identity (Satz der Identitdt).It
In admitting this to oe absolutely true, we
is absolutely true.
absolute
ascribe to the mind
truth.
a faculty of knowing
do not
of
But in saying A equals A, we
affirm the existcna
an

axiom

BASIS

OF

FICHTE'S

SYSTEM,

589

axiom

the

teaches

relation

necessary

between

relation

will call X.

we

necessary
only in the

judges

ego, comes
in the preceding

means

of X.

is

But

of the

act

an

is the

We

X.

and

It is the

ego.

A=A

it

; and

is the

The

condition

the

am

"

say

judges by
we

say

may

the

of

act

existence.

of my

both

The

in

that

see

the

the

there
and

same,

ego."
ego =
Descartes
the
as
is

by

of

means

in

am," I affirm

this affirmation

; and

time

same

"

of
Cogito, ergo sum,
and
ego positsitself,

the

existence

my

that

ego

is A

and

one

ever

formula

the

to

is for

self-positing.When

this very

this

ego.

which

ego

Hence

here

come

and

thai

is

basis of all certitude.

one

is

wholly in the ego, so therefore

And
is posited by the ego.
by this we
the

as

ego, and
is something in the
that

the

that

there

language a little less scholastic

makes,
judgment which -the mind

that, in every

judging

axiom

that

this relation, this X, is

But

ovAy from

And

this to

reduce

To

A.

equal

must

exists ; but
certain
if and

that

not

us

it

ifh exist,then

that

affirm

only

; we

sciousness
con-

of my
ness
consciousis therefore at
ego

the
activity and
product of
thought is both the thinking activity,and

activity; precisely as

the

the

product thought.
We
will,for the present,

logicalabstractions*

of such
a

glimpse
the
The

the

spare

of Fichte's

method,

strength of the

point

great

Fichte

He

has

in

be

and

basis

further
tion
inflicany
will catch in the foregoing

reader

endeavoured

able

way

idealism

which

on

some

reposes.

is the

establish

to

mate
esti-

to

of existence
and consciousness
identity of being and thought
of object and
he establishes
this by means
of
subject. And
the ego considered
essentiallyan activity.
as
Hence
the conclusion
drawn
in the practicalpart of his philosophy
destination
is
of man
that the true
not
tion,
thought, but acis thought realised.
which
I am
he
That
free,"
says.
"

"

"

is the

merely
the

revelation
my

voice

of

the fundamental
mental
of my

'^

consciousness.

action, but

brightly does
my

of

the

free determination

decides

conscieiKe, that
the everlasting world
laws

sight

of its order

My

soul, is the

will

are

of my

all

more

alone, lying

first link

depths
stretching through the invisible realms
world, the action itself,
a certain

in

will to

worth.

my

rise before

now

of

it is not

free ; and

am

More
; and

me

clearly revealed
hid

chain

in

the

to

obscure

of consequences

as
spirit,

movement

obey

in this

trial
terres-

communicated

IDEALISM.

FICHTE'S

590

matter, is the first link in a material

The
effect,encircling the whole
system.

chain

to

living principleof the

the

cause,

of

world

the

which

in

visible,

invisible

other

efficient
is of

worlds, the

two

avails, and

alone

act

all ; the

at

not

"matters

the

and

cause

motion

as
spirit,

of

between

stand

sense.

world

of

is the

will

and

one

intention

the

incomprehensible,

these worlds
I am
In both
tive
effecan
only by the will.
The
Divine
force.
life,as alone the finite mind
ceive
concan
the
it, is self-forming,self-representingwill, clothed, to
mortal eye, with multitudinous
sensuous
forms, flowing through
immeasurable
the
and
whole
ing
universe, here streamme
through

acted

on

through
into

veins

my
the

and

tree, the
of inert matter, which

mass

muscles

flower, the
did

and, in its stead, there

flood
"

The

eternal

finite

of the

Creator

world

must

which

must

have

finite Reason

alone

minds

has

alone

neither

no

words

can

the

unfolded

to

and

being

veil my

are

face

solved, and

the

before

and

thee

fichte's

we

of
ground-principle
have

now

to

see

how

vessel

his

Great,
think

n^ade

The

In*

; in

our

by

and

light we

hold
be-

living Willi

embrace

! well

in thee.

can

IV.

idealism.

Fichte's
he

least that

In

us.

the

In
only
own
existence, and that
to
me
; all the problems
most
perfect harmony
reigns. I
lay my finger on my lips."

CHAPTER

The

at

that

inert matter,

finite in. him

conception

no

I liftmy
thoughts to thee, for I
may
thee, the Incomprehensible, docs
my
of the world, become
comprehensible

of

or

is the

he

Him.

nor

the

as

insist
of

mass

it reveals.

that

name

world,

world,
will

world
"

peared,
disap-

Source.

like
lifeless,

in himself

created

through which it becomes

all
the
light, and
whom

out

has

bright, everlasting

the

who
of

dead, heavy-

nature,

of the

Creator

inert and

exists
he

by

Those

r"main

know

hands,

but

its Infinite

created

The

grass.
fill up

rushes

reason.

been

always

human

by

from
power,
will is the

of life and

dance
there, pouring its abun-

"

avoids

having been given,

the natural
objections which

Idealism

rise

against such

deification
of

such

of

the age

of

that

of

What

as

which

doctrine.

But

it.

His

of

natural

most

best

adapted
was

stirred

18 13

to
an

the

product
the

spirit
inspiration

heart

in

epoch

an

this

how

notice

us

doctrine

spiritwhich

campaign

the

the

once

tke

exalted

made

at

591

first let

Fichte's, and

produced

and

ardent

and

IDEALISM.

personality was

mind

FICHTE^S

many,
of Ger-

history.

deficient
in?
most
It was
Germany
then, as now,
had
and
these
armies
headed
They
armies,
were
by
But
them
there
experienced generals.
was
scarcely
among
the
another
had
who
that greatest
beyond
impetuous Bliicher,
of all heroic
will.
beaten
(or villainous)qualities,
They were
and
At length they were
beaten.
A series of insults
roused.
had roused
them.
to fight for fatherland,
They rose as a man
and
in their ranks
Fichte, who
was
by deed as well as doctrine
them
that in will lay man's
sought to convince
divinity.
The
is
the
What
relation
ject
Subquestion being
of Object and
Fichte's solution being Object and
?
And
tical;
Subject are idenhis position that inasmuch
from
it followed
as
an
Object
and
in
and
ledge,
Knowa
a Non-Ego
an
Subject
Ego
were
given
and
the distinction
them
between
supposed
by all men
was

will.

"

"

real, the origin

be

to
two

ways

either

the

Ego

consciously (in which

distinction
the

Non-Ego

existence

Fichte

mankind

and

must

solve

the

do

the

JSgo must
necessarily and

so

He

problem ?

the

suppose

never

else

of

one

wilfullyand

Non-Ego,

would

distinction)
; or

in

arise

must

posit the

must

case

real

be,

distinction

cause

sciously.
uncon-

that the

assumes

Ego itself is determined^

by the Non-Ego;
in this way.
To
the same.
be conscious, are
to
be, and
existence
But
of the Ego depends upon
its consciousness.

and
The
be

of the

conscious

Not-Self

very

of Self is at

the

Self and

the correlates

time

same

Not-Self

be

to

conscious

given

are

in the

of
same

of consciousness.

act

But

is it that

how

attribute

we

realityto

attribute

we

realityto Self, viz,, by

is given in Consciousness

Not-Self
cannot

we

"

The

German

word

is of

substituted

immense

to

use

in

definite.

philosophy
Chaos,

the

we

does

when

Not-Self?

as

and
r^df/Z/y,

as

of Consciousness.

act

an

Just

therefore

phantom.

which

hestimmeny

other, could

some

determine

to render

it to be

suppose

deteimine,
To

to

does

How

to

be

to

this

of

we

forced

are

have
not

found
mean

determined,

one

to

to

translate

would

to

gladly have
the meaning.
to represent
resolve
(as in English), but

metaph3rsicians;

is the

we

created

world.

IDEALISM,

FIGHTERS

592

We

may

Idealism

here to remark
how
all the
pause
fall to the ground.
The
wits assume

witticisms

against
it is

when

that

this
produced by the ego, therefore must
Now
World
be a phantom.
nobody ever believed that external
the
had
reality;
no
only possibledoubt is as to whether
objects
they have any realityindependent of mind.
consciousness
In
have
twofold
a
we
fact,viz.;the fact of
We
the fact of not-self,indissolublygiven in one.
self,and
the
that
consciousness
is
that
conclude, therefore,
partly
ego
Let
self-determined, and
us
partly determined
by not-self.
the
entire
the
of
in
its
is,
identity of
reality
(that
suppose
ego
The
ten.
subject and object) represented by the number
ego,
conscious
of five of its parts
with
Fichte
to
positing
speak
or,
five, does by that very act posit five parts negativelyin itself.
is it that the Ego
But how
It
posit a negation in itself?
can
consciousness
the
in
of
the
does so by
act of separating
very act
;
five from
left passive. The
ten, the five remaining are
tion
negaThis seems
to lead
is,therefore, the passivity of the Ego.
contradiction
the
that the Ego, which
defined
to
as
an
was
the
is
time
active
solution
and
The
at
same
Activity,
passive.
said

the

is

World

"

"

"

of this difficultyis that

"

it is

Activity which

vity,
Passi-

determines

reciprocally.
realityas
suppose
Sphere ; this is entirelyin the Ego, and has a certain quantity.
will,of necessity,
Every quantity less than this totality,
that a less quantity should
be negation,passivity. In order
be
compared to the totality and
so
opposed to it,it is necessary
be some
relation between
there should
them, and this is in the
idea of divisibility. In the absolute
totality,as such, there are
this
but
be
tinguished
no
totality
compared with parts and disparts ;
may
and

Let

the

us

absolute

it.

Passivityis therefore a
with the
quantity compared

from

determinate

quantity

Activity, a
regard
totality.
the Ego as absolute, the Ego
limited
is passive; in the
as
relation of Ego
limited
the
to
as
Non-Ego, the Ego is active
the Non-Ego
and
thus are activityand passivity
passive. And
reciprocally determined.
of

In

to

result

The

mankind
but

attribute

they

are

of the
mon

sense

rise

would
that

we

this and

of

much

more

reasoning

is that

when

Objects a real existence they are correct ;

in supposing that the Object is indepenincorrect
dent
Subject : it is identical with the Subject. The
combelief is therefore
when
It
is
correct
enough.
we
this belief, and
above
endeavour
to
philosophise

fall into

to

error.

AU

die

philosophers have

erred, not

in

IDEALISM.

FICHTKS

594

Colour, Solidity,and
of your
I admit

'*

in me^
tells

me

"

Smell

of

the

Tree

it
It

power.

tions
affec-

are

"

Subject?"

that,"replies P ealism ;
they are caused
by something
that very
plainly."

Does

/// you

are

so

tell you

tells you

its

of

that
own

"

but

out

these

although

of

me.

Consciousness

has

such

no

; it cannot

changes

are

Consciousness

transcend

that which
its changes."
anything about
causes
to
am
irresistibly
believe," says Realism,
compelled
of me
exist out
this belief,
that there are
things which
; and
is true.'*
because
irresistible,

itself

tell you

to

"

But

"

Stop

? you

**

is not

what

believe

to

run

describe

you
that

it.

You

things exist,which

their appearances,
1 instinctive

fast," repliesIdealism

too

on

and

must

belief; it is

ever

said

things lie

remain

unknown.

philosophic

belief

your

irresistibly
compelled

not

are

"

underneath

inference.

This

all

is

no

belief

Your

certain

things, coloured, odorous, extended,

simply is,
and
exist
But
infer that
and
solid,
so
they do.
sapid,
;
you
inference!
Rash
mitted
Have
they exist out of you?
y^ou not adfications
modithat colour, odour, taste, extension, "c.; are
but
if they exist in you,
how
sentient being ; and
of your
to do so
can
by
they exist out of you ? they do not : they seem
of the mind
which
a law
gives objectivityto our sensations.** *
to conceive
an
object as anything more
**Try your utmost
You
than a synthesis of perceptions.
You
infer
cannot.
may
that
substratum
for all phenomena
indeed
exists,although
a
is your inference
But on
what
unknowable.
unknown,
grounded ?
the impossibility of conceiving the existence
of qualities
On
"c.
substance
from
extension, colour,
some
of which they
apart
qualitieshave
qualities.This impossibilityis a figment. The
are
need
of an
objective substratum, because
they have a subno
\
modifications
the
of a sensitive
are
: they
\ jective substratum
is the only
and
of
these
modifications
the synthesis
subject,
be proved
subsiratum
This may
of which
they stand in need.
in another
mitted,
The
qualities of objects, it is universally adway.
modifications
of the
but
subject : these qualities
are
external
attributed
the
to
are
objects ; they are dependent upon
for their exissubject for their existence; and yet, to account
that

"

"

"

fo:mer

The

difiTeience
said

ili.it ihe

exi.""tindependent of

Berkeley's

was

between

ohjecis
the

Fichte
Berkeley and
exi-t independent

did

universal

Mind.

theologicalIdealism.

Fichte's

Ls apparent
the
Ego,

of

Idealism

was

The

here.
but

did

E^ism

not
/

FICHTE'S

it

tence,

asserted

is

exist

must

is

as

for

will

Thus
We

made

the

the

in

himself

our

(of

of

Uot

speak

to

as

Bestimmung

has

been

translator,
exhibit

To

all

are

made

founded

should

if

we

us

but

in

him

to

when

his

place

injustice

in

glimpse
little
it

see

his

applied

learning

version.*
all

that

which
the

readers

our

The

ingenious

an

it

regard

we

trine
doc-

nevertheless

system.

than

our

doctrines

doctrine

History,

can

title

the

and

moral

to

which

of

under

the

better

not
can-

we

exposition,

misleading

and

peared,
ap-

Grim-

consequently

this

of

he

but

Sdetice,

was

what

just

philosophical
it

his

Paul

excellent

an

although

seems
we

M.

is, strictly speaking,

some

has

character

philosophy,

him

Idealism

only

doubt,

state

Wissenschaftslehrt

Penhoen,
the

although

German

give

not

from

be

to

see

translation

de

no

it, and

doing

be

as

paradox

have

we

to

popular

French

reasons,

to

by

la

In

abstract

too

printed,

more

Barchou

Idealism

entitles

did

Idealism

is,

upon

epoch

an

which
we

on

as

or,

obvious

his

to

de

can

Fichte,

of

curious

are

be

principles,

endeavoured

Doctrine

which,

Fichte's

imposes

plan

of

M.

VHomme^

de

is

translation

Menschen,

by

which

handsomely

merits),

des

for

referred

French

have,

who

are

title

the

published

Destination
the

system

disciples

have

Those

which

its

and

Fichte's

of

for

we

there

Realism.

advocates
us

and

inhere,"

must

against

manner,

edition,

under

his

of

his

new

of

exists,

own

way.

own

and

system

difficulty ;

matkes

which

his
his

without

ideas

mistake

of

avoided

followed

not

it

Now

subjective

are

existence,

they

itself
the

must

their

which

defend

will

exposition

generally

in

inhere.

qualities

for

something

external

they

these

subject

ourselves

reader

which

as

object

an

Idealism

have

but

the

upon

necessity

no

in

595

unknown

some

inasmuch

that

dependent

that

substance

apparent

IDEALISM.

as

serious.

recently

translation

English

An

which

can

be

has

recommended.

appeared

under,

also

been

Fichte*s
the

title

of

The

made
"

by

Wesen

Nature

der
of

the

Mrs.

Sinnett,

Percy

Gelehrte

Scholar.*

has

also

APPLICATION

596

FICHTB'S

OF

IDEALISM.

CHAPTER

is

Ego

activitywould

without

consciousness

its

exerts

and
itself,

Bat
Activity ; consequently free.
and would
lose itself in infinity,
remain
in

"

existence"

fact, without
the

In

resistance.

soroe

it

IDEALISM.

essentially an

this free

encounter

FIGHTERS

OF

APPLICATION

The

V.

effort

conscious

thereby becomes

to

vanquish

conscious

will, becomes

it

something

of

itself.

of

did

not

this resistance,
not

resistance

But

freeActivity the Ego is essentially

irresistibly
impelled to enjoy perfect freedom.
This expansive force, which
impels the Ego to realize its^f
by complete development, and thereby assimilatingthe Nonit is not
this force, in as
far as
realized,is the aim of
Ego

limits freedom,

and

an

as

it is

n
",

"

man's

existence

it is his

"

difference

the

Here

duty.

from

the

itself.

morality

obligation which
Duty
free to acknowledge
we
are
or
reject; it is a pulse beating ia
heart of man
tion,
the very
a
inseparable from his constitupower
its
and
fulfilment is the man
according to
complete.
The
world
does not exist because
we
imagine it,but because
believe it. Let all realitybe swept away
we
by scepticism we
is impelled by his very nature
affected.
Man
not
to realize
are
is not thought, but
his existence
destination
Our
by his acts.
action.
Man
is not
bom
his
brood
to
over
thoughts, but to
begins

show

to

is

of

ordinary schools
not

moral

"

"

manifest
world

within

mission

our

is

For

it has

only

itself and
Mark

to

be f

of
potentiality

the

attainment

world, it is
This

Knowing

consequence.
world, and that
of

sublime

so

realisation

development
would
enjoy

exist,it

To

of
the

object
alone

of the

ourselves?
realities

as

that

"

realize

not
must

we

we

carry

alone

exist ;
realize

within

we

must

direct

is it but

would

existence, we

us

the

depends

the manifestation

world, what
If

of

that

ourselves

upon
an

ourselves

to

that it should

simple subject does

existence.

this

By

of existence

condition

Simply

moral

subject-object,

become

moral

as

is

There

transport it without.
is the

what

thought to
object. The Ego

an

as

existence.

them

determines

itself

the

give

to

"

the world.

create

we

what

them

the

this

of
our

tion.
atten-

complete

be^ therefore, if
must

develop

we

our-

APPLICATION

selves

in

the

FICHTE*S

OF

incessantly realize

to

atterapt

IDEALISM.

597

the

beautiful,the
moral
by the

is commanded
Man
to be
good.
be
virtuous
is not
To
nature.
imperious necessity of his own
to
external
internal
law ; this
obey some
law, but to fulfil an
is not slavery, but freedom
obedience
sacrificingond
; it is not
other
but
to any
particle of freedom
wholly and
truly
power,
realizingthe power within us of being free.

useful, and

Life
is

the

is

combat.

