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CHRISTOPHER J. OATES,
Geochemistry Division, Anglo American plc, 20 Carlton House Terrace, London, United Kingdom SW1Y 5AN
Abstract
Located in the Cordillera de la Costa of northern Chile, the mines of the Mantoverde district exploit supergene oxide ore developed over several Lower Cretaceous, hematite-rich, iron oxide-Cu-Au (IOCG) deposits
with an average protore grade of 0.52 percent Cu and 0.11 g/t Au (e.g., Mantoverde proper, Manto Ruso). The
geologic setting and genesis of this productive IOCG district are clarified herein through regional petrologic and
lithogeochemical study and light stable isotope analysis of paragenetically constrained samples from Mantoverde
and its satellite deposits. Together with chalcopyrite-bearing, but subeconomic, bodies of metasomatic magnetite (e.g., Montecristo and Franco) and Cu-barren magnetite-fluorapatite-pyrite bodies (e.g., Ferrfera), the
deposits of the Mantoverde district were emplaced along the main and, more commonly, subsidiary segments of
the plate boundary-parallel Atacama fault system. They are hosted by Middle to Upper Jurassic andesites of the
La Negra Formation and diorites and monzodiorites assigned to the Lower Cretaceous Sierra Dieciocho plutonic complex. Prior to mineralization, the Jurassic and Neocomian igneous rocks of this Andean transect were
subjected to moderate albitization (spilitization) and hydrolytic alteration and, subsequently, to regional, nondeformational metamorphism, which locally attained the lower greenschist facies. Both processes, however, were
focused along the western margin of a Neocomian marginal basin, 25 to 30 km east of the Atacam fault system,
and there is no evidence of widespread albitization in the vicinity of the major IOCG centers.
An extensively revised paragenetic model for Mantoverde and its satellite deposits incorporates four stages.
Stage I was dominated by widespread potassium and iron metasomatism which converted granitoid and volcanic rocks to orthoclase and magnetite, respectively. Stage II comprises chloritic and sericitic alteration and
veining. The deposition, early in stage II, of marialitic scapolite, subsequently largely replaced by chlorite, was
probably contemporaneous with regional scapolitization in the area between the Atacama fault system and the
marginal basin. Chalcopyrite deposition was restricted to the ensuing stage III, hosted by calcite veins and, particularly, specular hematite-dominated hydrothermal breccias and stockworks. Stage IV barren calcite-quartz
vein swarms record the terminal hydrothermal activity. Stable isotope fractionation relationships and published
fluid inclusion microthermometry define a retrograde thermal evolution, from above ~460C in stage I,
through ~350C in stage II, to ~210 to 280C in ore stage III, and ~110 to 240C in stage IV.
The 34S values of chalcopyrite and pyrite from Mantoverde and its associated orebodies and prospects range
overall from 6.8 to +11.2 per mil, overlapping extensively. However, the narrow range, 0.6 to +2 per mil, of
34S values of pyrite associated with stage I magnetite contrasts with the much wider range, 1.2 to +9.1 per
mil, of that deposited in stage II. The compositional variability increases from +1.4 to 11.2 per mil in the mineralized assemblages of stage III, chalcopyrite generally having higher values than pyrite. The iron oxides in
the district have 18O values that vary overall from 1.9 to +4.1 per mil, the highest values, +1.4 to +4.1 per
mil, occurring in stage I metasomatic magnetite, whereas stage III hematite has lower values of 2.0 to +1.7
per mil. Estimated equilibrium 34Sfluid values increased dramatically with time, from +0.4 to +4 per mil in
stage I, through +9.1 to +14.9 per mil during stage II, to +26.4 to +36.2 per mil for the most richly mineralized hematitic breccias. Stage III hematite equilibrated with a fluid with 18O values of +3.0 to +8.0 per mil,
significantly lower than those of fluids from which stage I magnetite crystallized (i.e., +7.3 to +9.9).