The

spiritof

free

finite,is limited, imperfect ;

incessantly struggles to
^it tends
incessantly towards

"

this lasts
vital

ever

before

in

the

him, and

Man

free ; and
beings who

are

others

as

libertyis
it Fichte
And

charge

first
our

view

It is the
the

speak,

have

we

could

Nor

Design
only

to

infinite:

is

the

is

to

fellowthe

treat

dual
Indivi-

all government

He

from

could
World

it.

of

system

God

created

the

the

evidence

of

from

not

the

This
is

not

the

world

design
This

is
the

incarnation

of

Materiale

versinnlichte

same

In

accept

is but

of

it.

his

In

the

at

intelligentdesigner.

an

know,

we

opinions.

real

his views.*
and

as

was,

abstruse, but

objectiveexistence

Ego

we

vnserer

are,

so

like

atheism,
clearly apprehended : it

looks

very

worst, only Acosmism.

Fichte

finite,transient

evidence

of

Design, because
of the
understanding, applicable
things, wholly inapplicable to the
the

accept

conclusion

mere

an

Fichte

; but

Fichte's

at

his

himself.

as

his

hear

us

infer

we

creators

especiallywhen
is,however,

shining

ever

that

each

of

principleof

call the
we
place, what
Duty {unsere Welt ist das

Pftichi).

also

aim

same

of matter;

world

common

to

the

Let

mass

in this created
the

the

positive,exposition of
inert

is for

for

energy

attain.

free ; knows
the
therefore
duty

have

of

his

that

to

an

ideal

an

be

to

atheism.

of

of

out

man

discouraged,

well-spring

politicalsystem.
says Fichte respecting God?

what

answer

of
must

therefore

deduces

accused

time

that he
himself

knows

men

heart

is sometimes

he

is

There

long.

not

it

as

it

but

it
subjugate that which opposes
in his hopes,
infinity. Defeated
but

inasmuch

man,

subjective notion .t
said Fichte, "must
be believed in, not
"God,"
inferred. Faith
do
is the ground of all conviction, scientific or
moral.
Why
you

Design

believe

itself is but

in the

existence

of the

world?

Vide
*Der
des
Philos.
Herausgeber
Journals
die Anklage
des Atheismus.'
wortungs-schriften gegen
*

See

the

before-"uamed

work,

p. 43.

It is

nothing

more

gerichtliche VerantVon
J. G. Fichte

APPLICATION

598
than

the

incarnation

you

believe

in it.
and

of

same

believe

you

you, yet
exists in your
sciousness,
Conis the Moral
Order

God

way

He

world

such

as

within

carry

you

in Him.

of the

{moralische Ordnung)

which

that

the

In

IDEALISM,

FICHTE^S

OF

him,

know

can

we

attribute
him
if we
For
to
to
only as such.
attempt
at
Intelligence or Personality,we
once
necessarily fall into
is
infinite:
God
therefore
anthropomorphism.
beyond the
reach
of our
not
the finite,but
can
science^which
only embrace
beyond o\xr faiths
By our efforts to fulfil our Duty, and thus to realize the Good
live in some
and
Beautiful,we
tending towards
are
God, we
tion
the realizathe life of God.
True
religion is therefore
measure
and

universal

of
should
same

all

If

reason.

we

perfectly free

all

were

had

Liberty. If we
one
; for there is but one
be the law
convictions, the law of each would
be

would

have

but

Will.

one

To

this

all,since

of

aspire;

we

we

all the

this

to

is

Humanity

tending.
The
of mysticism which
lies in this doctrine
fully
was
germ
of Fichte*s successors,
developed by some
although he himself
and
had
particularlyguarded against such an interpretation,
distinguishes himself from the mystics.
We
to Fichte's
now
Philosophy of History.
may
pass
The
historian
only accomplishes half of the required task.
He
the events
of an epoch, in their order of occurrence,
narrates
.

and

in the
he

that

their

of

j experience.
I

throughout
of
world
an

but

He

epoch
facts,which

will be

of

must

events,

that

or

in

all

its incarnation.

Ego

the

What
is

What

an

therefore

its

by the

the

pre-existent Idea.

And

of the

epochs which

those

which

succeed

form
of

plicity
multiis the

evolutions

of

Ideas

"

or

the

certain

his

"

Sittenlehre

'

(1798),pp. 189,

have

History
The

194.

this

it. Hence

accomplished on
a
plan.
this plan in its totality,that he may

See

Philo-

epoch but

Ideas

conceive
*

must

has

priori,independent
this Idea
always dominant

manifesting itself
the

The

he

Idea

exhibit

will determine

that
"

of

assured

idea ?

an

has

is

^an

but

are

determined

conclude
World

and

"

incarnation

an

"

then

must

preceded it;and
the

epoch

the

Every epoch

we

be

cannot

due

the

incarnation

Idea

these

of

some

he

position and significance.

He
complete this incomplete method.

Idea

some

; but

occurrence

omitted

not

given them
i sopher must
^

of their

form

has

of

sopher
Philofrom

APPLICATION

it deduce

the

Humanity,

Ideas

only

not

the

of
as

of

plan

is the

what
The

world

the

is

expression, is :

be

The

is this

Idea

fix

To

of

relations

the

the

that

in

one

and

them,

has

man

of

reason.

that

knows

exists

Humanity

That

realization
'sometimes

of

the

done

dictates

of

to

be

realize ?

concrete

in such

man

with

compatible

;"

the

principalepochs.

two

the

he

which

The

social relations

on

established

has

so.

for

but

to

man

Fichte,

in

other

has

he

of

established

not

The

ground-

to

This, in its

each

of

which

basis

the

history of

the

is the

what

Duty.

perfect liberty
liberty of the whole.
into
thus be divided
History may
order

in

future.

as

settled

599

words, according
or, in other
Idea which
has
Humanity

fundamental

answer

IDEALISM,

principal epochs

past but

question first to

The

FICHTE'S

OF

and

successive

the

is

reason

constant

easily proved.

But

it

performs, and
impulse.
a
why
that
the
first
In
this second
is
in
to
epochs of the
case,
say,
festing
maniterrestrial existence
of Humanity, Reason,
although not
exists.
It
itself distinctly,
consciously, nevertheless
under
the form
manifests
itself as an instinct,and appears
of a
itself in the
law ; it manifests
natural
intelligence only as a
it

has knowledge of what

Humanity
sometimes
it ol^eys but
it
performs
;

and

vague

manifests

sooner

sentiment.

obscure

itself

itself and

of

as

the

Reason,

on

than

it is

This

constitutes

reason,

its

blind

acts.

contrary,

gifted with
the

no
sciousness
con-

second

epoch.
Humanity
epoch.

But

second

the

men,

does

authority. They
"is

to

elevate

diminishes, and
becomes
and

entire

domination

of

the

mass

relations

in accordance

life

of

Instinct

with

Humanity
over

of

has
Reason

Instinct

itself in

the

few

acquire

thereby

their

to

man

the

first to

of

Science

supervenes.
The

the

age;

themselves.

to

up

who

age,

instructors

the

reason

science.
fixed

more

The

are

from

once

only manifests

their

of

Men

at

pass

first Reason

At

Great

not

Thus

Morality

become

man

of

more

reason.

periods.

this

sion
mis-

Instinct

appears.

dictates
five

their

is the

I.

The

primitive

external
gives place to an
general
dominant
unable
to
Authority : this is the age of doctrines
ing
and
convince
belief,claimemploying force to produce a bHnd
Evil
unlimited
this is the
obedience;
period in which
in the preceding epbch,
The
III.
arises.
Authority,dominant
weak
and waverbut constantly attacked
by Reason, becomes
age.

II.

The

APPLICATION

6oo

ing

is

this

the

conscious

becomes

Reason

thescienceof

is

the

ideal

standard

of

last

term

in
brief

This

him

assign

outline
his

with

Metaphysics
the

direction,
of

rendering

curiosity
but

in

also
all

such

the

to

is

the

will

line

of

to

furnish
details

also,

of

V.

The

itself
of

after
the

Art;

them

trust,
whose

readers

with

intelligible.

sufficient

not

general

to

lie
view

who

mine

only

studies

to

thinkers

glittering

the
we

be

European

perseverance,

such

attain.

epoch

beginning

fashions

system

long

of

the

known

species.

Fichte's
the

destined

this

our

sufficient

and

of

is

Humanity

Reason

of

place

worked

is

applied;

history

the

this

IV.

itself

makes

truth

itself:

Humanity

Reason

of

science

have

which

licentiousness.

and

itself;

of

develops

Reason

perfection

that

scepticism

of

epoch

IDEALISM.

FICHTE*S

OF

of

late
stimuin

that

capable

SCHELLING'S

6o2

sonalities

and

DOCTRINES.

dialectics, were

against Schelling,

launched

much
His
foes
eflfect
have
apparently without
grown
weary
of screaming ; he continues
He
has
quietly to lecture.
mised
proto
his
publish these lectures,which will contain
soon
matured.
Meanwhile
thoroughly developed and
system
we
have
with
his early writings,and
ourselves
of
only to concern
those
the views
which
be
only such portions as contain
can

fundamental.

called

him

through
task,

"

of this

It would

all

the

be

modifications

by

moreover,

no

laborious

which

task

his

opinions

fallingin

means

follow

to

with

went
under-

the

plan

History.

CHAPTER

II.

SCHELLING*S

Schelling

is often

him.

doctrines

DOCTRINES.

parallels
much
there is always some
truth
amidst
Schelling's
error.
works
of vivid imagination
unquestionably exhibit great power
conjoined with subtle dialectics ; if on this ground he is to be
that title with
to share
styled a Plato, then are there hundreds
His

supposed

still in

that

the

general

not

has

ugly, not

so

character

in

like

so

as

to

his

vellously
mar-

mask,
strike

be

Pantheism.
the tendency towards
Germany
is not
of Mysticism. It may
merely the oflfspring
"

in the
may

head

resembling

so

of

those

to

regarded as having been the systematiser

but then in full vigour
tendency, always manifesting itself,

Schelling may
a

of Socrates

he

such

one.

every

of

little resemblance

Curiously enough

prototype.
like

but

have

In

Plato.

styled the German

as

clear

Gothe

easily be

felt.

Spinoza

some

way

or

"

no

less

than

in

demonstrated

other. Pantheism

tendency

be

recognised

mystical

Novalis.

It

it, and

it may
be confusedly
Novalis
In
felt it.

seems

to

logicallydeduced,
"

the

This

as

result

from

every

rigorously carried
Philosophy
consequences
all European
countries, has,
out; but
in feeling and
both
constantly reprospeculation,the most
duced
her
and
it
Her
her
her
musicians,
artists,
poets,
of

Religion, if the
above
Germany,

be

SCHELLING^S

thinkers, have

therefore

attempt
but

not

with

meet

That

built

Spinoza
it

on

borrowed

to

or

more

give

603

Pantheists.

less

Pantheism

solid

and

that several
ideas

from

compact

basis, could
that

"

to

seems

studied

he

had

have

been

his works,

But
Schelling did so.
that
the
although Jacobi distinctlysaw
Spinozism was
only
solution
rational
of the
of
Philosophy, he
great problems
avoided
This also,
Spinozism by callingin the aid of Faith.
in his own
did Schelling.
way,
the
We
here notice
in historical position, of
similarity,
may
the modem
German
speculations with those of the Alexandrian
the incapacity of Reason
In both
schools.
solve the proto
blems
of
Philosophy is openly proclaimed; in both
some
called
this
Plotinus
higher faculty is called in to solve them.
Intuition^
faculty Ecstacy. Schelling called it the Intellectual
The
not
Ecstacy was
supposed to be a facultypossessed by all
and at all times ; it was
only possessed by the few, and
men,
but sometimes.
The
Intellectual
Intuition
not
was
by them
the contrary,
to all men
supposed to be a faculty common
; on
it was
held as the endowment
only of a few of the privileged :
it was
dain
the faculty of philosophising. Schelling has superb diswho
talk about
the
for those
not
highest
comprehending
truths
ot Philosophy.
not
sees
Really," he exclaims^ one
attention
whatever
wherefore
to
Philosophy should
any
pay
isolate Philosophy
should
Incapacity. It is better rather that we
all the ordinary routes, and
from
keep it so separated
lead
from
of these routes
should
ordinary knowledge that none
where
minates."*
to it.
Philosophy commences
ordinary knowledge terThe
be proved,
highest truths of science cannot
who
be apprehended ; for those
cannot
they must
apprehend
is useless.
them
there is nothing but pity, argument
call Schelling the
After this,were
German
to
we
Plotinus,
the truth than in calling him the
we
should, perhaps, be nearer
it was
German
But
for the sake of no
such idle parallel
Plato.
Our
the
that we
fundamental
positions of each.
compared
*'
the
show
how
to
to
same
point a moral," and
oDject was
many

them

"

had

Germans

Schelling's

scientific

hearty approbation.
had
already given this basis

structure

True

overlooked.

and

been

DOCTRINES.

"

forms
many

"

in history,and how
the
re-appear
centuries
have
advanced
the human
not

of

direction
*

error

one

*Neue

labours

mind

single step.
Zeitschrift

far

Speculative Physik,' vol. ii.,p. 54.

of

in

so

this

SCHELLING'S

604

DOCTRINES.
f

although Schelling'sPhilosophy

But

discussion, it is

above

indeed

criticism,and

is thus
not

appreciation; and in giving a brief exposition

readers.
the appreciation to our
leave
is the nature
first point to be established
The
improvement

Fichte

upon

stand

to

relation

the

in which

placed above
placed above
of

it

of

Schelling's

the

we

two

shall

trines
doc-

other.

each

The
purely subjective Idealism.
but was
the
Object had indeed reality,
solely dependent upon
we
might we could never
Subject. Endeavour
as
separate the
could
conceive
never
Object from the Subject, we
possible
a
mode
without
of existence
to
being forced
identify with it a
the very conception itself is but an act of the
Subject. Indeed
forced
are
Subject. Admitting that we
by the laws of our
constitution
mental
unknown
to
something, a
postulate an
all
the
in
which
substance
Noumenon,
inhere,
as
phenomena
this
?
is
Mind
It
of
the
is
after
act
an
all,
what,
postulate
; it
is wholly subjective ; the necessity for the postulate is a mental
necessity. The Non-Ego, therefor^,is the product of the Ego.
it conThere
is subtle
tains
reasoning in the above ; nay more,
tity
is irrefutable : the principleof the idena principle which
of Object and
This
Schelling
Subject in knowledge.*
of
such
in
an
Nevertheless,
spite
admission, the
adopted.
violent
too
and
was
nullity of the external world
repulsive a
and
it
conclusion
to be long maintained
to see
was
;
necessary
if the principle of identity might not
be
preserved, without
forcing us to such a conclusion.
in
is as firmly believed
ITie existence
of the objective world
the existence
of the subjective: they are, indeed, both given
as

Fichte's

in the

other

out

at

manner

of ourselves

long

without

This
as

is the

at

men

reason

is

things appear
assumption Philosophy
as

existence

own

it with

the

same

the

existence

time

of ourselves.

Hence

higher

in

anything

ing
inseparably connect-

separately, not
some

of

some

So

we

conclude

independently

power.

Fichte

of

said

it impregnable, soIdealism, and we consider

in
whatever
that
is true
the implied assumption,
on
in
fact ;
equally true {i.e.,actually so co-ordinated)
And
this
to
so
us
they are per se.
yet without

stronghold

knowledge

of

aware

consciousness

our

distinguishedourselves.

we

indeed
exist ; not
other, but identifiedin

human
that

it

be

cannot

of

inseparably connecting

which

both

each

from

conscious

be

cannot

time

same

we

with
that

the

existence

was

We

act.

same

without

like

Idealism

is

of

impossible.

JSrg'o
"

SCHELLING'S

created
was
Non-Ego
equally real, and
were

that the
the

two

605

DOCTRINES.

Schellingsaid

by the Ego.
both

that

identified

were

in

that
the

Absolute.
be
Hence
of something.
must
knowledge
Knowledge
out
withKnowledge
implies the correlate of Being.
Knowledge
But
Knowledge
an
Object known, is but an empty form.
and
correlates
not
separable ; they are
Being are
; they are
identified.
It is as impossible to conceive
an
Object known
without
ing
a
Subject knowing, as it is to conceive a Subject knowwithout
an
Object known.

Spiritvisible

is

Nature

is

Ideal

the

at

Spiritis

the

time

same

invisible

Nature

absolute

Real.

i*" the absolute

In
primary problems to solve.
is to
Transcendental
the
construct
Philosophy the problem
from
the
the
from
Nature
Object
Intelligence
Subject. In
is to construct
gence
Intellithe Philosophy of Nature
the problem
the Object. t
the Subject from
how
Nature
And
from

Philosophy

Hence

has

two

"

"

construct

to

we

are

in the

taught us
whereby

principle of

This

other?

Fichte

identityof Subject

the

in

the

productivityand

Ihe

the

from

one

and

has

Object,

product are
position,
opis
productivity {Thdtigkeit) the
yet always one.
activityin act : it is the force which
develops itself into all
things. The product is the activityarrested and solidified into
fact ; but it is always ready to pass again into activity. And
a
within
is buf a balancing of contending powers
thus the world
constant

The

the

sphere of the Absolute.

In what, then, does
Schelling differ from Fichte, since both
the
arrested
that the product (object)is but
assert
activityof
the Ego ?
In this : the Ego in Fichte's
system is a finite Ego
it is the human
The
soul.
Ego in Schelling's system is the
Absolute
which
the Infinite
the All
stance
SubSpinoza called
"

"

and

as

Ego,

produces

Ego
of

out

its

within

works

universal
Our

of whose

in the

and

itself in two

manifests
form

of

the

Non-Ego

own

us,

readers

nature

and

which

Nature
will

the

it
;
which
here

recognise
become

Non-Ego,

in
here

is

the

but

as

"

by its

universal

produces
us

not

from

is conscious
favourite

saying

famous, are
remarks, now
and
the two
Scblegels.
t
System des Transcendentalen
Idealismus,' p. 7.
*

forms

in the

Nature

Mind.

The

this Absolute

; and
of the

form

not

"

almost

force,

own

which

Nature
out

of

us;

of itself.
of

verbatim

it is
Men

Coleridge, many
from
ScbelJmg

SCHELLING'S

6o6

What

is the

Ego?

jvith which

eyes

the

nite
Infi-

himself.

spiritbeholds

World

which

individual

innumerable

the

but

are

DOCTRINES.

is' one

It

and

the

with

same

the

act

I say
Object to itself. When
myself"
when
I form
conception of my Ego, what is that but the Ego
a
itself
be
making
Consciousness, therefore, may
Object ?
an
defined
well
the objectivityof the Ego.
apply
Very
; now
this to the Absolute.
be
conscious
of
must
himself,
He, too,

and

it

renders

for that

he

"

an

"

realize

must

understand

Schelling
products of
of

attempts

Nature

reflectiren)
; the
The

when

of

nothing
an
Object

its

efforts

and

is but

now

scious
uncon-

{sich selbst

itself
Nature

can

unsuccessful

but

are

dead

We

blind

The

says

make

so-called

objectively.
**

he

Nature
to

acme

himself

zu

gence.
unripe Intelli-

an

is, for Nature

pletely
comthrough the highest and

fhat

"

objectize itself is attained

what
call Reason.
ultimate
or
we
degree of reflection in Man"
and
reveals
its identitywith
Here
into itself,
Nature
returns
in us is known
the Object and
that which
as
Subject."*
scribed
is elsewhere
This
function
of Reason
distinctly demore
the
total
as
indiffermce'pointof the Subjective and
he represents by the symbol
of the
Objective. The Absolute
which
divides
it
itself
the
is
same
Magnet
Thus, as
principle,
of
and
in the Magnet
into the North
South
poles, the centre
to

which

is the

this

itself into

separation

Magnet
South

so
Indifference-point,

divide

Absolute

in

"

every

pole,

point

and

individual

the

is

Man

the

point of

varieties

and

Real

Magnet,

having

Indiflference,so also

are

but

varieties

of

is the

realityof

Indifference-point. Whoso
AnsicH)
things {zum wahren

of
Object and
precisely in the indifference
basis
the
basis
of Philosophy is therefore

is

Knowledge

in Reason.

are

The

spirit

in them
*

Hence

the

System

of

Knowledge

things

they

as

as

North

is the
the

in the

pole, a
Universe,
One.

eternal

whole

Plotinus

dictated

key-stone

of

these

Zeitschrift

of
are,

to

its

Reason;
i.e.,as

the

expressions.

Alexandrian

they

We

school.

have
'

The

Transcend.

Idealismus,' p. 5.
Schelling's philosophy is often' styled the
des

it,rises
which
reality is
The
Subject

rises

J
of

sophy.
J

itself

holds

And

the

does

manner

and
Ic^eal,

Indifference.

absolute

is itself

like

microcosm.

Reason
to

as

the

in

fiir

speculat.Phys.,* vol. ii.,hefl

2.

Indifference

Thilo-

SCHELLING'S

DOCTRINES.

607

the Absolute,
by which we are to embrace
form
of the
Alexandrian
remarked, but another
is,as before
finite
well aware
that the Absolute, the InSchelling was
Ecstacy.
conditions
the
of finity,
under
as
such, could be known
in personal consciousness.
be known
How,
then, can
cannot
the
discerns
it be
known?
higher faculty which
By some
^which perceivesthe Absolute
Identity of Object and Subject
Intuition

Intellectual

"

There

of

Schelling's system : the sophy

philotranscendental
philosophy, and the philosophy

the

Nature,

in

Absolute,

of the

His

divisions

three

are

is lost in indifference.

all difference

Absolute, where

as

speculationswith respect

to

have

Nature

with

met

siderable
con-

with it nowhere
applause in Germany, and could meet
else.
Ingenious they certainlyare, but vitiated in Method
Those
incapable of verification.
leading to no results,because
who

curious

are

to

see

he

what

of Nature

makes

his
Speculative Physik^ and
The
Natur,
following examples

Zeitschififur

his

der

Phibsophie
indicate

kind

the

of

speculation:

referred

are

Ideen

Object being identical,the absolute

There
Universe.
the
absolute
Totality named
difference
a
quantitative difference; and
except
with

conceivable

Identity is
be

can

this

existences.

individual

to

respect

to

serve

and

Subject

to

einer

zu

will

no

is

only

For

the

both
of Object and
Identity is quantitativeindifference
If we
behold
this form.
could
all
Subject, and is only under
in
it
that is,and
its totality,
should
behold
we
see
a
perfect
dividual
quantitative equality. It is only in the scission of the infrom
the
that
infinite
takes
quantitative difference
place. This difference of object and subject is the ground of
the other
all finity; and, on
of
hand, quantitative indifference
the two
is infinity.

absolute

the

and

All

ground
Potenz.

Nature,

of the

as

reader

second

must

is not
intelligibility
here

not
the

Expansive
is

complain

if he

characteristic

only translating Schelling'swords

their darkness.

(alterPot enzen).

force,

Light

of

"

as

do

not

through

power

immanent

the

Weight
an

is the

understand

first

intuition

inward

intuition.

outward

(Fotenz)^

Power

is the

Matter, operates.

Potenz
is the

Weight

is

Identity of all Powers

and

realityof

The

difference

originallyliquid ; weight

Attractive

the

The

is

any

is the

Absolute,

matter

which

determines

which

That

Identity
what

German

speculation

without

undertaking

with

follows

; and
to

of

we

are

enlighleu

6o8

DOCTRINES.

SCHELLING'S

Light is Transparency.
of Light, but is simply

does

Heat
a

modus

pertain to
of Light.

not

existendi

the

nature

Newton's

Light are treated with disdain, as a system

speculations upon
built upon
conclusions, a system self-contradictory,and
illogical
leading

to

infinite absurdities.

led

has

to

men

Nevertheless, this absurd

discoveries

many

it is the

tem
sys-

basis of all that

builds, while the

superior views of Schelling lead to
tricity
nothing except disputation. So with his explanation of Elecit exact, and we
still acknowledge
must
: let us
suppose
it

admits

It

useless.

be

to

"

"

science

application.

It Is

is

viewed

of

no

verification

; admits

of

no

utterlysterile.
Schelling, in h\s Jahrbiicher der Medicin^ says that science is
only valuable in as far as it is speculative;and by speculation
the
he means
he
exists.
contemplation of God
Reason,
as
it affirms
affirm
inasmuch
God, cannot
as
anything else, and
itself at the same
time
individual
annihilates
an
existence,
as
anything out of God.
as
Thought
{Das Denken) is not my
Thought ; and Being is not my Being : for everything belongs
the All.
There
is no
such
which
to God
or
thing as a Reason
If nothing exists out
have
that has us.
we
only a Reason
; but
the
be
of God, then must
of God
knowledge
only the infinite
which
eternal
SelfGod
has
of himself
in the
knowledge
the
He
affirmation.
is not
God
highest, but the only One.

we

an

the

as

the

summit

the

or

end, but

as

the

All

in All.

"

This

in All

under

one

but

"

the

man,

Reason,

under
and

the conclusions

This

both.

eternal

form,
subjectivity.

this

is neither

Absolute

Nature

nor

as

Consequently, there is no such thing

ledge
a
being lifted up to the knowledge of God ; but the knowis immediate
recognition.
If we
divest Schelling's
speculations of their dialectical forms
shall arrive at the following results :
Idealism
is one-sided.
Beside
exist
the Subject there must
lute.
Object : the two are identical in a third, which is the Abso-

centre,
as

be

to

not

source

as

an

the

by this

Absolute

objectivity;

Reason

and

Real

is God.

God

He

is the All

realizes himself

He

under

Mind

neither

"

second

form

as

in man;
and
existence, manifests

of himself

conscious

highest form

which

nor

of all existence.

becomes

He

Ideal

of

his

knows

himself.

Such

are

And
Schelling'sphilosophy leads us.
ask, in what does this philosophy differ from Spinozisni?
we
now,
The
the IndifferenceAbsolute, 'Which
Schelling assumes
as
point of Subject and Object, is but the wpSn-ov ayadov and primal
to

DOCTRINES,

SCBELLING'S

6io

merited

he

cause

with

details,

into

beyond
differ

limits.

our

His
in

is

which

and

Fichte,

de
of

Principes

Fichte,
des

All

he

of

as

his

announced
;

best

work,

by

Choses.

Nothing

also

in

but

endeavoured

to

developments

of

basis.

transcendental,
is

as

far

us

numerous,

have

we

entered

carried

only

produced

Hegel

served

Pldialisme

are

have

to

have

not

views.

which

translation

French

Systlme

ideas

the

would

works

their

because

but

space,

satisfaction,

any

considerably

represent

greater

no

P.

version

English.

under

the

Grimblot,
of

title
the

Bruno

of

lator
trans-

on

",es

(S^cfccntljCBpocfi.
THIRD

THE

FORM

OF

IDEALISM,

VIZ,,

ABSOLUTE

IDEALISM.

CHAPTER
LIFE

HEGEL.

OF

William

Frederick

George

I.

Hegel

bom

was

Stuttgard

at

received

that classical education

August, 1770.
the
which
students
Wirtembergian
distinguished
beyond all
his
in
he
and
others
went
to
eighteenth year
Tiibingen, to
;
and
studies.
his
He
there
theological
philosophical
was
pursue
for
he
with
contracted
whom
fellow-student
Schelling,
a
great
the

7 th of

The

esteem.

their

He

two

young

discussed

and

thoughts,

opposition had

life when

thinkers

their favourite

sundered

their connexion

of this part of

communicated

these

his

In

after

spoke

never

emotion.

other

In

systems.

ties,Hegel

without

each

to

his twentieth

give up
a
plans
professorship,
and
content
(hunger impelling) to accept the place of
was
privatetutor, first in Switzerland, and subsequently in Frankfort.
his father died : and
the small
he
Early in 1801
property
him
his
enabled
inherited
to relinquish
tutorship, and to move
he
his
dissertation
De
orbiiis planepublished
to Jena, where
the
This
work
Newtonian
dir^^d against
was
iarum.
system
It
of
of Astronomy^
an
application
was
Schelling'sPhilosophy
he

year

of

trusted

Hegel

published
which

he

in

never

to

more

his

sided

all

to

and

Nature;

which

had

it Newton
failed to

experience
'Difference
with

the

for

heap
than

upon
to

between
doctrines

with

treated

was

that

scorn

Empirics, /"., those

logic*
Fichte
of his

In

the

and

same

who

year

he

Schelling,* in

friend^whom

he

joined

6i2

in

editing the

second

volume

Kant,

genius
on

wtd

Journal of Philosophy.* It is in the

with his celebrated
this Journal that we
meet
Wissen
(Faith and
Knowledge), in which

Jacobi, and Fichte are criticised.

Jena he enjoyed the society of Gothe
with

former,

his

which

be read

may

Critical
of

Glauben

essay

At

'

HEGEL.

OF

LIFE

the

as

hand,

Schiller's

and
was

the

sagacity, detected

yet lay undeveloped

in Gothe

other

admirers

usual

to

the

last

Schiller.

and

philosophical

; of which

in

Hegel
'Correspondence.'
one

The

of

Gothe*s

more

Hegel,

staunchest

is shed
the pages
over
gleam
of the philosopher, by his frequent quotation of the poet.
At
then
the University of Jena, Hegel
held
the post of
Privat
had
These
but his lectures
docent;
only four listeners.
all remarkable
four, however, were
:
men
Gabler, Troxler,
On
Schelling'squittingJena, Hegel
Bachmann, and Zellmann.
filled the chair ; but filled it only for one
Here
he published
year.
his Phdnommologie
He
finished writing this
des Geistes.
work
battle of Jena. While
the night of the ever-memorable
on
the artillerywas
the walls, the Philosopher was
roaring under
He
of all that was
deep in his work, unconscious
going on.
continued
at the siege of Syracuse continued
writing,as Archimedes
his scientific researches.
The
next
morning, manuscript
in hand, he
lisher's,
steps into the streets, is proceeding to his pubthat the interests of mankind
bound
are
firmly convinced
he hugs so
of writing which
tenderly. The
up with that mass
of his reverie is somewhat
violentlyinterrupted ; bearded
course
the philosopher,
soldiers arrest
and sigand gesticulatingFrench
nifican
inform
him that, for the present, the interests
enough
in manuscripts.
In spite of French
lie elsewhere than
of men
the light,and
in due time saw
soldiers,however, the work
was
the
welcomed
philosophical world, as a new
or
by
system
The
modification
ship
editorrather
of Schelling'ssystem.
a
new
as
offered
then
of the Bamberg
was
him, and he
newspaper
did not long remain
He
at Bamberg
quitted Jena.
; for in the
of the Gymnasium
Rector
of 1808
find him
autumn
College
we
Hffried
Fraulein
He
after
at Niimberg.
von
Tucher,
shortly
he
had
and
with whom
he passed a happy
two
life,
by whoiji
of
the
and
called
chair
In
1816
he
to
Heidelberg,
was
sons.
PhUos,
der
his
in
181
Wissenschaften^
Encyclopddie
published
7
; and

many

of lustre

"

which
his
then

contains

an

reputation that
the

most

outline

of his system.^

in 181 8 he

was

called

important in Germany.

This
to the

He

work

so

chair

there

of

exalted

Berlin,

lectured

for

HEGEL'S

thirteen years,
as

name

and

formed
its

among

Hegel

seized

was

and
with

613

it is sufficient to
school, of which
Gans, Rosenkranz,
Michelet,

members

Marheinecke,

Werder,

METHOD.

Hothe.
the

in

cholera

1831,

and

after

short

illness

of his age, on
expired in the sixty-first
the a4th
year
the anniversary of the death
of November,
of Liebnitz.

CHAPTER

II.

hegel's
doctrines

Schelling's

was

subtle, ardent, and

and

was

in
in

Fichte

The

of

the

effect

of

of
the

attempted

of

demonstrate.

his

preaching

them,

Oken

was

and

he

scientific

He

precision;

abhorred

his

felt

in the

more

elsewhere.

department

Crowds

of

ciples,
dis-

Steffens, illustrious disciples,

his

principles ; and after a vast

sterile generalization, it was
found

application of

quantity of ingenious, but

that these
principlesled to

; but
to

than

Nature
as

certainly not

and
predecessors Kant
he
He
preached;
logical forms.

to

philosophy of
some

audacious

absence

attempted

never

was

striking contradiction
the

systematicallyco-ordinated.

never

of his mind

characteristic

The

were

method.

no

conclusion.
satisfactory

Schelling's ideas were, however, very generally accepted in

the time Hegel appeared.
These
the philosophical world
at
ideas were
thought to be gei^uine intuitions of the truth ; the
their
of systematic co-ordination.
want
was
only drawback
inspirationsof the trutli ; and demonstrations
were
They were
The
became
needed.
therefore
to occupy
position Hegel was
he
ideas
clear.
Either
and
must
destroy those
bring
very
in
he
forward
must
them,
and,
accepting,
others; or
accept
This
this was
them.
latter
and
no
task,
was
systematise
easy
the

task

somewhat

he

chose.
from

In

the

course

Schelling,because

of
the

his

labours

he

deviated

such
deviations
but
these
logic made
aie,
necessary;
modifications
but
of
ideas
all,nothing
Schelling's
; very
but
different
for
ideas.
the
expressions
same
nothing

his

What,

of

rigorous conclusions

then, cpnstitutes Hegel's glory?

What

is the

after
often

nature

6i4

HEGEL'S

of his contribution

high

pedestal

of

philosophy, which has placed

It is nothing less than

to

new

of

Method

always considered
of philosophical genius, and

effort

historian's
discovers

attention.

path

done
in quest of truth, has
more
of men
of truth than thousands
merely

observation

is

mankind

may

towards

the

speculating.

of centuries

and

discovery
What

had

for astronomy

done

"

the noumenal

quickly
A

in

seemed

world

could

possession of the
is all-important.

promising ;

it led

but

of

path

Fichte

then

not

we

to

consider

results

of

the inevitable

One

Scepticism.

be

Mysticism;

conclusions

and

excellences

Hume.

modem

That

as

minds

of

is led

of

repugnant

to

was

Kant

led

world,

Idealism

are

is led

the

to

it

in the ancient

Scepticism.

to

Spinoza.

; but

philosophical Method

class

are

by Descartes

Malebranche

and

In the

class

another

invented

obvious

had
by Locke
transit to Berkeley
and Scepticism.

Curious

these

should

"

That

to

invented

That

found

be

truth.

Method

and

Method

whereon

the

found

to

as,

the

speculation
if a Method
And
?
found
could
be
right path was
if a path of transit from the phenomenal
for Philosophy

before

tion
inven-

the

have

we

travel

to

so*

on

Method.*

perhaps, the greatest

most
deserving of the
Whoso
path of transit

the

him

of renown?

invention

The

METHOD.

Idealism
But

or

both

as

ordinary conclusions

of

rejected,and

j mankind,
/

they are
rejected.

the

which

Method

led

to

them

hopes
high ; truth
the result
is about
to be discovered
; the search is active,and
Idealism
Scepticism ! Thus
or
always the same
repugnant
has
struggling and being baffled,hoping and being dispirited,
renewed
the
without
for
conflict,
Humanity
ever
once
gaining
is
the
It
that
Sisyphus rolling up
a
heavy stone,
victory.
certain
down
reaches
it rolls to the
a
no
sooner
point than

is also

new

one

is found

beat

"

"

bottom,
In

this

noble

rushed
*

der
that

This

labour

history we

minds
and

Methods

all the

and

we

seen

the

swifUy roll
discovered; followed
it

seen

forward

to

begin again.

already

have

have

is to

conquest

; and

traced
stone

down

the

laboriously

again.

adventurous
seen

the

We

vol. ii."p. 479.

of

many

rolled
have

wards,
upseen

spirits as they
discouragement, the
*

claim

"

Philos.,* vol.
can

efforts

Gesch
:
put up by his discipleMichelet
who
declares
ii.,Dp. 604-5 ;
Hegel's method
called
his
be
own.
Comp. Hegel*s Vermischte
properly
is the

^
*

der

Systeme
to

be

all

Schriften,'

HEGEL*

METHOD.