The fluids responsible for barren stage I magnetite-pyrite assemblages, with 34S and 18O values close to 0
and +8 per mil, respectively, may have been products of the second boiling of granitoid magmas, possibly of
the Sierra Dieciocho complex. Markedly higher 34S and lower 18O values in stages II and, particularly, stage
III, in which all significant chalcopyrite and gold were deposited, are interpreted as evidence for the incursion
of modified seawater, possibly via evaporitic sediments. Such externally derived fluids, probably mobilized by
marginal basin inversion and recorded by the district-wide scapolitization (Na-Cl metasomatism), may have
been a prerequisite for hypogene Cu(-Au) mineralization in the Mantoverde district.
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IQUIQUE
72
70
68
SYMBOLS
Fe oxide Cu-Au deposits
Volcanic-hosted Cu-(Ag) dep.
INA
ENT
ARG
CHILE
AFS
Magnetite-apatite deposits
Fault
Town/City
O
22 S
TOCOPILLA
Buena Esperanza (Cu-Ag)
Mantos de Luna
Cu-Ag
Michilla District
Cu-(Ag)
Naguayan Cu-(Au)
Mantos Blancos (Cu-Ag)
ANTOFAGASTA
0
OCEAN
100 km
SCALE
AFS
24 S
Julia (Cu)
AFS
Santo Domingo
Cu-(Ag)
TALTAL
26 S
CHANARAL
28 S
ILE
AR
GE
NT
IN
COPIAPO
Fig. 2
CH
Mantoverde
Cu-(Au)
AFS
N
EA
TIC
CHILE
AN
30 S
Romeral (Fe)
OC
Santiago
LA SERENA
FIG. 1
ARGENTINA
AT
L
PACIFIC OCEAN
Introduction
THE CENTRAL Andean orogen provides a unique context for
the clarification of the genetic factors responsible for the economic concentration of copper sulfides and gold in deposits of
the iron oxide-copper-gold (IOCG) clan. The majority of such
systems in Chile and Per are of Mesozoic age, and the geologic record provides better constraints on their geodynamic
setting and on the petrogenesis of the spatially and temporally
associated granitoid rocks than are afforded by most Precambrian IOCG provinces. Moreover, the deposits embrace the
entire spectrum of IOCG composition, from centers with negligible Cu and Au (e.g., the magnetite deposits of the Chilean
iron belt, such as El Romeral: Bookstrom, 1977), through
large magnetite deposits with proportionately minor associated Cu-Au mineralization (e.g., Carmen, Chile: Espinoza,
1990; Marcona and Pampa de Pongo, Per: Hawkes et al.,
2002), to major copper sulfide deposits in which the associated
Fe oxide mineralization is uneconomic (e.g., La Candelaria:
Ryan et al., 1995; Mantoverde: Vila et al., 1996).
A fundamental uncertainty in the evolving genetic model
for IOCG mineralization is whether it is generated by metalbearing brines exsolved from crystallizing granitoid magmas,
and therefore controlled primarily by melt-aqueous fluid
equilibria, or alternatively, whether the intervention of nonmagmatic waters is a prerequisite for chalcopyrite and gold
enrichment (Williams et al., 2005, and references therein).
Numerous authors (e.g., Sillitoe, 2003; Sillitoe and Perell,
2005) interpreted the geological and geochemical relationships of the IOCG deposits of northern Chile in entirely magmatic-hydrothermal terms and argued that their characteristic metal association (i.e., Cu, Au, Co, Ni, As, Mo, and U)
reflects the basic, dioritic to gabbroic, nature of the inferred
parental magmas. Pollard (2006) proposed that IOCG systems in the Andes and elsewhere differ from porphyry copper
deposits in that vapor saturation in parental magmas occurred
at higher pressures, owing to the abundance of CO2, and that
the evolution of the hydrothermal fluids was controlled by unmixing of the carbonic phase.
In contrast, Ullrich and Clark (1999) and Ullrich et al.
(2001) concluded that temporal changes in the sulfur and oxygen isotope compositions of the hydrothermal fluids at La
Candelaria resulted from incursion of water from contiguous
evaporitic strata of the Chaarcillo Group during emplacement of the chalcopyrite-gold ore. Their findings were consistent with the conclusion of Barton and Johnson (1996, 2000)
that many salient features of IOCG deposits are difficult to
reconcile with straightforward magmatic-hydrothermal models. Fluid mixing has been advocated by Haynes et al. (1995)
and Johnson and McCulloch (1995) for Olympic Dam, the
most Cu- and Au-rich large IOCG deposit, whereas Menuge
et al. (2002) recorded late-stage, saline, oxidized fluids of possible evaporite origin in the Pea Ridge magnetite-hematite deposit in Missouri. However, Marschik and Fontbot (2001a)
discounted the stable isotope data presented by Ullrich and
Clark (1999), a decision later supported by Pollard (2006).
In this study, we document sulfur and oxygen isotope data
for representative, paragenetically constrained, samples from
the Mantoverde mining district, located in the Coastal
Cordillera, III Regin, northern Chile (2630'40"2636'03"
S, 7017'39"7020'05" W; Figs. 1, 2). The Coastal Cordillera
PACIFI
C
416
416
26 45 S
7.040
7.050
7.060
7.070
26 25 S
Jigf
Q.
Jgla
tern bran
ch
Jkgm
Kglt
Jln
Kgm
Jln
Jln
Jln
Kgm
Kgm
Mantoverde
Kglt
Manto Ruso
Kglt
Kgsd
Fig. 3
Kgsd
Q. d
e
Jln
380
Kgr
Pirula
Kgr
390
Kpc
Chivato
400
o
Kpc
10 km
Kgch
Berta
Jln
Kch
Sierra Santo
Domingo district
Rodados Negros
Kpc
Palmira
Kgsm
nga
Jln
Santa Rosa
Gua
ma
as
im
An
Kgsm
Kgsm
Q.
La
s
Ferrifera
Kgsd
Jln
Q. del Salado
Jln
70 00 W
26 45 S
7.040
Magnetic
Declination
7.050
7.060
7.070
26 25 S
7.080
LEGEND
IOCG Mine/Prospect
NW-SE lineament
Contact
Mafic dike
Reverse fault
SYMBOLS
Metasedimentary rocks
(Devonian-Carboniferous, DCce)
Metamorphic Rocks
Middle-Upper Jurassic
Jgla (Las Animas, ca. 150-160 Ma)
Jurassic-Cretaceous
JKgm (Cerro Moradito, ca. 140-145 Ma)
Lower Cretaceous
Kgsd (Sierra Dieciocho, 120-126 Ma)
Kglt (Las Tazas, 125-130 Ma)
Kgm (Cerro Morado, 130-135 Ma)
mid-Cretaceous
Kgsm (Sierra Merceditas, ca. 90-110 Ma)
Kgr (Remolino, ca. 90-110 Ma)
Kgch (Chivato, ca. 111-114 Ma)
Plutonic Complexes
FIG. 2. Regional geologic setting and location of the Mantoverde district, modified from Lara and Godoy (1998) and Godoy and Lara (1998). Black stars indicate the
main IOCG deposits and prospects in the area. AFS, MVF, and ChF refer to the Atacama fault system, Mantoverde fault, and Chivato fault, respectively. For sources
of geochronologic data for plutonic complexes, see Lara and Godoy (1998) and Godoy and Lara (1998). The age of the Punta del Cobre Formation is based on Pop et
al. (2000) and Marschik and Fontbot (2001b). Area of Figure 3 is also shown.