615

possessed them, as theyfound their paths leading

cloud-land
only to a yawning gulf of scepticism, or a baseless
this spectacle once
witness
have
Idealism.
of
We
to
now
conduct
whither
have
We
to see
can
more.
Hegers Method

despair 'which

men.

which

cepting
AcHegel discovered?
indisputable the identity of object and subject, he
as
of
forced also to accept the position that whatever
true
was
was
In other
and
the thought was
of the thing.
true
words. Mind
Matter
correlates, and
being identical,Ideas and Objects were
stood
which
Descartes
This is the positionupon
equally true.
;
the position upon
which
Schelling and
Spinoza stood.
Hegel
but they also
took
arrived
at this position by a diflferent route,

their

stand

all sides

; to

rise

up

from

also

of

Objects,

Thus; as
thinking
Hegel's
does

Kant

more

so

If

than

delicious
itself

dollars,
he

of

bristle

is considerable

hundred

attacks

to

contradictions

is true

absurdities

said, there
a

the

to

whatever

thousand

position is exposed

which
is

Ideas

true

against

up

difference

us.

between

possessing them.
that
Philosophy

and

declares

hundred
a
things as
! {daran ist philosophisch nichts
sophy
zu
erkennen). Philois necessary
directs its thoughts only towards
that which

not

dollars

and

such

it.

possess
is

answer

that

none

within

we

Method

it.

upon

it is evident

Now,
on

is this

what

And

concern

with

such

eternal.
well

Very

banished

be
what

and

from

and

Are

there

Realities

For

also

Thought

eternal

; let

example,

possess

here

to

of

there

Is

stractions
ab-

Thoughts
existence
Non-

is

which

Non-existence

with

only

Thought

objective being?

an

of dollars

between

the

have

we

that

ourselves

confine

us

contradictions

no

as

ourselves

concern

us

therefore, this

does,

; let

discourse

is necessary

illustrations

miserable

let such

our

existence
Non-

?
We
has

forced

the

Nothing

denn
but

es

to

us

it.

idle

He

says

it is

It is not,

Gedanke).

same

question

boldly

exists,because

"

ist ein

it is the

this

chosen

have

Thought

as

that

because

that

the

Thought
however,
of

pure

entirelyunconditioned
Thought.
In
with
his famous
axiom,
this, coupled
NonNichts
Being are the same"
{Seyn und

Hegel

himself

Non-existence
Nichts

(Das

"

ist ;

merely a Thought,
Being {Seyn),viz.,

an

have

two

of the

curious

results

to

which

his

"

that
ist

B^ing

and

dasseibe),we

Method

led

him.

HEGEVS

6i6

Let

again ask.

us

What

this

with

met

resolved

underneath

truth

these

various

from

basis

Method

the

truth

of
as

sides, Hegel
basis

basis, a

The

the

inasmuch

things; but

deeper, firmer

was

principleof

of

contradictions.

It

that

his

was

went

principle

contraries.

of Ihe

identityof
us
explain.

Let

This

Existence.

contraries

Two

other

each

exclude

to

the

opposition

strong

give it

to

to

Descartes'

upon

being equivalent

ideas

Method

that

was

Descartes, founded

of

method.

reciprocally:

notion

Hegel

supposed

commonly

are

Existence

Non-

excludes

false.

be

to

pronounces

its
forms
contradictory in itself: contradiction
in being the union
of two
traries.
con: its identity consists
essence
Thus
Being (Seyn) considered
absolutely considered
unconditioned
that is to say, as Being in the abstract, apart
21 s
individual
Existence
from
Nothing.
as
thing, is the same
any
is therefore
identical with its negation.
But
that
conclude
to
is

Everything

"

"

Existence

is not

there

{Nichts) is

the

at

therefore, unite
at

middle

"

colour

or

Absolute

shadow,

false ; for the abstract Nothing

the abstract
Being. We
must,

contraries,and
*

the realization
"

should

we

in

of the

doing

so

in one,

two

arrive

we

and

this

it is the world.

example

in pure
light,that is light without
be totallyunable
to
anything.
see

is, therefore, identical

clearness
with

two

Existence

is another

Here

be

time

same

these

term

is conditioned

would

with

absolute

scurity
ob-

nor
negation, in fact ; but neither clearness
have
ness
clearalone
them
we
: by uniting
obscurity are complete
with
have
is
that
Light
to
obscurity;
mingled
we
say,
properly so called.
of allowing
Instead
Hegel thus seized the bull by the horns.
himself
from
be worsted
derived
the
to
by the arguments
contradictions
and
which
ledge
Knowto
the identity of Existence
the difficulty
met
was
exposed, he at once
by declaring
"

that

the

existence

its

identityof

the

was

very
could

condition

of

all

into being.
nothing
come
This
his countrybit of logicalaudacity which
astounded
a
was
men,
this
and
of
have
feat
immortal
they
proclaimed
worthy
the world
be thrown
to
glory. A new
light seemed
; a
upon
the
at
new
Being was
was
given to all existences.
aspect
time
the same
time Object ;
at
same
Non-Being ; Subject was
time
and
the same
Imat
Object was
was
Subject; Force
*

The

Crerman

; without

contraries

original

word

speculatioDto

contrary

is

werden

Expressthe

"

the

becoming.

transition

from

It

is much

Non-being

to

used

Being.

in

ABSOLUTE

6i8

tion, the
the

Idea

its primitive force.

Thus

it

But

the

longer

no

is

it contained.

all that

developed

It has

same.

to

returns

IDEALISM.

It

has

sorbed
ab-

negation
negation, by
the
time
%ame
at
negation
preserves it.*
suppressing
that Hegel's notion
We
by way of anticipation,observe
may,
conscious
in Philosophy, and
himself
of
of Gk)d
becoming
the
thereby attaininghis highest development, is founded
on
God
above
as
being can only pass into reality
process.
pure
through a negation ; in Philosophy he n^atives this negatiotty
and thus becomes
a positiveaffirmation.
As a display of perverse
of its
ingenuity, stolidlyconvinced
and
tating
entire seriousness
as
an
importance
example of unhesiin the validity of verbal
distinctions
confidence
the
been
philosophy of Hegel has perhaps never
equalled. As Dr.
** Ici
I'absurdit^
Ott epigrammatically remarks,
se
comme
pose
fondamentale."
8vo.
methode
Twenty volumes
twenty serious
its contrary.

of

the

the

"

"

"

volumes

seriousness

the

attest

with

which

this

method

was

pursued.

CHAPTER

III.

ABSOLUTE

have

We

transit

domain

the

and

the

of
of

bogs

Meanwhile

decide.
must

we

Hegel's Method.

seen

to

truth,

Whether

only
absurdity, our
or

further

must

we

his Method

whither

see

IDEALISM.

did

to

that
the

lead

cloudland
will

readers

detail

be

path of
of mysticism

very

soon

Hegel's opinions

him.

thing contains within itself a contradiction, and as

its essence,
constitutes
the identity of the two
so
we
say
may
that Schelling*sconception of the identityof subject and object
the realityof both
He
assumed
of
not
altogether exact.
was
\S\t"e poles of the magnet;
and
the identityhe
called
the point
As

every

indifference

of

them.

between

always separate, though

ot

essence

relation

means

is

"

not

is the

This
"

all relation

This
to

play

a*

weU

which

Absolute

to

Hegel
is true

and
the

declared

were

that

the

positive in every
relation
itself.

Idealism.

is assisted
as

extremities

two

related, but

terms

two

of
words

upon

suppress
p. 8o.

Allemande,*

the

basis

identified.
that

"

These

preserve.

by

the

German

See

Ott,

aufheberti
*

Hegel

et

which

la Phiios.

It

thus

be

may

ABSOLUTE

IDEALISM,

illustrated.

that there
psychologists tell me
fact of vision,viz.,a tree, an
one
which
that
image.
apprehends

alone

exist.

who

thing, and

The

is

that

modification

Schelling tells me
existences
equally real or

Idealism,

Ego

are

less

than

manifestations

Idealism,

of

the

tells

image

of

tree, and

of that

Fichte
the

common

in this

things implied

three

image

The

tree.

see

are

and

tree

619

mind.

my
that

tree

the

ideal, but

is Subjective

This

and

tree

they

one

are

This

both

Absolute.

it is I

that

me

of the

mind

my

nothing

are

is

Objective
explanations are

Hegel tells me
fact of vision)
only thing reallyexisting (inthis one
is the Idea
the relation.
The
Ego and the Tree are but two
of the relation, and
their realityto it. This is Abso^
terms
owe
lute Idealism,
of Idealism
this is surely the
Of the three forms
and
that
of
most
not
to speak
man
sane
preposterous
;
any
eminent
should
instant believe
for an
in
a
man
as
so
Hegel
the correctness
of the logic which
brought him to this pass
that he should
which
at once
not
reject the premisses from
But

false.

all these

that

The

"

j
"

"

"

"

"

"

conclusions

such

followed

thinkers,

sober

unbounded

must

in

ratione

Truly,

with

mad

race

ferox,

et

wonder

which

all

to

strikingillustration

logic

bad

remain

ever

remain

ever

confidence

Gens

must

"

of

distinguishes

the

physicians.
Meta-

pasta chimaeris.

mentem

logic, and

feeding

the

/
mind

with

chimeras!
What
to

world

of

Substance

"

speak only

of

"

too

was

and

whose

To

gross.

of

term

one

bring us to ? It brings
The
Spinozisticnotion

"relations."

mere

of Ideas, which

Universe

speak

relation.

are

at

consists

essence

in the

of
to

was

is but

Universe

both

once

substance,

of

The

us

the

jective,
subobjective and
relation they bear to

other, in the identity of their contradiction.

each

Scepticism, in

Hume's

of Mind

existence
Ideas.

there

says

Kant

appearances

and

denies

Hegel

blames

is
for
to

that

the

dogmatical form.

Matter, and
existence

the

is

Idealism

Absolute

said

Hume
there

df both

was

object
"

nothing

but

denied

the

nothing

but

and

relations
of the
nothing but the
of
if
having spoken
they
Things as
while
us
(Erscheinungen fiir uns)
**

(Ansick) was

nature

is this

this

that

also

Remark

and

Idealism

this Absolute

does

inaccessible.

Things

we

know

The
are

real
not

subject,
two.

He

were

only

their

relation, he

only

appearances

real
says,
to

IDEALISM.

ABSOLUTE

620

but

US,

in

are

themselves

mere

hlosse

Erscheinungen)
our
Thoughts are not only Thoughts,
the realityof Things.*

that
are

is the

This

Philosophy

; not

ansich

(sondem

appearances
real
The

objectivityis

but

the

at

same

not

which
take
its place amongst
other systems.
system
may
it is the Philosophy /"r
excellence.
We
have
HegeFs word
it ; +

have

we

disciples.

confirmation

the

it is that

True

reproached with the

it belongs to the
thinkers

possible

in

detail, yet

Philosophy
this philosophy
the

to

word

by

for

ardent

many

when

Hegelians

young

No,

that

improvements
given

although some
Hegel

the whole

on

sober

and

Mature

men.

has

world.

And

is

the

young

(ofHegel's school) declare

are

the

rash

that

changes they introduce, reply

Philosophy to change (!) But

of

nature

inconsiderate

are

of

some

constant

that

these

of

tinie

Philosophy, remember,

this

is

not

doctrines

of

system

whereby

It is something far greater.

It is the
guide himself.
contemplation of the self-development of the Absolute.
Hegel
the
fact of a new
congratulates mankind
epoch having
upon
dawned.
It appears," says he,
that the World-Spirit ( Weltman

to

"

geist)has

"

last

at

(sich
only in

als

far

as

and
cdone

this

constitutes

Such

Gdst

he

as

conceive

to

absoluten

his

himself

knows

as

brances
incum-

all

Intelligence
For

is this

he

the

Absolute

and

Science;

in

only

from

Absolute

be

to

exist ence^

true

pretensions

himself
erfassen).

zu

knows

he

freeinghimself

in

succeeded

is able

and

this

gence:
Intelli-

knowledge

be

they not so painful

laughable were
to contemplate.
To
think not
and that one
only of one
man,
remarkable
for the
subtlety of his intellect,a subtlety which
its
other men
hundred
was
bane, together with many
some
or
all
and
all
rising above the ordinary level of ability one
so,
the
with
of
such
their lives a science
cultivatingas
occupation
and
method
such
those
with
above
pretensions as
noted,
a
as
would

"

"

that

of the

more

sad

those

of

delusions
*

Dass

identityof
to

contraries
The

look

upon.
ignorance and
of

delusions

only depend

Metaphysics

are

"

Ansich

der

Gf danken

nicht

und

'

bloss

know

upon

few

daily to be
ignorance.

delusions

the

of

of

an

delusions
seen

But

are

the

ambitious

sondem
Gedanken,
zagleich
Gegen^tandUciien
Dinj^e
ut)eihaupt sind."-"
The
whole
*Encyclopaedie/ p. 89. See also p. 97 for that quoted above.
of this Introduction
to the
consulting.
Encyclopsedie is worth
t *Gesch.
derPhilos.,' vol. iii.,p. 690.
X ]bid.,p. 689.
das

die

We

unsere

des

IDEALISM,

ABSOLUTE

intelligence
and

Schelling,
high

which

take

could

with,

up

who

trace

no

less

therefore
of

system
works

systematically

so

coming
from

had

especially

to

Philosophy

the

Being

the

of

the

science

for
*

ideas,

so

obviously
risen

always

and

his

and

of

allude

We

his

if

coherent,

greatness,

it must

History

of

Philosophy
be

always

and
the

which
two

it

able
profit-

wholly

useful

as

mankind.

Suggestive
refutation

we

mean

striking

as

out

which
leaves

new

the

of

the
his

of

student
own.

earnest

to

of

Matter

the

same

Thought

is that

questions,
in

mugh

the

as

is the

the

and

same;

contraries

of

Mind

attention

provoking
views

as

the

are

as

the

is Non-

also

so

existence

all

begins
because

same,

Thought

same

are

light, just

unworthy

which

is the

which

and

identity
in

positive

real

true,

benefit

of

the

system

of

therms

are

decide,

to

illustration

an

the

unconditioned,

Thing

only

as

system

Unconditioned,

upon

the

Being

Non-

as

proceeds

were

is

both,

Philosophy;

except

speculation.
and

readers

all

to

attention,

any

is, therefore,
the

leave

is the

abstract

the

Relation,
system

may

His

so

subject

History,'

of

works

Being

that

Thing,
in

system

and

errors

of

which

method
as

worthy

therefore

Being;
system

we

the

which

we

of

devious

in

itself

system

assuming

with

are

have

Esthetics

on

Philosophy

These

it be

whether
of

Lectures

his

matter

author's

on

the

study.
the

But

'

his

Religion.*
to

the

his

that
the

thrown

lights

new

of

sense

sense,
of

yet

are

whole

the

power.

admirers.

warm

truth,

meditation,

with

perusal

having

of

developed,

Hegel

common

suggestive;*

the

as

and

truth.

condemnation

his

very

regard

matured

from
the

found

we

forces

they

wonderful

for

respect

amongst

are

always
what

to

repugnant

we

"

have

we

logic

sound

Hegel

which

the

his

of

sense

lines, in

these

We

with

you

found

their

absurdities

what

had

they

to

what

to

seen

seen

Fichte,

as

incontestably

have

we

have

we

believing

impresses

especially

yet

621

such

Men

belong

example,

them

brought

reasonings

for

intelligences

of

order

itself."

"o*er-Ieaps

Hegel,

'

dark
men

refute

simple
;

for
as

this

which
ever

working

him,

and

in

622

LOGIC.

HEGEL'S

CHAPTER

IV.

HEGEL'S

Philosophy
the

of

being

Absolute,
of the

in what

per

process

seyri), These
identified
Relation

the

affirmation

which

is therefore
The

two

terms

is founded

which

Absolute,

in this

settled

place.
first considered

be

must

othef'

some

the contraries

"

negation

the

on

is both

triple order,

; but

of

negation

it

and

Being,

and

Thought

Philosophy

be

must

falls into

three

"

Logic, the science

I.

tation
represenbe

must

positive,real.

considered

parts

Everything
its negation as

in

next

the

'

be

it first

takes

development

it,the

thing {anderare
they must
in some
third or
exist; this third is
they cannot
is the
of the two
(the anundfursichseyn). This

{ansick) ;

se

this

is this.

self-development

calls

der Idee\
(Darstellung

Idea

directions

The

sometimes

Hegel

as

the

of

contemplation

the

or,

LOGIC.

II.

of the

Nature-philosophy

Idee^

an

of

science

the

as

undfur

sich.
in

its

the

Idee

Idee

which

has

from

that

Afiderseyn,
III.

Philosophy

returned

its

from

Logic, in

intelligence,

of

Anderseyn

this system,

itself.

to

has

the

as

very

different

meaning

mon
indeed, equally with the comit is
examination
of the
of Thought
forms
; but
oi
it is an
than
of
examination
less
more
:
Things, no
As
Thoughts.
identical,and
Object and Subject are declared
is true
whatever
of the Thought
of the Thing,
is equally true
the
takes
the
since
is the Thing, Logic, of course,
Thought
time of Metaphysics.
place of the ancient Logic and at the same
It is the generation of all abstract
ideas.
Consequently it
contains
the whole
system of Science, and the other parts are

usually given
logic, an

to

the

It is

word.

"

but

the

applicationof

HegeFs
of

wholly
*

than

The

abstract.
Idee

Idea,

employed

It is

Thought

pure

is but

Logic.

is in

"Logic"

scholasticism.

this

free
It

three

representation of
from

all

begins with

another

term

for

the

contact

pure
the

of

volumes

stout

Idee

with

absolute.

in its process

objects.
This

Being.
We

shall

the
English translation, because
English word
without
confiision.
creating unnecessary
its

dry hard

pure
use

cannot

It

is

Being
it rather
so

be

HEGEL*

of its

in virtue
conditions

has

is also

be

to

is

He
the

town,

in

the

sun,

has

abstraction.