Jgla
Jgla
Jgla
Jgla
os
litr
Sa
DCce
DCce
DCce
entral
branch
AFS, c
AFS, wes
Salado district
7.080
70 25 W
360
360
Ch
370
370
417
380
MVF
390
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Sedimentary/Volcanic Rocks
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419
70 1739W
VOLCANIC/SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
01GT11
01DS07
RCH04MR66
99CN12
Manto Ruso
RCH04MR68
PLUTONIC ROCKS
MVF
B
01CN03
Mafic dikes
Sierra Dieciocho complex (ca. 120-126 Ma)
B
N 7.064.000
LEGEND
LITHOLOGIC UNITS
99MS01
N 7.065.000
N 7.066.000
E 371.000
26 3040S
E 370.000
E 369.000
E 368.000
E 367.000
Laura
01DS22
Ferrifera
00CN02
01CN04
N 7.063.000
ALTERATION UNITS
Tectonic Breccia (Mantoverde body, Vila et al., 1996;
mineralized cataclastic rock along the Mantoverde Fault)
99MV06
99MS03
01DS13
00DS05
N 7.062.000
Mantoverde
main open pit C
MINERALIZATION UNITS
N 7.061.000
01GT01
00DS02
01GT02
N 7.059.000
N 7.058.000
Franco
SYMBOLS
Fault: observed; covered
AFS, easter
n branch
Montecristo
96GM21
NW - SE lineaments
Drill-hole collar
01DS18
MVF
Trillizos
70 2005W
E 367.000
01DS18
01DS16
E 368.000
E 369.000
E 370.000
MAGNETIC
DECLINATION
4 59
26 3603S
E 371.000
SCALE
1,000 m
Datum: PSAD56
Projection: UTM 19S
FIG. 3. Geology of the Mantoverde mining district. Black stars indicate the locations of the collars of drill holes selected
for sulfide and iron oxide sampling. Modified from Zamora and Castillo (2001). See text for details. Note: Reverse circulation drill holes 04DT01, 04DT04, and 04DT02, not shown in the map, are located, respectively, 1.5, 2.2, and 2.3 km south
of Trillizos. AFS and MVF refer to Atacama fault system and Mantoverde fault, respectively.
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420
400
70 00W
390
380
370
70 25W
26 06 20S
360
LEGEND
26 06 20
7.110
7.110
Trgc
Jln
Jln
Cerro Negro
Kpc
Jln
7.100
Jln
7.090
Jln
mid-Cretaceous complexes
Kgsm (Sierra Merceditas, ca. 90-110 Ma)
Kgr (Remolino, ca. 90-110 Ma)
Kgch (Chivato, ca. 111-114 Ma)
Kglb (La Borracha, ca. 105-110 Ma)
Jln
7.090
Sierra Aspera
district
Kgsa
Carmen
Kgsa
Jln
Jgla
Plutonic Complexes
Jln
AFS, centra
Kglt
Jgla
l branch
Jgla
DCce
AFS,
weste
rn bra
nch
7.100
Kpc
Ester
7.080
Diego de 7.080
Almagro
Jln
Salado district
Sierra Santo
Domingo district
Santa
Rosa
Q. del Salado
Jgla
Jln
Jln
Kglt
Jurassic-Cretaceous complexes
JKgm (Cerro Moradito, ca. 140-145 Ma)
Kpc
Jln
Kglt
Kpc
Kch
7.070
7.070
Kgsm
Jln
Manto Ruso
Kgsm
Kglt
Ferrifera
Mantoverde
7.060
La
sA
nim
Kgm
7.050
Kgsd
Kglt
Pirula
Q.
Kpc
7.060
Metamorphic Rocks
Palmira
as
Kgsm
Jln
Kpc
Ch
F
Jgla
Rodados
Negros
Q. d
e
SYMBOLS
Kgr
7.050
Gua
ma
nga
Remolino
Kgsd
Jln
Kgr
Chivato
Kgr
Kgm
Berta
Kgch
7.040
Q.
S
Jkgm
7.040
ali
tr
Kgr
os
Kgm
Jln
Kgr
Sierra Desiertito
390
380
370
360
70 25W
Jgas
10 km
Magnetic Declinatio n
IOCG Mine/Prospect
7.030
400
Kglb
7.030
Contact
70 00W
Ch
FS
?
26 50 35S
Sedimentary/Volcanic Rocks
26 50 35S
FIG. 4. Geologic map showing the western boundaries of regional albitization (thick dashed line) and low-grade metamorphism (thick dashed-dotted line) in the wider Mantoverde district. Based on regional petrographic studies by Benavides
(2006). These earlier alteration events affected predominantly Neocomian and Jurassic volcanic rocks in the vicinity of the
western margin of the back-arc basin. Areas of volcanic rocks with moderate and strong development of marialitic scapolite
are also shown. Symbols for lithologic units as in Figure 2, with the addition of the following plutonic complexes: La Capitana (Trgc, Triassic), Agua de Sol (Jgas, Jurassic), Sierra Aspera and La Borracha (Kgsa and Kglb, respectively, Lower Cretaceous). Base map modified from Lara and Godoy (1998) and Godoy and Lara (1998). The area of the Mantoverde mining
district is also shown.