Now

{das Nichts) :

it also

pure

no
a

has

its

nothingness.
and
is, therefore, "Being
makes

Logic

proposition to

of its openness

house,

somewhat

be

to

shaken

sense

ask,

the

air

"

not

sarcasm.

it is

whether

Certainly, a

"In
such
it?
pertinent question:
answer
particular ends
utility,for instance
examples," he says,
then
it is asked
if it is indifferent
to
understood, and
are
me
these
useful things exist or not ?
in
whether
sophy
Philotruth.
But,
is precisely the doctrine
which
from
is to free man
how

very

does

breathe, this

not."

or

is

he

by

will

exist

God,

or

paradoxical,

ridicule ; but

property,

my

law, mind,

be

to

by a paradox,
that stupid common

the

which

same."

the

if my

that

but

Nothing

scared

aware

same

the

proposition

first

Non-Being are
Hegel admits
is fullyaware
and
man

it is

623

; its unconditionalness

conditions
The

LOGIC.

unconditioned

existence

no

abstraction

pure
no

purity is

he

"

"

"

innumerable

finite aims
them

to

things

exist

except

"

say

existed

or

Plotinus

have

never

have

the

had

indifferent

us

different
in-

so

whether

same

such'

influence

Alexandrian

the

trace

make

to

was

it

; and

we

would

him

make

to

really all the

H!ere

Philosophy

that

it is

that

not."

that

ends, and

and

audacity
whether

to

God

slip of the pen which

in the examples : a slip of the pen,
God
made
Hegel include
else the
his disciples
rigour of its pitilesslogic,"of which
or
indeed
talk.
Pitiless,"
: a
man
more
intrepidin absurdity it
be impossible to find.
would
not

or

must

been

"

"

also, the

Remark,

evasive

his

of

reply. Common
him
to
without
a
sense
plain direct question, not
suggests
interest.
This
the
bottom
to
question, plain as it is, goes
of his system.
He
evades
it by answering, that Philosophy
with
the
has nothing to do
interests of men.
Very true; his
has
do
with
them.
But
the question put
nothing to
system
not,

was

"

of mankind

and
house
answer

To
two

Philosophy

Has
"

The

Non-Being
and
even

not

are

to

upon

to

nature

question put
the

have

his

return, however.
contraries
; there

same,

it ?

"

own

As

was,

If,as
same

Hegel might
principles.

you

interests

the

say.

thing
given

have

Being
have

to
a

be

better

first

The
must

"

is it the

proposition has given us the

an
to give
identity a relation
and
as
Being,
Non-Being,
pure

positivereality.
pure
have
no
they
reality;they are
them

itself with

concern

"

mere

"

potentialities. Unite

\0GIC.

HEGEVS

6^4

them,

the Becontins: ( Werden), and that is reality.

you have
of
this idea
Becoming, a-^d you will find that it contains

and

Analyse

preciselythese
it is evolving, and
these

Now

other, which

two

elements

Being

incessantly tend
their realityby

maintained

which

from

reciprocallycontradict
each

absorb

to

in

Non-Being

is evolved.

which

elements, which

two

"

means

other,

are

only

in which

the relation

of

each

that is, the point of the magnet

which
they are to each other
the
and
asunder
them
asunder
by keeping
keeps
poles
;
vents
pretheir annihilating each
other.
The
Becoming is the first concrete
have,
Thought
we
can
the first conception, against which
Being and Non-Being are
"

abstractions.

pure

how
itself as
to
question naturally suggests
Being
and
into Realities.
from
Abstractions
The
Non-Being
pass
is
that
become
Realities
only answer
Hegel gives us
they
; but
this is answering us with the very question itself. We
want
to
know
In
haw
become.
themselves, as pure Abstractions,
they
no
reality; and although two
negatives make
an
they have
affirmative
in language, it is not
how
evident
plish
so
they accomA

this in fact.
the

The

question

we
Hegelians
it
unanimously declared
in
their system)
numerous

not

whom

Is of

questioned
be

to

of

one

which

be

can

; and
point have

insoluble

course

the

on

those

(very

truths

comprehended,

but

proved.
Let

us

grant

Non-Being;
All

have

and

determination

order

Being

that

It is the

Becoming.

the
as

identityof Being and

Being as determinedy conditioned.
is Negation.*
Therefore, in
(Bestimmung)
such

should

it is

become,

it

suffer

must

first

negation :

the
also be anderseyn^ and
relation
of the
ansichseyn must
is total reality,the an-und-fur-sich-seyn.
two
Quality is the first negation : it is the reality of a thing.
which
is the
That
constitutes
Quality is the negation which
condition
of its Being.
Blue, for example, is blue only because
it is the
is a
of
red, green,
negation
purple, "c. ; a meadow
it is not a vineyard,a park, a ploughed
meadow
only because
field,"C.
as
Quality
Being, having suffered a Negation, is determined
But
Abstraction.
^it is Something, and
this
no
longer an
this
condition
and
this
its
is
limited
limit,
by
Something
;
very
the

"

This,

system

as

it has

many

other

ide\s,

real significance.

In

is

borrowed

HegePs

it is

from
a

mere

Spinoza,

playupon

in

whose

WQKJI%

"

626

APPLICATION

found

has

be

to

OF

genuine

sistent ; consistent

METHOD

TO

truth.

Thirdly, Hegel
audacity, to absurdity. If
the premises, he is sure
to

to

to
yields assent
the
conclusions.
t
o
irresistibly
once

the

that

suppose
in his works
to

the

utmost

; but

reveal

The

boasted

system

words,

upon

soon

except

Idealism

soon

as

it is

as

in which

turns

OF

dragged

exhibited

Thought,
the

In

and
of

Hegel

domain

in the

it

the

"

the

out

; and

be

to

only

to

so

the

play

misty

the

out

minology
ter-

various

evolutions
-exhibit

to

its

HISTORY^

AND

NATURE,

TO

PHILOSOPHY.

attempt

he

had

difficult

only

of

one

sufficient

were

to

to

matter

dependence

distinctions

Verbal

out

from

AND

undertakes

such

no
*'

ideas

turns

of

Idee

the

objective

as

pure

evolutions

of Nature.

former

was

fog

of

V.

METHOD

THE

RELIGION,
Having

bringing
terminology-

very
German

it is enshrouded.

CHAPTER
APPLICATION

fact

the

fog is scattered

the

as

of Absolute

his

to

absurdity,by

of the

as

must

tions
speculainto the
bring them
verbal
translatioi)would

endeavoured

Anything

hut

dragged

reader

significanceof

obscurity with which the

mountain
looming through

miserable

real

of the

veils it.

be

of

the

preserve
have
also

aspects

some

it out

be

our

lightof day.

clear

is very con*
the student

not
Fourthly,
ate
so
HegeF s system
apparent
have
exerted
ourselves
exposition. We

to
we

the

absurdities

in

as

NATURE,

deal

with

abstractions,
generation
"

exhibit

the

formula

another.
upon
in attacking the

there.

But

presented us by Nature, and in endeavouring to give

scientific solutions, verbal
distinctions, audacious
logic, and
be
to
is not
obscure
Nature
terminology avail nothing.
Aware
of
make
this does
But
coerced.
not
Hegel hesitate.
that
the varieties of Nature
the difficulties,
seeing instinctively

problems

could
the
once

not

Idee

"

be
as

reduced

Thought

asserted

exterioritycould

that
not

to

the

had
the

follow

been

reduced

determinations
the

the

simplicityas

same

same

march

in

Logic"

his

of

the
as

varieties

the

Idee

he
in

determina-

of
at

its

RELIGION,

mSTORYy
tions

of

other

as
reciprocally,

the

they
When

than

abroad

look

from

the
is

Nature

she

mumbles

generating

determinations

these

each
have
deed
in-

; sometimes

co-existence

of

that

the

Nature,

upon

variety of transformations.
looking deeper, we find
on
are

Logic,

in the

of

62;

isolated.

appear

we

Instead

Thought.

as

connexion

other

no

Idee

PHILOSOPHY.

AND

At

first these

that

lowest

there

is

order

series

regular

endless

an

without

seem

velopment
of de-

tions
transforma-

These

highest.

the

to

observe

we

itself objectively.
struggles of the Idee to manifest
first
At
dumb
Intelligence striving to articulate.
efforts
she articulates ; at last
; with succeeding

she

speaks.
which
the Idee
undergoes in the sphere
Every modification
in the sphere of
of pure
it endeavours^ to express
Thought
in the scale of creation
Nature.
thus an
And
object is elevated
in

far

so

it

as

within

resumes

itself

by
qualities: inorganic rtiatter is succeeded
is
there
beings
a
graduated
organized
amongst
plant
In

Nature

scale

and
the

from

Man

the

Idee

its

assumes

"

it divine

suppose
Nature

organic,

highest grade.
and
of itself,
conscious
thereby attains
the highest point of development.
positive existence
is divine
it is a mistake
in principle (ansich\ but
to

In
up to man.
Reason
it becomes

real and

of

number

greater

is made

it exists.

as

with

one

is but

This

God,

and

is the
God

mistake
with

one

of Pantheism.
Nature.

In

of God
: it
exteriority (Ausserlichkeit)
is the passage
Idee
of the
through imperfection (Ahfall der
that Narture
is not
Idee), Observe, moreover,
only external in
of the Idee^
relation to the Idee, and
to the subjective existence
condition
the
namely. Intelligence; but exteriorityconstitutes

truth. Nature

in virtue

of which

the

Nature

is Nature

(sondem

die Ausserlichkeit

ist).
Bestimmung aus, in welcher sie als Natur
into
sections
is divided
The
three
Philosophy of Nature
Mechanics, Physics, and Physiology. Into the details,we are
should
have
happy to say, our plan forbids us to enter ; or we
illustrations
the
of
striking
deplorable frivolityof that
many
world
the
scheme
of the
which
method
pretends to construct
i priori. Experimental
Newton
especially
philosophers
is
timid
with
consistent
treated
not
a
are
Hegel
contempt.
die

macht

"

"

spectator
no

name

Newton's
"

recoils

; he

from

no

is

"

; he

consequence

however

impressed by no
fact,
better
be
speculations should
no

; he

discoveries

"

no

better

than

than

illusions,were

bows

down

great.

drivel,and
natural

to

That

his

conse-

'628

APPLICATION

METHOD

OF

TO

NATURE^

fundamental
theories.
That
Hegers
steadily persevering in applying Newton's

of

quenccs
had
been

extending his discoveries

gigantic strides,hourly
nature, hourly improving the

and

however

it may

great

Positive

that

"

improving
condition
to

appear

Science

man's

when

was

ing
mak-

mastery

over

"

coupled

Method

Europe

principles,

of mankind

us

the

all

this fact,
with

discoveries

the

ontological
no
made
seemed
be
to
made,
none
likely
^appeared
of
notice.
to Hegel
The
interests
as
a
philosopher's
unworthy
of mankind
would
there
were
vulgar considerations, for which
The philosopher had other
always be abundant
vulgar minds.
objects.
The
last part of Hegel's system
is the Philosophy
third and
the idee returns
of Intelligence. Therein
from
Nature
to itself,
consciousness
and
of
itself.
returns
through a
itself as a Soul ; it then
Subjectively the Idee first manifests
becomes
Consciousness
itself,and
returns
finally
upon
; and
is
itself an
a
nd
Reason.
then
it
renders
to
itself,
Object
Idee
itselfas Will, and
the
manifests
realizes itself
Objectively
in Law.
in History and
The
Subjective and
Objective manifestations
being thus
in what
marked
have
the identity
to see
now
manner
out, we
of the two
will manifest
itself. The
identity of the Objective
ness
and Subjective is the
Ideey as Intelligence,having consciousgion,
of itself in individuals,and
realizingitself as Art, as Reliother

fact

that

upon

yet been

and

and
We

"

Philosophy.

as

be

must

brief

very

Psychology
former
would
require too
then
and would
only seem
no

We

interest
will

Philosophy
read

for

us

exposition

our

Law
much
to

pass

we

to

space

all

our

of

his

render

readers

remaining

altogether :

over

it

the

intelligible,

absurd;

the latter

here.

the
The
Lectures
History.
on
fessor
by the late accomplished Prothe
'of the pleasantest books
on
subject we
dication
insuflicient
be
ideas
to give an
following

at
a moment
pause
of History,* edited

Gaus, is
ever

in

and

tenets.

has

had

one

let the

of its method.

History is the development

by which it attains to
process
itself,t
*Werke,'
t History
which
Hegel
"

The

of

the

Idee

consciousness

condition

objectively
"

of

itself

Intelligenceis

of

to

by

the
plaining
ex-

know

vol. ix.
is

daims

sort

of

Theodicea

the

merit

('Einleitung,'p. 20), is

due

of
to

originality,however,
he
Vico, from whom

HISTORY,

AND

RELIGION,

PHILOSOPHY.

629

"

itself only after having passed through

itself;but it can know
the three phases of the method,
viz.,affirmation,negation, and
consciousness
endowed
to
negation of negation, as the return
with reality. It is owing to these
race
phases that the human
is perfectible.
of this

moments

what

spiritof the
light all things are

its

by

age

only possible truth,

with

reference

particular manifestations
of transition
instruments
but moments
by which
is prepared.
Great
to another
higher moment
incarnations
of the spiritof the age.
Idee, all these

absolute

"

It is not

that, it

do
a

nation

every
must

from

tribe,and
of the

from

pass
a

constftutes

that

tribe

family

to

to

nothing

the transition
men

the

are

state

horde, from
is the

the

to

are

itself into

This

state.

it is

this nation

For

But

creeds, in

in the

it is the

seen.

fests
mani-

moments

manners,

nation.

one

call the

we

and

of any

social state

whole

of these

constitution, in the

determinate

the

represent

Each

development.

itself in the
the

Individuals

and

States, Nations,

to

horde

to

tion
realiza-

formal

Idee,

develop itself.
The
earth
is that theatre ; and
// is the
as
product of the Idee
have the curious phenomenon
(according to the Naturphilosophii),
we
that
of an
actor
a
playing upon
stage being
stage
himself I
But
the Earth, as a geographical basis of History, has
mountainous
three
I. The
regions. II. The
great divisions :
and
of rivers.
mouths
coasts
plains and
valleys. III. The
the

But

Idee

have

must

theatre

which

on

to

"

"

The

first represents

the

second

primitivecondition

the

mankind

; the

society begins to
river-communication,
in
free development

advanced

more

of

condition, when

of
formed; the third,when, by means
the activityof the human
is allowed
race
This
is another
all directions, particularly of commerce.
the ideas of Vico,* and
is in defiance
of all history.
The
four.
I. In the East
of History are
great moments
be

have

predominance

the

its freedom.

know
the

East

knows

the

World.

II.

viduality.

The

forms,

is

has

that

of
*

"La

to

rights

that

Greece

say,

knows

only

; Vico

Providence,

Science

In
Idee

largelyborrowed
Divine

The

only

See

: the
substantiality

of

of

we

have

that it
som^

does

unknown

is the

are

childhood

the

free.
his

Mind

New

Science

'

not

of

of

indi-

certain

is still mixed
a

civil

Nouvelle,* liv, i. ch. iv,

i.
ch. ii.," 97.
Nouvelle,* livre
Science

we

because

predominance
is free, but only under

expresslycalls
*La

This

is free.

one

are

men

Idee

of

tfieology

APPLICATION

630
with
is

Matter

Beauty.

we

METHOD

OF

and

finds its

This

is the

youthhood

opposition between
politicaluniversality and
In

IV.

united.

not

yet

; this

of the World,

the

is the
have

we

In

Rome

Subjective.

freedom

manhood
the

expression

III.

Objective and

individual

This

Nations

Teutonic

the

NATURE,

expressions therein

have

The

TO

both

of

the

unity of

the

veloped
de-

world.
diction
contra-

itself;and instead of supposing like

and
Greece
that some
Rome
that allm"a
only are free, it knows
free.
This is the old age of the world
are
although the
; but
old age of body is weakness, the old age
is ripeness.
of Mind
first form
of government
which
in History is Despotism
The
we
see
is Democracy
and Aristocracy ; the third
; the second
is Monarchy.*
this meagre
On
analysis we scarcely recognise
reading over
is the art with
the ingenious speculations of the original. Such
which
Hegel clothes his ideas in the garb of philosophy,that
that he is writing fiction,
not
though aware
history,and giving us
facts as the laws of historical developperversions of notorious
ment
manifests
himself
tellingus that the Spiritof the World
such
and
under
such
it is apparent
to all that,
phases, when
granting the theory of this World-spirit's development, the
them
not such
been
to have
as
phases were
Hegel declares
of all this,yet is the
book
ingenious and
so
although aware
the

"

Idee

knowing

"

"

amusing,

that it

unfair

almost

seems

to

it to such

reduce

caput

the
analysis. Nevertheless
principlesof his
have
those
The
we
given above.
philosophy of History are
applicationof those principles to the explicationof the various
touch
of History, is still more
events
ingenious; but we cannot
this
subject.
upon
Philosophy of Religion has in the last few years
Hegel's
been
schisms
of the young
the subject of bitter disputes. The
doctrines
the
of Strauss, Feuerbach,
Bruno
Bauer,
Hegelians
all
others
and
deduced, or pretended to be deduced
being
discussion
from
much
has taken
Hegel's system,
plaec,as
angry
moriuum

our

as

'

'

"

"

to

the

real

disagree we
matter

to

shall

not

to
presume
for
and
the
present
;

matter

of wonder

subjects,and
explain every product
to

system.

When
We

thus

Doctors

will leave

only notice

the

Hegel's

ideas.

It is often

applied

that

decide.

theologians

fundamental

to

significanceof

all

"

how
of

"Fbilos. der

to

his

life.

see

how

theory
This

of

is
Hegel's Method
be brought
life can

is doubtless

Gresch.,*p, 138,

great

PHILOSOPHY.

AND

RELIGION,

HISTORY,

v-^'

631

dence.
confiinspiresdiscipleswith boundless
Few, however, we suspect, have approached the subject
of
of Religion without some
misgivings as to the applicability
the Method
to explain it.
Probably the triumph is great, when
is shown
the applicability
to be
as
perfect here as elsewhere.
and

logical merit;

Of

this

it

shall

readers

our

of

Hegel

judge.

God, the Father, is the

Trinitarian.

that is to say, the Idee

the Son, engendered by

sich:

Gk)d,

Trinity : his whole

the

accepts

course

seyn : that is to say, as

has taken
place which,

as

the

Idee

uneondifwned

an

Father, is the

fur

und

an

Ahstrsiction.
Idee

Anders-

as

Reality. The
separation
tion
negation^givesthe Abstrac-

conditioned

eternal

is

system

of a
by means
real existence.
God, the Holy Ghost, is the Identity of
perfect totalityof
two; the negation of the negation and
"

the

existence.

is the

He

condition

is the

reality.

any

of his

being

seyii). Did

zu

sich,as

an

created

He

to

this

Spirit:

as

the

World, and created it. That

the pure Idee,before he assumed

the

before

was

existed

he

say,

himself

of

of his existence.

God, the Father

is to

Consciousness

World,

create

{esgehort

he

create,

not

incomplete.
The
vulgar notion
world
by an act ; but

seinen

zu

Hegel

his

that

says

own

is that

theologians

of

essence

Seyn, Wesen, Schopfer

would

then

it is the

because

existence

be

created

the

is

an

God
creation

the

not

thing done, but a thing perpetually

the World, he is eternally
did not
God
create
doing
also to this vulgar notion, is another
less
creepingit. Attached
entertained
that God
commonly
preciselybut more
; namely,
his
lets it
the world
will, now
having created
by an act of
his
of
interference
Gothe
somedevelop itself,with no
; as
**
wBere
world
ridicules it,he
sits aloft seeing the
go." This
act, but

eternal

an

moment

"

not

"

"

In

Him

iio/iev,
him, not
he

the

not

was

Paul, whose
and

have

live,and move,
koX eafiiv). We
KOI
Kivov/jLeOa,
this is
And
simply by him.
that

ever

passing into
the

St.

of

we

denies

is,and

doctrine

the

creation

was

will be.

Creation

activity;

but

{Iv avvw

God,

not

being

our

live
what

"

in

Hegel

suspended

are,
yap
when

was,

and

it is God

exhausted

nor

of

out

means

Creation
singleact.
realityof God :

is the

neither

words

pregnant

in

act.

This

is all

that

we
Religion ;' were
in
entangled

we

to

the

can

venture

here

give

of

further, we

thorny labyrinthof

his
should

'

Philosophy of
only get

selves
our-

theologicalproblems.

APPLICATION

63*
Let

us

OF

therefore

pass

METHOD

his

to

TO

than

the

Method.

absolute
; so

of the

of these

Cousin

of
or

under

has

the forms

This

but

modified

looks

of Greece

views

the

and

under

Thought
arrived

the

form

The

at

triumph

of modern

have

moments

of the

moments

tory
represented in his-

are
*

is the

reproduction

intelligence. The

like

the

succession

Eclecticism

is but

system

has

have

been

of

awkward

an

either

Idee

but

Victor
tion
imita-

misunderstood,

Spirit, The
their unity was
of

the

philosophies :

two

The

Germany.

of the

form

unity; but
objectivelyin thought.
itself
the totalityknew
is the

of

more

of his ma^er.
of

that

the

it under

thought is nothing

constitute the

Frenchman

the

Historicallyspeaking, there
that

of

moments

and, indeed, Cousin's

Hegel

the

gives to each period a particularphilosophy ;

philosophies are, in truth, only parts of the

various

philosophy.

one

these

Philosophy/ which^
development of the Idee

History of Philosophy

moments

these

but

All

that the

Logic/

'

which

transitions

various

of

History

according to him, is the history of

as
intelligence. This development

NATURE,

Greeks

conceived
have

modems

ceived
con-

of Alexandria

Greeks

only ideal, it existed

The

wanting
subjective aspect was
not
subjective and objective. This
as
philosophy.

been, briefly,these
conceived

With

I.

Thales

and

Being : the One.

II.
Plato
Universal, Essence,
was
as
With
Aristotle
III.
as
Conception {Begrif). IV.
Thought.
ception.
With
the Stoics, Epicureans, and
Sceptics, as subjective Conthe Alexandrians
the totalityof Thought.
With
V.
as
the Eleatics

the

Idee

With

With

VI.

was

Descartes

as

Absolute, Ego.
Subject and Object

as

as

pure

conceived

it

Self-Consciousness.

VIII.

With

exposition

VII.

Schelling as
of

the

With

Fichte

Identity of

tion
Hegel's tenets; an exposiin his own
words
which
have been
forced to give more
we
wished
the plan we
than
could
have
adopted with
we
; but
have
and
Fichte would
been
not
(we
so
respect to Kant
easy
if it be possible)with respect
doubt
to
Hegel, whose
language
his
distinctions
be learned, for the majority of
must
are
only
be
and
the
Fichte
In Kant
to
verbal.
thoughts were
grappled
is
with ; in Hegel the form
everything.
desirous
essential points. Those
We
have only touched
upon
referred to
intimate
of more
acquaintance with the system
are
edition of his complete works, published by his
the admirable
in twenty volumes, 8vo,
If this be
somewhat
too
disciples,
We

close

here

our

^ioelftl)(Spoci^.
FINAL

CRISIS

IN

DEFINITIVE

HISTORY

THE

OF

ESTABLISHMENT

OF

CHAPTER
PRESENT

STATE

AND

Since

Thomas

work

has

Brown's

or
psychology,

as

IN

reaction

POSITIVISM.

ENGLAND,

GERMANY,

FRANCE.

and
I-iectures,*

appeared either

ANJD

I.

PHILOSOPHY

OF

PHILOSOPHY,

as

Mill's

continuation

againstit,unless
scarcelyhave

'

Analysis/no

of
we

been

the

are

to

Scotch
reckon

said to have

Phrenology. Ontology
in England ; and psychology has for many
root
years
in
been
neglected. This silence of our press is interpreted,
incapacity
Germany and France, as a proof of our speculative
;
But is it true ?
Can
and not a few Englishmen echo the cry.
can

taken

in philosophical
that nation of a deficiency
accuse
plausibly
capacitywhich produced Hobbes, Glanvil,Locke, Berkeley,

we

Brown, "c.? which still

de Quincey,
Hamilton, Thomas
John
not
Sir John Herschell,F. Maurice,J. Ferrier,
to mention
men
but
and
for
less known,
remarkable
ness
comprehensivesubtlety
?
boast
of
a
Germany may
greater number, but it cannot

Hartley, Bentham,

Clarke, Hume,

show

Mill, Sir Wm.

of

boasts

better list of

names

than

the above.

abilitystill cultivating
Philosophy in England we are assured ; they publish litde,
there is no public. And
because
why is there no public? Is
the English mind is incapableof speculation?
it because
or is
rather because
the English mind
it not
rejectsas frivolous,
within the
all
because useless,
speculationthat does not come
sphere of positivescience ? It is. Germany and France may
That

there

are

IMiAMHiaBiMMI

men

of remarkable

PRESENT

;" may
in the

revel

and

course,

wish

no

"

OF

PHILOSOPHY.

635

"

"

of the '* pracshopkeepers

pursuers
tical
declare
because
cannot
we
grovel in the mud
we
her steady
it
avails
England
nothing :
sky ;
pursues
children of the earth, declare they have
her sons,
as

incapable

**

Style us

STATE

leave

to

"

"

it for

the

clouds.

In

^^

word, the

one

gros

plain practicalreasoning of the English Public

sens
Philosophy unworthy of study; and neglects it.
pronounces
be our
in Positive
Science
physical
Let
glory; Metasteady progress
"

bon

the

"

speculationwe

leave

can

to

others.

ill-founded,let the readers

If it be ill-founded,there
is one
of our
History judge.
simple
show
the public that the problems of Philosophy
remedy : once
that
the enquiry has any
practical
are
capable of solution
bearing on^ the affairs of life show this instead of assertingit
lack of intelligences
there will be no
and
selves
ready to devote themthis contempt

Whether

be

well

or

"

"

"

it.

to

of disciples:
proof : Phrenology claims its thousands
and
it not
this,because
only has a practical bearing, but also
of verification. It is true, or it is false ; the test is ready,
admits
As

or

constrained

with

to

it made

before
a

the acceptance
which
it finds ; and we
feel
that
had
it been
carefullymatured
more

Hence

so.

seems

say,

bold

such

tithe of the

pretensions, it would

opposition which

has

not

have

met

excited

by the
its professors.

been

of
ignorance, presumption, and quackery of some
The
mental
seem
majority of thinking men
agreed upon the fundaprinciples of phrenology; but they reject(we think with
at
justice)all the premature
elaborating a doctrine,
attempts
and
it be constituted
as
applying it. Phrenology, if ever
a
science, can
only be so through a careful inductive
process,
of
far
carried
than
those
now
on
men
by
greater capacity
And
in saying
feel little hesitation
we
assuming the office.
it is owing to the discredit brought on
of
the
science by some
its professors,that eminent
thinkers
and
sober
inquirers are
to

averse

own

any

allegianceto

its

principles.

is,however, Phrenology affords sufficient evidence

with which
of the readiness
i)hilosophical doctrine that
any
that did not
of verification
admitted
begin and end in mere
^would receive in England.
ever
Nothing else can
argument
attention.
attract
Metaphysics are still cultivated in certain
gymnastic, or else because
quarters ; but generally as a mental
Such

it

as

"

"

the

fashion

something

for German
of German

Literature

has created

Philosophy,

Whatever

desire

individual

to

know

excep-

636

PRESENT

tions

indisputable that there is not

be, it remains
doctrine
a
Philosophy in England ; there is not even
would
which
possibly,by any propagandey form

there

School

may

of

elaborated
School.

national

daily bread
ascribe

if he

"

bread

Thus

the

but

it is

"

two

see

signs

some

or

the

much

If

farther.

; and

We

we

professors
least

that

to

look

we

which, however,

we

produced

account.
give no
called
has
from
Munich
to Berlin, and
Philosophy with Religion, by making

Bauer

limit

Christ

historyof

the

this

carried

have

into

has

criterion.

the

myth;

been

identify

to

Faith

; of

system

new

as

tran-

upon

undertaken

historical

"

great

as

Schelling

can

turned

were

Protestants

and

has

son

of

manifested

Catholics

between

evening

one

ciples
disHegel's immediate
of
of
the Origin
Evil
question

the

differences

the

present

were

illustrious

most

Fichte's

Bruno

hundred

fact

exhibits

Philosophy

three

at

war.

substantiation.

has

this latter

To

always kept alive,

not

internecine

differences

and

we

life which

some

defenders, when

discussed

Strauss

tion
por-

of

meeting of

any

closely
shall
things since Hegel's death, we
see
tions,
The
Hegelians are splitinto diverse facanarchy.

waging
and

to

far, but

state

nothing

was

There

fortunate.

be

simulated

of the

Giving
private teachers

form

to

is

there

much

extent.

at

is different.

case

The

there.

into

ceased

constantly sending forth some

sophical
philopress
The
various
work.
colleges,all over
Germany,
are
with professorships. Philosophy will give a man
his

endowed

and

has

culture.

the

Germany

activity.

of

words. Philosophy

other

In

of the
In

PHILOSOPHY

OF

STATE

F"uerbach

scepticism

"

to

make

the
to
speculative infidelity. And
small
anarchy complete, every
professor sets up as a prophet,
and
himself
either promulgates a doctrine
of his own,
throws
or
the

utmost

back

Kant,

upon
the

of

Fichte,

or

Reinhold.

or

activityin Germany
appears
prodigious. Strictlyspeaking, it is only the press that is
active ; and
in Germany,
where
everybody prints everything,
To

activityof

English

the

press

student

goes

for

little closer, and

book

will see
you
in five thousand

speaks plainly. And,

that Professor
*

And
in

'Lehrbucb.

to

Beneke's
der

make
works

Psychologic

the

nothing.
how

more

als

the

Not

matter

second

we
striking,

sophical
philo-

one

edition

This

will observe,

Psychology .and Education,*

on

Naturwissenschaft.*

Erziehungs und Unterrichtslehre.'

the
Foreign Quarterly by a very able
*

at

it is.

hollow

reaches
it

Look

1842.
writer.

The

Berlin,
latter

was

1845,

reviewed

ENGLAND,

IN

though
opposed

toto

and

reached

nevertheless

twenty

Benekeis
he

years

considerable
Suffice

led

works

two

We

sophy,
philoprominent

no

disciples,and

of

have

many

Forfive-and-

appreciate
psychology the
construct

which

truths

with

direction, and

one

here

cannot

profound
predecessors. We
just named, as also

to

in

steadily worked

has

of his

search

being

call

exception.

honourable

an

he
makes
say, that
in his endeavours
to

science, and,

Germans

occupying

one

large circle

success.

it to

the

of

editions.

second

Professor

from

637

disadvantage

which

everything

to

FRANCE.

AND

double

the

proceeding

of

station,have

been

under

labouring
in

GERMANY,

his

labours.

basis

of

that

basis, he

had

escaped

cordially recommend

very
the

Neue

all
has
the
the

Psychologic (Berlin,

1845).
Professor
of

is

Beneke

ontology

as

profoundly convinced
be.
in England
can
one

as

any

have

been

all towards

directingthe

the

Positive

Method.

Psychology

attention

of

His
the

of

he

tence
impo-

the

efforts

public
spience

to

to
regards as a
be
inductive
the
same
principles as the other
pursued on
this very
But
sciences.
peculiarity of position isolates him
his brother
in Germany
from
professors ; so that it is common
hear
for
to
the
most
philosophers express
profound contempt

him

this

In

which

contempt

^a

"

with

contest

"philosophy he has
the majority amongst
must

we

the

best

very
works

the

on

amongst
of science.

men

an

is O.

that

books

authorities

supporters

the
as

in kind.

repays

established

few

name

public, and

he

associate
F.

in the

Gruppe,

Greek

Drama,*

the

in

of

matters

professors,though
ever,
One
professor, howlabour
of disabusing
author

of

one

of

the

in his twoseparate
who
remarkable
vigour and

philosophy with
takes the bull by the horns, and
eftecLf. The
W^endepunkt
him.
The
pretensions of Philosophy being
fairlyoverthrows
founded
d.priori ideas ; and d priori ideas being assumed
upon
universal
and
because
as
they are d priori^ the task
necessary,
that they are
is to show
d priori
not
Gruppe has undertaken
that they are
from individual
d posterioriideas.
This
all derived
has

attacked

"

he

does
It is
"

t
mit
der

triumphantly.
a

mistake

'Ariadne
*

Antaeus.

Wissenschaft
Philos.

in

to

oder
Ein

die

suppose

that

Philosophy has

der Griechen.*
Tragische Kunst
tfber speculativePhilos.

Briefwechsel
und

Sprache.'
I9ten Jahrhundert.*

831.
Berlin, 1834.

Berlin,

And

any

existence

Berlin, 1834.
.

in ihrem

the

Conflict

'Wendepunkt

PRESENT

638
in

Germany,

of

metaphysics

hold

has

infects

Philosophy

be

less

or

whereas

the

national

kept

because

Yet

up.
to

it has

fessorships
Proof

hear

profession,it will

England in this respect

sophy,
positive incapacity for Philo-

compare

possess

it.

for

positive contempt

to

cease

soon

little

so

if the

that

mind,

it remains

as

; but

newspapers

should

we

long

so

England, that is said

thinkers

daily

upon

jargon, indeed,

; the

the

abolished*

were

more

even

doctrine

any

Universities

the

apart from

PHILOSOPStY

OF

STATE

Our

great

made

Philosophy a profession
men
to
Locke,
by which
Bacon, Hobbes,
gain their livelihood.
not
Berkeley, Hume,
professors ; yet they found
Hartley, were
audiences
rival professors
of thinking men
not
composed
Could

have

who

metaphysician

German

any

We

been

not

No.

unhesitatinglyanswer

cast

shadow

no

their

earn

of

daily

find

now

such
that

Remember,

audience

an

wish

we

?
to

can
Professorships ; that men
upon
while
their
philosophical
prosecuting

blame

bread

subject not of reproach, but of congratulation.Our

it is a
observation
the fact, that inasmuch
to
as
only extends
of professors
professionthere will always be a certain number
anxious
its influence ; and
to magnify its merits, and
to increase
this fact explains the other
still manifesting
fact of Germany
certain activityin a pursuit long since abandoned
by England.
studies

In
is

is

France

an

the

admirable
the

as

There

this the important

to
profession. Add
metaphysicians having been
great majority of French

Philosophy

as

itself.

analogous situation presents

for the

Germans

and

Pascal

we

need

felt

have

are

only

D'Alembert,

clearness

the

been
fathers

allude

to

for the

remarkable
of French

Prose

Malebranche,
the

the

names

mere

of

attractiveness

Voltaire, "c., and

glance at
Reinhold, Fichte,

on

and

reverse.

of

ot

fact

writers

their

style

Descartes

naming these
Condillac, Diderot,
after
;

of the

force

also

the

remark

will be

writers,
Schelling, Oken,
German

Schleiermacher,
telligible
inthinkers
French
The
were
popular ; the Germans
Hegel,
of the former
the superiority
only to professors. Hence
as
expositors is so great, that the ideas originated in Germany
of France.
are
Europe through the medium
spread over
extends
beyond
Although the philosophical public in France
Kant,

University ^we forget which

been
has
of Philosophy
abolished;
example 1
*

In

one

"

"

may

we

are

the

happy
others

to
soon

say

the
follow

Chair
the

ENGLAND,

FRANCE.

AND

GERMANY,

639

philosophy
Universities,and although the activity which
in
manifests
the
than
is,on
(a startling
whole, greater
Germany
who
assertion, perhaps, to those
judge by hearsay), a very little
acquaintance with the present state of things suffices to show
The
nlain efforts
mind.
that it has no deep root in the national
the History of Philosophy, towards
tions
transladirected
towards
are
towards
and
than
expositions of various systems
more
The
elaborating any one general doctrine.
speculativethinkers
of which
be
are
splitinto various sects ; an useful account
may
in Damiron's
found
work
Essai
la Philosophic en
France
sur
the

"

xix" Sibcle.*

au

characterize
We

the

modem

haye

leading

pointed

then

that

We

characterized

of

principal

the

to

sects.*

mistake

in

may,

its

and

best

writers

latest

against that spirit.

general reaction

endeavoured

(too current) of supposing

Philosophy partook of the spirit of the

"it

as

occasion

former

tendencies

the

out

French

Encyclopedists:

on

be
It

is

where
constructive
that
and
dogmatical
sceptical and
was
material; religious
destructive; it is spiritualwhere that was
is doubtless
when
that was
much
opposed to religion. There
sent
of what
is called infidelityin France
thereby a dis; meaning
and
from
ancient forms
received
interpretationsof religion;

but

it

assumes

latter

The

century.

different

object

was

aspect
directed

was

from

against

destruction

the

that

eigliteenth

the

of

Priesthood

of all

its fessed
prowhich
it

Religion,

is directed
stigmatized a Superstition. The
present dissent
againstliteral interpretationsof doctrines, against the refusal to
with the wants
of
enlarge those
interpretationsin accordance
the age.

It would

destroy : it is no longer querulous,

but learned, earnest, zealous, above

enlarge, not

flippant,or sarcastic ;
all dogmatic."
The
doctrines
with unexampled
of Condillac, after having met
field by the reaction
routed
from
the
against
popularity,were
reaction
the
This
various
from
Encyclopedists.
proceeded
From
the Catholics, with Count
Joseph de Maistre
quarters.
and

M.