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FIG. 5. Regional albitization. (A). Patchy albitization of plagioclase phenocryst in Punta del Cobre Formation andesite.
Sample 124633, Diego de Almagro sector (coordinates: x = 398,684, y = 7,083,747; transmitted light, crossed nicols). (B).
More intense albitization, accompanied by the destruction of twinning. Sample 9795, Rodados Negros sector (coordinates:
x = 391,529, y = 7,051,142; transmitted light, crossed nicols). (C). Regional hydrolysis. Na-metasomatized plagioclase phenocrysts are overprinted by assemblages dominated by clays and illite. Sample 124682, Santa Rosa mine area (coordinates: x
= 386,991, y = 7,075,031; plane-polarized transmitted light). (D). Hydrolytic assemblage dominated by muscovite and quartz
(Ms-Qtz), overprinting a moderately albitized plagioclase phenocryst. Sample 124633, Diego de Almagro sector (coordinates:
x = 398,684, y = 7,083,747; transmitted light, crossed nicols).
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FIG. 6. Mineral associations and textural relationships of regional, nondeformational, low-grade metamorphism. (A). Vesicle filled with prehnite (Prh) and calcite (Cal) in a fine-grained andesitic volcanic rock of the La Negra Formation, east of
Cerro Negro. Sample 124579 (coordinates: x = 382,696, y = 7,104,867; transmitted light, crossed nicols). (B). Actinolite disseminated in the matrix of an andesite (upper-right corner) and as thin veinlets cutting moderately albitized plagioclase phenocrysts. Sample 124670 (coordinates: x = 381,720, y = 7,075,744; transmitted light, crossed nicols). (C). Irregular patches
of metamorphic chlorite (Chl) in the matrix of a fine-grained andesite of the Punta del Cobre Formation. Note the moderately albitized plagioclase phenocryst altered to clays (right side), prior to the development of chlorite veinlets. Sample
124699, Sierra Santo Domingo district (coordinates: x = 394,593, y = 7,074,909; plane-polarized transmitted light). (D). Aggregate of epidote (Ep), chlorite (Chl), and actinolite (Act) in fine-grained andesite of the Punta del Cobre Formation. Sample 9769, Palmira mine area (coordinates: x = 388,499, y = 7,060,987; transmitted light, crossed nicols).
FIG. 7. Metasomatic magnetite (Mag) of hydrothermal stage I forms irregular patches overprinting metamorphic actinolite (Act) and epidote (Ep)
in an andesite of the Punta del Cobre Formation. Sample 9815, west of the
Sierra Santo Domingo district (coordinates: x = 392,394, y = 7,067,006;
plane-polarized transmitted light).
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1368
1378
2469
1373
424
100
200 m
SCALE H:V
0
2447
DDH00DS05
2357
2358
2359
2470
2465
DDH01DS13
200 m
50
150
250
350
450
550
650
750
850
950
1050
m.a.s.l.
1150
50
150
250
350
1361
1362B
1363
1358
SCALE H:V
BLSP
100
2384
200 m
100 m
SCALE H:V
DDH96GM21
Mantoverde Fault
700
750
800
850
900
950
m.a.s.l.
1000
150
250
350
450
550
1356
750
850
950
450
DDH01CN03
1050
650
BLSP
Mantoverde Fault
m.a.s.l.
1150
550
650
750
850
m.a.s.l.
950
FIG. 8. Representative east-west geologic profiles in the Mantoverde district. Selected drill holes have been projected to show the locations of some analyzed samples. The bodies of metasomatic magnetite deepen in a northward direction, and the Montecristo sector (Section D-D) is inferred to represent the deepest parts of the
hydrothermal system. Most specular hematite-cemented breccias are located in the hanging wall of the Mantoverde fault. Massive bodies of magnetite-apatite pyrite
along the eastern branch of the Atacama fault system are not shown. See text for details. BLSP records the base of the supergene profile. Legend as in Figure 3. Redrawn with permission from sections prepared by the Mantoverde Geology Division, Anglo American-Chile.