Mad.

de

de

Bonald

Sta"l

and

their

at

head

Chateaubriand

; from
; and

the
from

Maine

themselves, with Laromiquibre and

succeeded
and
by Royer CoUard, Jouffi^oy,
three
"

stand

last mentioned
British

and

were

Foreign

by every opinion
contains,in the shape of

the

Review,'

tliere

facts and

the

philosophers
Biran, who
were

Victor

We

July, 1843.
;

but

quotations^

some

as

Cousin.

are

an

the

for

advocates

warm

enunciated

de

litterateurs,with

not

historical

valuable

The
Scotch

prepared
survey,

matter.

to

it

PRESENT

640

Jouffroytranslated Reid

School.

Cousin

and

OF

STATE

commented

PHILOSOPHY

and

Stewart,Royer CoUard
The

them.

talents of these fessors,

proaided by the tendency towards any reaction,
the
made
"the
in
But
France.
Scotch philosophy quite
Victor
rage"
Cousin's restless activity
led him to the study of Kant :
and
on

"

the doctrines of the

with the

ardour

same

the Scotch.

As

of

Kant,

Cousin

he

found

M.

Konigsburg sage

"

one

him ; borrowed
the throne of

as

that which

"

preached by him
formerlydevoted to

were

he had

the Parisians

began to know something

Alexandria for a doctrine ;
edited Pfoclus : lectured on
in Proclus.
He
his
of
some
ideas,and would have set him on
soon

as

started off

to

the

Philosophy,had

publicbeen willing.A trip

Germany in 1824 made him acquainted with the modem

Paris he presentedthe
his return
On
to
Hegel.
stand.
publicwith as much of HegeFs doctrines as he could underto

Proclus

"

His celebrated
of

Eclecticism is nothingbut

tion
misconcep-

Hegel's History of Philosophy.''But as he fences

that theory round with several plausible
arguments, and as the
doctrine itself has made great noise in France, we may briefly
state
what grounds it rests and the fallacy
of its application.
upon
"

All error, M. Cousin repeatedlyenforces,

is nothingbut ** an
incompleteview of the truth." Upon this definition is based
the

All systems are incomplete views

propositionthat
for
set up
reality,
complete images of the reality."The
"

is obvious
and

have

error

system. The
system would
which

are

truth
be

by
or

of system with
juxtaposition
portionof the truth which is in one

the

mere

assimilated with

in other systems ; and

enough."
therefore,means
Eclecticism,
discovered

clusion
con-

All systems containing

of truth
a mixture
and
be
then
the error
brought together,
only to
''

be eliminated

would

of the

truths eliminated

thus

the

portionsof

the work

would

the truth
be easy

the bringingtogether of all

their accompanying errors,

from

body of truths elaboratinga doctrine. A great

is the
the definition of error
task ; but is it practicable
On
?
stand or fall.
system based ; by that it must
to
us
Now, the definition appears
altogetheruntenable.
view
of the truth ; but itis
Error is sometimes
an
incomplete
not
always ; it is sometimes no view of the truth at all,but
constituted his
Newton
a
mere
divergence from it. When
and interposedan ether as the
theory of the laws of attraction,
and

out

of this

642

PRESENT

STATE

it,is utterly impossible both

is

as

wish

the

"Does
"

earth ?
He

was

that

grant

and

one

the

none

doctors

the

That

men

derive

the

one

sense

silent

are

assistance

Let

was

put,

round

the

the

other/'

however,

us,

of

psychology
what

for

both

are

criterion

has

truth?

He

from

point

the

on

sun

sometimes

schools

two

question
the

or

then ask,
partly right and partly wrong
; we
eclectic
is
the
to distinguish
whereby he
error
has

ence
differ-

motion

the

sun

eclectic, apparently.

an

moment

the

Sometimes

replied,

The

knowledge.

when

who,

round

move
"

experience

correct;

the

Sizar

the

earth

be
of

of the earth,
respecting
and
sun.
Copernicus : choose
Ptolemy
is
compromise
impossible ; unless
you

any

with

should

fountain

that

as

side

to

sole

the

of

them

between

the

decided

motion

the

or

is not,

is,or

either

PHILOSOPHY.

OF

others, and that those who

discovered
before
And
there
went
us
truths,all admit.
many
that
doubt
be
and
of
various
a juxtaposition
no
can
comparison
doctrines
be
of service.
would
Eclecticism, therefore, as a
is valuable
and
has alwa3rs been
subsidiary process
practised.
;
this subsidiary process
M.
into a
Cousin, however, converts
primary one, and dignifies it with the attributes of a method.
In

it is

from

simply

that

inquirer consults

the

the

of his

works

all that he
selects from
them
predecessors, and
considers
true
viz., such
portions as confirm, extend, and
:
his
illustrate
previous opinions ; these opinions constituting his

criterion.
refuse

men

the reader
admit

to

those

because

views

reflect

views

criterion.

this

of it.

instances

eclecticism.

He

by the

manner

we

says

we

should

these

one

of its

in

roused

than

indeed
a

word,

admit

truths

is

the

see

crowded

not

so

with

understand

all systems

as

themselves

separate

nature

ing
containfrom

principles.

doctrine, has not been without

to the
history of philosophy. It
value
vbl
spiritof historical inquiry of far more
doctrines.
if it had
new
originated a hundred

Eclecticism,
as
service in directing attention
eyes

opinion

or
religion,

to

mere

ridiculous

our

opposed
clearlyenough

of

self-evident,

are

be

"

statement

And

others

which

in the
of juxtaposition,somewhat
process
affinities.
of chemical
^A theory that
presume
refutation
would
further
than
simple
a
think, no

errors

has

pertinacitywith

Cousin, however, does

truths; and

some

needs,

M.

will

the
to

to

seem

he

history

The

on

which

or

are

reigning doctrine, and

the
of

Let

we

if called

upon

should

say

to

it

characterize
was

hisioricai.

French
However

philosophy
various

AUGUSTS

64 J

COMTE.

doctrines, they have a sort of unity given them

by the
on
history. The
pretension-they all have of being founded
all point to
Eclectics,the Catholics, and the Humanitarians
the attestation of historyin proof of their systems.
the intellectual anarchy of France
is one
there
Amidst
tem
systhe

which

to

readers

which

to

we

mean

the

next

fain direct the

would

we

Positive

the

Philosophy ol Auguste

is the Bacon
the

the

century. Like

of

intellectual

our

great work,

Caurs

de

to the
majority of our
vols.)is known
is highly prized by them ; but
and
we

those

amongst
been

dipped

science

Comte,

COMTE,

of the nineteenth

causes

His

cure.

our

II,

AUGUSTE

fullysees

of

chapter will be devoted.

CHAPTER

Comte

attention

earnest

admirers, that in
into

than

most

studied.

The

he

Bacon

anarchy, and also' sees

Philosophic Positive (6
*

scientific men,

eminent
have

observed,

instances

he

has

even

rather

chapters relating to
those
important
more

read; while
but
the former
chapters on social science,to which
are
paratory,
preother
students
the
have been
On
hand,
neglected.
of philosophyhave often confined
their attention solelyto the
social science,neglecting the introductoryvolumes
: a
process
Euclid
to
reallylittle less rational than for a man
study
by
be
Comte's
must
studied,
beginning towards the end.
system
*or it had better be left alone; and we beg to assure
the reader
that however
slight a smattering he may have of the various
sciences,he may perfectlyfollow Comte
through his exposition,
it is an expositionof the Philosophy of the Sciences,
because
not

have

treatises
Whoever

been

alone

them.

on

glance at the present intellectual state of

of unity caused
by the
Europe, will perceive a great want
of any one
absence
doctrine, general enough to embrace
^very
varietyof ideas,and positiveenough to carry with it irresistible
casts

his

conviction.

Protestantism

Look
tnake

at
one

the

state

of

religion. Catholicism

great division

; but

within the

tv

and

sphere

COMTB.

AUGUSTE

644
each

of

daily increasing.

Each

but

each

its members;

subdivisions; the variety of

countless

see

we

remarkable

religion has
refuses

admit

to

the

is, in

is

sects

men

amongst

doctrines

of

the

doctrine

one
general
no
fact,capable of
and their subdivisions.
Catholics, Protestants, Mahometans,
embracing
Inhere is no
Look
also at the state of philosophy.
sophies
philophilosophy universally accepted ; there are as many
one
there
there
speculative cities,almost as many
as
as
are
of Germany
held
the
are
dogmas
as
professors. The
are
of alchemists
in England and
Scotland
dreams
; the psychology
and
of Scotland
is laughed at in Germany,
neglected in England
this general dissidence, we
and
Besides
France.
see, in France
and
at
least, great opposition between
religion and
Germany
philosophy openly pronounced, or openly signalized. This

There

others.

oppositionis inevitable

it lies in the

of

nature

very

philosophy

professors eagerly argue

heretofore, many
and
cordance
accordant, the 'disperfectly compatible
are
is,and always must
be, apparent
With
to
general doctrines, then, we find the state of
respect
Europe to be this : religionsopposed to religions; philosophies
opposed to philosophies ; and religionand philosophy at war
with each other.
is the anarchy in the higher regions.
Such
is less dissidence, but
there
In the positive sciences
there is
doctrine
of
science
is on
the same
absence
general
any
; each
firm basis,and
a
rapidly improves ; but a philosophy of science
to be found
a
positive philosophy is nowhere
except in the
of M.
with the
work
forward
comes
Auguste Comte, which
of supplying the deficiency. The
specicdUyof
express
purpose

and

although,

that

the

now

as

two

"

scientific

any
; for

however
form

incapacity of

general idea, has long been

this has

and

their

and

men

been

of

men

exact

great

one

each

of

cause

matter

of

the continuance

science

might

be

or

cepting
ac-

complaint
of

sophy
philo-

instructingand

clearlyenough that'
it could
in itself,
only

the

part of

of

producing

speculative abilitysaw

Moreover
philosophy.
confined
not
the
whole
to neglecting
it affects the very highest condition
a

either

evil of

of

is
speciality

the parts ;
science, viz., its capability

for the sake

of

directingsociety..

eagerly
speculation general views were
early ages
rich and comAs science
became
plex
sought and easily obtained.
in materials, various
divisions
took
man
place ; and one
In

the

cultivated

of

one

general views

science,
were

not

another

absent.

another.

man

But

as

Even

then

the tid^ rolled on, di$-

CoVeiy

Succeeding discovery,

to

wildernesses

for

vast
one

science
his

; for

of

the

researches

doctrines

materials

whereas

small

was

science

of

Such

successful

; but

it ended

prosecution
in making
men

upon

thj

method

of

of

struction
con-

fatal

constructed

truly

the

sion
divi-

minute

philosophers.

only be

and

bringing

of

parts of science

left to

could

necessary
of
fraction

the task

the

individual

the

doctrines

general
such

for

necessary

regard only
of

error

was

laborious

and

science

to

pursued, leaving to others

their general head.
under

labour

minute

only

he

researches
of

of

that

truth, it became

himself

devote

of incjuiryleading

tracks

new

of undiscovered

to

man

and

out

science

or
ignorant of science
only
with
it
^and
the
method.
despised
superficially acquainted
is
The
Natur-Philosophie of Schelling and
sufficiently
a
Hegel

philosophers

the

were

"

"

striking example
We

ot

then

come

the
to

of such

results

this

conclusion

procedure.

a
:

in

the

present

of

state

ferent
difis comprised
ot two
speculative domain
very
ideas
The
and
portions : viz., general
positive sciences.
ideas
because
not
positive
general
are
they are
powerless
;
the positive sciences
are
they are not general.
powerless because
The
the
title of positive, M.
philosophy which, under
new

things

the

Comte

create
to
proposes
laid
is destined
to

himself

"

doctrine

and

"

put

the

basis

end

to

he

has

this anarchy,

elaborated

possessing all the desired

possessing their
inapplicability.
and

which

by presenting
sciences,
generality of metaphysical
instability,and
vagueness,

an

positive,because

of

yet

doctrines, without

from

the

for one
individual; but it has
gigantic attempt
of a
sinews
undertaken
and
by one" possessing the thews

This
been

is

giant,and the
recording our
is the

The

work

greatest

mighty

point

that

of

our

We

Cours

century,

have

and

in

hesitation

no

Philosophie

de

will form

Positive
of

one

the

history of opinion.
which

upon

the

our

attention

be

must

fixed, in

evolution
important law of mental
but
not
applied historically. It
only discovered,
forms
His
of the arch.
the keystone
a
object is to construct
positivephilosophy, that is,a doctrine
capable of embracing
all the sciences, and
with
all the problems
them
of social life,
other doctrine
to which
no
now
aspires; for metaphysics have,
M.

Comte's

astounding.

in the

landmarks
first

is

result

conviction

which

he

work,

is

that

has

"

"

since the

time

lost all power,

of Bacon,
over

them.

been

separated from
If, therefore, we

physics, and
are

to

have

have
a

new

which

Philosophy
have

must

No

methods.

He

^itwas

that

footing

object, he
before

he

and
that

first showed

hpw

This

advance.

could
The

state

propositions assented

politicalstate

of the

it determines

the

law

the

is the law

law

the

on

evolution

of histcmcal

the
faculties,

gression.
pro-

character

essendallydetermines

to,

same

being his

mental

of

M.

metaphysical
how
imperative
This

-questions.*

social
to

treating social

treated

be

speculative

of the

^nay,

"

detect

to

or

and

is due

of

possible
should

scientific

forced

was

science

theological

questions

all other

''

of the

upon

ih^poMv^

dreamed

ever

than

social

with

both

him

deficiencies, i"re

present

of

before

one

otherwise'

problems

the

supply

to

embracing
^conception of a social

The

Comte.

is

capable

one

sciences.

"

COMTS.

AUGUSTB

646

the moral

have
community, as we
already seen
diange
physical. Every considerable

in the condition
of any portion of niaQ"known
to us
historically
in
kind, has been preceded by a change of proportional extent
of their knowledge
in their prevalent beliefs." f
the state
or
Comte*s
thus
stated
of
law
be
M.
Every branch
:
may
knowledge
successivelythrough three stages : ist, the
passes
fictitious
supernatural^ or
metaphysical^ pr abstract ;
; 2nd, the
The
first is the necessary
3rd, the positive or scientific
point
of departure taken
the
is
second
merely
by human
intelligence
;
the
from
a
supernatural to the positive;
stage of transition
"

and

is the

third

the

condition

definite

and

fixed

which

ledge
know-

is alone

capable of progressive development.

seeks
after
supernatural ^\.z%ty the mind

the

In

know

to

It

the

regards
and

as

or

displeasure

God.

is

The

lowest

of

is substituted

some

condition

as

of

the

metaphysical stage, which

which
is important
former,
supernatural agents give place
See

Social
t
whole

also

the

last

book

of

as

to

Mill's

of

of

tion.
opera-

apparent

by
sign

natural
superof

the

propitiated

and

stage, is that of the

condition
is when
ope
of all

only
a

pires
as-

supernatural

all the

is

this

cause

is

but

modes

is animated

highest

The

for many,

of

cause

phenomenon
being adored

the

In

productions

the

unusual

viz.,Fetichism,

savages,

being

the

their

and

Nature
irregularities.

beings. Every
pleasure

things
as

intervention

agents, whose
anomalies

of

essences

all effects

causes

phenomena.

abstract

System

of the

modification

transitional

stage,

(personified

forces

of

Logic

the

"

for

view

of

Science.

System

of

chapter.

X^gic,'

voL

ii. p. 608.

The

reader

should

consult

the

AUGUSTE

COMTE.

647
.

abstractions)supposed

inhere

various

in the

substances, and
of engendering
The
highest
phenomena.
capable themselves
all tliese forces are
condition
of this stage is when
brought
under
Nature.
one
general force named
In the positivestage, the mind, convinced
of the futility
of all
into
and
itself
tion
observathe
to
applies
inquiry
causes
essences,
classification of laws
which
and
regulate effects ; that is to
say,
all

the

invariable

things

bear

would

stage
various

to

in

and

basis

to

on

so

similitude

and

all

represent

which

condition

of

this

phenomena

as

the

highest

The

gradual evolution from

Pythagorean ideas of Numbers,
other
metaphysical abstractions, to

we

many

which

succession

general view.

one

may
chariot, to the

his

I^rmonies,
firm

able

Astronomy

and

Apollo

of

other.

be

particularsof

Thus

the

relations
each

to

be,

to

it is

the

trace

settled

now

the law

of

gravitation.

that it is

and
their
dyhamics we hope to wrest
by geometry
from
the
secret
spheres ; not by the propitiation of a Sun-God.
of
Thus
in Physics, where
also
thunder
the intervention
was
horror
Nature's
Jove, and where metaphysics had introduced
of a void," we
truth
in
the
of
seek
gravitation,
regular study
electricity,
light,"c.
So

"

We
the

cannot

history

illustrations

the
pursue
of mankind.

if it

Those

of this law.

critics who

have

Its

historyis

spoken

of this

have
seen
merely an ingenious aper^u cannot
its bearing nor
To
work.
can
they have duly studied Comte's
its
of
reflection
such
law
to
judge
by a mere
a
on
pretend
without
statement,
tracingits veiification throughout the history
wise
it would
of speculation,is as
be to judge the law^of
as
it
without
its application to
to
gravitation priori^
waiting
see
is the fundamental
believe that Comte's
We
law
phenomena.
law of mental
evolution.
is
It
proved by the experience not
science
sciences
of one
nation
but
all
of one
and
of
only
; not
Therefore
does
one
epoch, but of all nations and all epochs.
the diligentperusal of Comte's
become
work
indispensable to
his
form
The
those who
would
neglect
system.
any opinion on

law

as

of this has

have

were

led

of

some

made

his critics into ludicrous

objections

which

he

work

since

that

misstatements.

had

early anticipated and

his facts,because
denied
refuted.
not
They have
they have
learned
taken
these facts.
that all history confirms
They have mishis law
for a mere
is
since
It
hypothesis.
some
now
years
They

we

first read

the

; and

nothing but confirmations

of its truth.

time

we

have

met

with

COMTE,

AUGUSTE

.648

Although the verification

Comte's
fitly adduce
may
agreed, in these days, that
of facts.
observation
the
But

science

no

for

could

exceeds

law

real

be

must

of

contempt

its

AH

are

founded

on

its favour.

jn

knowledge

Hence

limits,ire

our

theories.

mere

in

observation

simple
origin
theories
must
positive

all

of

sort

theory

before

impossible

for

consequently
also

be

draw

to

important

This

retain

to

would

facts

remain

theorize.

to

fi'om

them

and

them,

task

of

do

we

not

; but

should

we

frequently the

most

We

unperceived.

quently
conse-

are

theory is necessary
observation.
correct

tion,
to observa-

theory to
double
of observation
the mind
necessity imposed upon
formation
the
of a
of a theory for the
theory, and
correct

"

for

observation

practice of
circle, if

supernatural.
wills,so he

he

with
but

learn

As

the
its

content

caused

it

to

in

move

not

cause,

which

it seeks

is conscious

man

that

naturally
superior will.
some

the

endowment

is the

mind

of

out

he

with

impotence,

to

itself with

the

learn

the

the

acts

things

logical necessity for

commences

ue.y

Fetichism, which

Hence

inanimate

of nature,

according as
in aceverything acts
cordance

that

concludes

This

volition.

have

outlet in the
fortunately provided an
it to
This
activity causes
activityof the mind.

begin by assuming

nothing

would

"

had

nature

spontaneous

stage

the

only be
observations, and

isolated

our

benefit

any

even

forced

to

principle,it would

some

combine

to

us

unable

and

with

them

connect

ourselves

have

to

If, in contemplating phenomena,

steady observation.
not

address

we

founded

be

hand,
if,on
one
observation, so, on the other, it is equally necessary

some

can

this

arguments

have

the

on

to

of

the

with

is

life and

supernatural
it has

unknowable;

limits of its range

first,

before

it

knowable.*

metaphysical stage is equally important as transitive.

The
supernatural and positivestages are so widely opposed as
In
notions
the
chasm.
to
to bridge over
require intermediate
for a super'
substitutingan entityinsepardble from phenomena
will
natural
these
agent through whose
phenomena were
duced,
prohabituated
the mind
the
to consider
was
phenomena
only
The
result
themselves.
This was
important condition.
a most
that the ideas of these metaphysical entities gradually faded,
was,
abstract
lost in the mere
of the phenomena.
and
names
were
The

The

positive stage
*

See

was

possible.

now

the Introd.

to

the First

The

Series.

mind

having

the contrary,is

on
legist,

occupied with guessingat the

vital phenomena
and
observing
classifying
detect their laws of operation. First he guesses
more

of lifethan in

causes

with

it to

be what

view

to

he

calls

"

"
vital principle

then

He

proceeds

and
principle,
chemical

"

and
The
the

capable of

guess

pronounces

clouds the

nature

essence

or

of this

or
nervous
electricity,"
fluid,"
heaps hypothesis
thesis,
hypoupon
"

he

his view.

subjectfrom

the present condition of the sciences,

struck with the anarchy above indicated.

examine

we

shall be

we

the

at

it "

Thus
affinity."

closer

more

to

mysterious entity
engendering phenomena.
^a

"

residingin the frame, and

or

qOMTE.

AUGUSTE

650

We
shall find one
science in a perfectly
positivestage (Physics),
another in the metaphysical stage (Biology,
or
a
Electricity),
third in the supernaturalstage (Sociology).Nor
is this all.
varieties will be found to co-exist in the same
indi-The
same

physics may be said to

have
arrived at the positivestage, and recognisesno
other,
of
the
than
laws
be
of
will
found
object
inquiry
phenomena,
still a slave to the metaphysical stage in Biology,and
vouring
endeavidual mind.

The

of life; and so little emancipated

from the supernaturalstage in Sociology,that if you talk to him
of a science of history,
of the posstbility
or a social science,he
to

will

detect

in

who

man

same

laugh at

Well

as

you

education
Method

the

cause

theorizer."

"

vicious is

So

our

imperfectthe conception of
might Shelleyexclaim
So

phical
philososcientific

"

How

green

condition

is this grey

world

science,therefore,exhibits three
Methods
the anarchy. To remedy the
one
:
evil all differences must
Method
must
:
cease
one
preside.
the first to point out the fact,and to sugAuguste Comte was
gest
immortal.
the cure ; and it will render his name
So long
the supernatural
as
explanationof phenomena was universally
there unity of thought,because
one
accepted, so long was
all
facts.
The
to
was
same
applied
generalprinciple
may be
The

present

instead

said of the
it

was

far

before

positivestage
is

again

had

it could

"

least among

unity of

it was

less degree,
because
in advance
of the

attain universal

already'
begun.

universally
accepted

distant,at
have

hence

universallyaccepted;

never

method

of

metaphysical
stage, though in

but
supernatural,
the

of

the

and

the ^lite of

thought, then

When,

day we
humanity

shall

"

we

recognition,
positive

the

hope is
then

not

shall we

againhave

one

-i

COMTE.

AUGUSTR

651

general. That the positive

is the only Method
Method
capacity, the
adapted to human
it /
truth can
which
be found
is easilyproved : on
on
only one
Prevision
is the 1
alone
depend.
can
prevision of phenomena
If you
characteristic
and
the test of- knowledge.
can
predict /
results and
certain
predicted, then are you/^
they occur
as
you
is correct
that
If the wind
blows
assured
knowledge
your
indeed, prtpitiatehis
according to the will of Boreas, we
may,
it. We
have
ca/culaie upon
favour, but we cannot
can
no
tain
cerwill
blow
the wind
not.
If, on the
or
knowledge whether
other
it
disis
like
everything else, once
hand,
subject to laws,
will predict concerning it as they
these laws, and
cover
men
the wind
Even
and rain,*'
predict concerning other matters.
authoritative
the language of one
of our
to
most
writers,
use
**
which
the types of uncertainty and
in common
speech are
change, obey laws as fixed as those of the sun and moon
; and
foretell
can
already, as. regards many
parts of the earth, man
them
without
fear of being deceived.
He
to
plans his voyages
suit the coming monsoons,
the
floods of
and prepares
against
If one
other
be
the rainy seasons."*
needed, we
argument
would
and
refer
the
to
simply
progressive improvement
gradual
which
has always taken
in
department V"f inquiry
place
every
conducted
the positive Method
and
with a success
in
upon
of that Method
exact
proportion to its rigorous employment
contrasted
with the circular
of Philosophy, which
is
movement
its
of
of
just as far from a solution
one
problems as it was
any
five thousand
it can
that
be said to
the
truths
only
ago ;
years
have acquired are a few psychological truths, and these it owes
!t
to the positive Hethod
that our
limits do not
allow, of our
^Xt.is obvious
presenting
outline ols^ system .which, embracing all the
the meagrest
even
of society, prescience
sciences, and attaching thereto the new
sents
have indicated
the presiding
a
complete philosophy. We
have
the important law of mental
briefly stated
spirit,and

general doctrine, powerful

because

"

"

"

evolution
*

Dr.

Arnott's

stamped
tribute of
the

It

with
our

such
own

his system

Elements

; but

raised

t See

for

the

our

grounded.

We

further

must

Physics.* Fifth ed., vol. i. p. 13. A work

approbation as to render
superfluous any
refrain from
cannot
pointing to it as, perhaps,
of positivephilosophy this country has produced.
of

we

perfect specimen
of the
is,indeed, one
of his

is

universal

most

benefactor
has

which

on

many

species has
reverential

Introduction

to

obligations
laid

us

under

which
:

one

this
stone

admiration.
First

Series, p.

30"

a i.

great
of the

and

generous

monument

he

COMTM.

AUGVSTE

652
observe

that the

stituted

on

the

method

same

achievement
basis

conception of

mere

; but

science

the

as

Comte

has

social

be

sciences, is

other

done

science, to

more

he

cod-*

nary
ordi-

no

laid the

has

philosophy of history.
The
various attempts
at founding a philosophy of history from
Vico
monies
testito
Herder, and from Hegel to Michelet,are so many
of the restless
discontent
occasioned
by the urgent
demand
for one,
and
the insufficiencyof prevalent conception^.
of our
History is still the hieroglyphicmonument
past life. We
the present and
understand
must
decipher it,if we would
dict
preof the

the

if

when

we

other

but
see

so

people
of

"

the

rid the

of

the

world

of

refer

the

We

the

of

of

ourselves

gaining

inadequate account
noticing Comte's
profound
It is so
sciences.
simple

the

it has

once

been

to

the

key

to

by

him

is this

of

the

sciences

"

of the

these, it is easy to class

categories,so disposed that
be

should

category

possible.*

mind

the

luminous

and
and

feels

positive
striking

so

culty
diffi-

some

them
the

founded

in

is the

number

small

rational
the

on

The

solved

be

upon

that

stated,

other

any
The

the

of

principleadopted
dependence
problem to
each
This dependence
other.
can
only
ing
considerIn
corresponding phenomena.

conceiving

from

any
Roman

explaining facts.
works
we
earnestly

this

close

not

classification

result

the

of

Comte's

desirous

be

may

bestir

method

of M.

give

to

signs but those

any

to

Atid

not.

of

progress

high time

supernatural

who

philosophy without

in

it is

"

instructive,

could

unable

read

to

came

past.

must

that, when

"

unable

sixth volume

reader

decipher

"

this

Niebuhr

as

Comte

abundant,

us,

stabilityand

destiny

God

of

finger

the fifth and

To

before

when

unfortunately we

writer

great

that of

it :

found

be

to

there

read

the

created

had

key

have

explanation
than

has

writing was

The

could

we

The

future.

forward.

he

of

natural

sive
study of each succescipal
knowledge of the prin-

their
of
order
The
preceding category,
is determined
dependence
by the degree of simplicityor generality
of the phenomena.
that the most
It is evident
simple
laws

This

on

made

just such

was
a

review

attempts

at

the

of

a
a

of

friend

valued

classification
the

as

subject.

classification

declare, in
We

made

would
demur

an

article in

Blackwood,'

that it

mind
in any reflective
abortive
to refer to the

naturallyarise

for, not
and
by Bacon, D'Alembert,
correct.
of any
being
one
:

Stewart,
There

we

only
are,
of 720 different
six objects admit
including Mathematics, six sciences
; now
dispositions ; conFequeiitly 720 classifications are possible,and the problem

need

is to

choose

refer

to

thai

which

the

is

chances

necessarilyunique

phenomena
the

most

number

those

"

general
of

which

various

which
is

circumstances

mixed

up

with

is observed

in

least

are

; for that

particulars of

653

COMTE.

AUGUSTS

the

The

to

be

distinction

is to

made

be

between

the

"

are

greatest
of

the

principle

is this

must
commence
adopted
: we
the
of
most
simple or general phenomena,
study
the
most
complex and particular.
successivelyto

therefore

the

independent

most

circumstances.

those

others

with
and

the

proceed
of

classes

phenomena
by
by organized
are
the
of
latter
bodies.
The
are
obviously more
phenomena
plex
cominorthan those of the former
they
greatly depend upon
:
these
while
in
no
depend upon
bodies,
organized
way
manifest
all
the
bodies
of the
odies.
phenomena
Organized
chemical
mechanical; but they also
or
inorganized, whether
named
fested
manimanifest
the phenomena
vital^ which
are
never
by inorganized bodies.
In the study of inorganicphysics we
commence
by separating
from
of the universe
the less general
the general phenomena
Thus
terrestrial phenomena.
have, first,celestial physics^ or
we
geometrical or mechanical
; secondly, terastronomy, whether
The
of astronomy
restricU physics.
being the most
phenomena
and
the
abstract
of all,we
most
must
simple,
general, the most
laws
with
Their
influence
them.
all
other
study
begin our
of which
terrestrial phenomena,
they are essentially
independent.
universal
is
terrestrial
all
condition
In
gravitation
a
physics
;
if
of
would
the
consider
movement
and so
a
we
simple
body,
cdl the determining conditions, is a subject of greater complexity
A

whith

manifested

two

inorganized bodies

and

fanized

than

any

astronomical

Terrestrial

question.

physics is also

divided

into two

classes

mechanics

a
chemistry. Chemistry, rightly conceived, presupposes
chemical
of
for
all
mechanics
:
phenomena
are
knowledge
more
mechaiiics
and
than
of
them
those
in
on
depend
complex
great
influence
have
All
them.
whereas
chemical
on
no
they
part :
of weight, heat, "c., and
action is subject to the influence
must

and

therefore

be

treated

after them.

Organic physics requires,a similar division into physiology

The
and socicU science.
phenomena
relating to mankind
are
complex than those relating to the individual
obviously more
In all social questions we
them.
and depend
see
man,
upon

physiological laws of the individual

which
something peculiar,not physiological,

the Influence
see

also

of

the effects of these laws, and

which

results from

; and

we

modifies

the action

of

AUGUSTS

654
individuals

generation

each

impossible to

the

successor.

study

study

individual, as

the

of

manifestly as
species as a pure

collective

of the

The

sciences, of which

fundamental

it would

invariable

and

necessary
of

founded

subordination

into

on

to

five

by
parison
com-

(astronomy)

first

The

corresponding phenomena.

be

is determined

succession

the

of

be

It would

from
chemistry.
physiology as a pure deduction
itself
resolves
philosophy,
therefore,
positive

treat

the

treat

from

deduction

its

on

by the action

curiouslycampHcated

each other

on

COMTE.

abstract

phenomena
general, simple, and
all others,
influence
from
humanity: they
influenced
The
last (sociology)considers
but are
not
by them.
the most
phenomena
particular,
complex, and concrete
; those
less
or
most
more
directly interestingto man
; they depend
all the preceding classes,without
exercisingon the latter
upon
the degrees
Between
these two
extremes
the slightestinfluence.
and
of speciality
of complication of phenomena
gradually augment
their
successive
to
dependence.
according
the

considers

is Comte's

Such
a

most

classification

evidence

remarkable

originated it.

which

this

of

and

of

is

in

the

teaches

seen

how

us

all

they

the

reduced

its

to

of the

both

his great

the

truth

of

fact

that

the

terms

of

correctness

of

law

into

intellect

mental

sciences

history of the

themselves

developed

simplest

luminous

and

profound

strikingproof

classification

evolution

"

removed

farthest

those

the

positive

order of dependence.
nomy
Astrostage precisely in their successive
the first to become
was
positive; Sociology is the last;
these

between

in successive
We

must

should
to

the

and

he

attention

philosopher, we

truth

be

must

obscure, coins
what
at

the

De

of

la

student

Pari?,

declare
Six

popular.

he

ere

pause

that
stout

begin;

lightened by any graces of

is a wordy writer ; but
told : Comte
the reader,
terminology to bewilder

some

to

Philosophie
"

to

be

aspires

who

every one
nevertheless

student

the

in various

says

expense
the

recommend

pamphlet

he

no

of

must

calculated

not

are

make

The

logy,
bio-

philosophy

are, that Comte's

we

enough to
length of the journey is

is not

repeats

serious

are

the

style.

Anxious, as

the

works

volumes

physics,chemistry,and

come

development.

cease.

occupy
title of

Comte's

have

extremes

not

ways,

pursue

to

as

The

ennui.

Positive'^

chez

so

is first
"

ensure

course

to

read

we

M.

gibility
intellishould
Littr^'s

masterly expositionof

Ladrangc, 1845.

CONCLUSION.

tendencies
be purof positivism,which
object and
may
chased
for a couple of shillings. Having
read
that, he will be

the

in

655

condition

to

Philosophie Positive
with

Traitt

the

We

volume.

with

attack

the

by

sufficient

; which

master

he

Populaire^

de PAsironomie

confident

are

eagerness

he will

the

should

Court
follow

also

by Comte,

be

gratefulto

then

de
up

in

one

us

for

advice.

the

CONCLUSION.;
philosophy

Modern

with
to

we

; and

Philosophy
There

method"

each

various

all those

efforts

aside.
to

efforts have
of

Modem

; and

Bacon
this

case

metaphysics

characteristics

two

are

here

; and

in

sets

witnessed

have

with

opens

Comte

positive science, and

limits
of

method"

solve
ended

method
Within
the

ends
leads
these

problems

in

scepticism.
Philosophy which
first is the progressive

The
briefly touched
on.
of positive science,which
in ancient
development
speculations
which
occupied the subordinate
rank, and
now
occupies the
is the reproduction of all the questions
second
highest. The
which
of
agitated the Greeks, and that too in a similar course
the
but
Not
their
development.
only are
questions similar,
may

evolutions

be

are

the

so.

Eleatics

to
problems of existence
there
Democritus, Anaxagoras, Plato, and
no
came
purpose,
to settle the problems of the nature
Aristotle,who endeavoured
and
of
human
origin
times, after
knowledge.
So, in modem
Descartes
and
Spinoza came
Hobbes, Locke, Leibnitz, $:c.
The
ancient
into the origin of knowledge
ended
researches
in
the Sceptics, the Stoics,and
the New
Academy : that is to say,
in Scepticism, Common
Sense, and
Scepticism again. The
ended
modem
in Berkeley, Hume,
researches
Reid, and Kant
:
that is,in Idealism, in Scepticism, Common
Sense, and Scepticism \

After

again.
new

and

These

had

vexed

the

inquiriesterminating

desperate spring

was

made

in

thus

fmitlessly,a

Alexandria:

reason

philosophy into religion.

given up for ecstacy; this resolved
similar spectacle presents
In Germany
a
itself;and Schelling
has, in his final stage, identified philosophy with religion.Thus
left in this
has
philosophy completed its circle,and we
are
was

.M ("^

CONCLUSION.

656

at
precisely

nineteenth century
in the fifth1
were
course

of

same

point at

the fact is fullof

which

we

significance,how^,
which were
those questions
speculation,
ceptible
sus-

Observe, however
in the

the

and

"

"

of positive
treatment, graduallyacquired strength and
from a solution
of
development. If we are as far removed
problem as we were in the days of Proclus, we
any ontological
not
are
nearly so ignorantof the laws gf mental operation.
putable
indisPsychology is not a science "et; but it boasts of some
truths.
Although much remains to do, much also has
done:
and
believe that it will one
been
we
day rank as a
science.
positive
Modern
philosophystaked its pretensionson the one question:
Have
?
This was
we
of experience
any ideas independent
asking,in other words.Have we any organum ofphilosophyf
The answer
fore,
always ends in a negative.If any one, thereremain unshaken
by the accumulated
proofsthis History

affords of the impossibility

of philosophy,
let him distinctly
solve is,Have
bear in mind that the first problem he must
we
ideas independentof experience
?
Let him solve that ere he

beginsto speculate.
And
now, reader,our

task is done.

*"

THE

END.

SEP

nmrTBP

by

J.

S.

3 0

TIBTVX

AXTD

o.

;.

laitf^m

b-^:-

mima

1915

CCy; IiIHITBD,-CITT

BOAD,

LOMnOH.