BLSP
Mantoverde Fault
100
SCALE H:V
DDH01GT11
BLSP
DDH01DS07
Mantoverde Fault
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FIG. 9. Photograph of supergene copper oxide zone, showing the structural relationships of the Mantoverde and Manto Atacama breccias with respect to the Mantoverde fault, which dips moderately to the east. View to
north, Mantoverde main open pit, 960 m bench (for location see Fig. 3).
STAGE I
K and Fe
Metasomatism
Paragenetic Relationships
The paragenetic relationships of hydrothermal alteration and
hypogene mineralization in the district are herein modified
from the observations of Vila et al. (1996), Cornejo at al. (2000),
and Lpez (2002). The sequence of events is based primarily
on drill core samples and exposures in the Mantoverde mine
(Figs. 3, 8, 9), but very similar associations and crosscutting relationships are observed at Manto Ruso, Laura, Montecristo,
and Franco (Fig. 3). Four stages are distinguished (Fig. 10). Of
these, stage I, dominated by widespread potassium and iron
metasomatism of both plutonic and volcanic rocks, and stage
II, chlorite-rich hydrolytic alteration and veining (Fig. 11A-B),
preceded the emplacement of stage III chalcopyrite-bearing,
specular hematite-cemented hydrothermal breccias and stockworks (Fig. 11C-D). Barren calcite-quartz veining represents
the latest paragenetic stage at Mantoverde (stage IV; Figs. 10,
11D). The magnetite-apatite pyrite bodies cropping out
along the eastern branch of the Atacama fault system (Fig. 3)
have somewhat different mineral compositions and textural relationships and are considered separately.
Albitization: There is no evidence that intense Na metasomatism occurred along the Atacama fault system, and in this
respect Mantoverde differs markedly from other major central Andean IOCG districts (e.g., Ullrich and Clark, 1999;
Hawkes et al., 2002). Secondary albite has, however, been observed in a single clast in a chloritic hydrothermal breccia
from the Franco area (Figs. 3, 12), where it is extensively replaced by orthoclase, presumably representing stage I of the
hydrothermal paragenesis (Fig. 10).
Stage I potassium and iron metasomatism: Intense potassium metasomatism is recorded by the assemblage K-feldspar
STAGE II
Chlorite-Sericite
Quartz
Magnetite
Orthoclase
Biotite
Tourmaline
Titanite
Quartz
Muscovite
Chlorite
Anhydrite
Scapolite
Rutile
Epidote
Hematite
Pyrite
Chalcopyrite
Gold
Siderite
Calcite
STAGE IV
Late calcite
veins
(v)
FIG. 10. Paragenetic sequence of hypogene mineralization and alteration in the Mantoverde deposit (modified after Vila
et al., 1996, Cornejo et al., 2000, and Lpez, 2002). See text for details (thick line = major mineral, thin line = minor mineral). (v) = veins.
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FIG. 11. Samples showing the crosscutting relationships of alteration and mineralization units in the Mantoverde district.
(A). Stage II, chlorite-bearing hydrothermal breccia (i.e., Brecha Verde: Vila et al., 1996) containing fragments of Kfeldspathized host rock. Sample 2397, drill hole 00DS18, 190 m. (B). Subangular fragments of stage I metasomatic magnetite
are enclosed in a pyrite-bearing, chlorite-dominated stage II assemblage, which in turn is cut by a stage III hematite vein
(left side). Sample 2357, drill hole 01DS13, 967.7 m. (C). Hand sample showing moderately K-feldspathized and chloritized
granitoid rock cut by stage III hematite veins and assigned to the Transition zone of Vila et al. (1996). Note the aggregates
of fine-grained chrysocolla (Ccl) in the hematitic veins. Mantoverde main open pit. (D). Stage III chalcopyrite intergrown
with hematite fills fractures in host rock altered to K-feldspar and chlorite of stages I and II, respectively. Note the thin, irregular, stage IV calcite veins. Sample 1400, drill hole 99CN12, 388 m.
+ quartz, with subordinate magnetite, titanite, and tourmaline. Although Lpez (2002) reported the presence of microcline, X-ray powder diffraction analyses indicate that orthoclase is the dominant secondary feldspar. K-feldspar
selectively replaced plagioclase, with preservation of the original textures of volcanic and plutonic host rocks. More intensely altered rocks were transformed into fine-grained,
FIG. 12. Fragment of an altered host rock included in a stage II hydrothermal breccia with chlorite-rich matrix. In the fragment, secondary albite (Ab), possibly associated with early regional albitization, is partially replaced by orthoclase (Kfs) of metasomatic stage I. A planar stage IV quartz
vein is visible in the upper right corner. Sample 124720, northwest of the
Franco sector (Fig. 3; coordinates: x = 369,480, y = 7,059,145; plane-polarized transmitted light).
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FIG. 13. Stage I, texturally destructive, K-feldspathization in the Mantoverde district. (A). Andesitic host rock southeast of Manto Ruso replaced
by fine-grained orthoclase (Kfs). A stage II chlorite vein and patches (Chl)
and stage IV calcite (Cal) developed along the chlorite vein. Sample 1399,
drill hole 99CN12, 340 m. (B). Intense K-feldspathization of a volcanic host
rock located east of the Mantoverde main open pit (see Fig. 3). Orthoclase
(Kfs) is cut by stage II muscovite veins (Ms). Sample 2464, drill hole 01DS13,
317 m. Both in plane-polarized transmitted light.
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FIG. 14. Stage I iron metasomatism of volcanic rocks. (A). The matrix of a silicic volcaniclastic rock has been replaced by
magnetite (Mag), but the original texture has been preserved. Note the quartz remnants (Qtz) and stage II chlorite veins
(Chl). Sample 2358, drill hole 01DS13, 967 m (plane-polarized transmitted light). (B). Same field, in plane-polarized reflected light; the small, irregular grains of pyrite on the right are associated with magnetite. (C). Stage III chalcopyrite (Cpy)
veins cut pyrite (Py) associated with stage I magnetite (Mag). Irregular patches of hematite (Hem) replace magnetite. Sample 2425, drill hole 00DS02, 216 m (plane-polarized reflected light). (D). Fe-metasomatized andesite cut by stage II chlorite-quartz veins. Sample 2426, drill hole 00DS02, 302 m (plane-polarized transmitted light).
428
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
(2)
210280
(3)
(3)
460550
(1)
Estimated temperature
References
(2)
180250
(3)
1421
Boiling (?)
3256
Boiling (?)
Notes: Fluid inclusion type: L-V = liquid-vapor, V.R.= vapor-rich, L-V-S = liquid-vapor-solid (halite-bearing)
References: (1) Collao and Ortega (1999, in Lpez, 2002), (2) Benavides (2006), (3) Vila et al. (1996), (4) Collao and Campos (2003)
1 Oxygen isotope geothermometry: muscovite-calcite pair according to the fractionation factors of Taylor (1997), sample 2394; calcite-hematite by integrating:
6 2
hem - water = 2.78 10 /T - 3.39
(ONeil et al., 1969) and hem - water = 1.63 106/T2 - 12.3 (Yapp, 1990), sample 1361 (for sample location see Table 3)
110
3040
Boiling and mixing
with meteoric waters
110240
(4)
L-V-S
140240
350
Not stated
460550
Quartz coexisting
with magnetite
Sample description
Calcite: + 12.5
Muscovite: + 9.3
L-V (V.R.)
L-V-S
180260
215340
237
26
3256
Boiling, hydrostatic pressure
L-V-S
160360
240
3240
Coarse,
crystalline
calcite
230250
L-V
210280
Sulfidebearing
calcite vein
Calcite: +11.3
Hematite: 2.0
L-V
112260
Veins cutting
Cu mineralization
Microthermometry
O isotope geothermometry
Intergrown in
hydrothermal
breccia
Microthermometry
Microthermometry
Microthermometry
Method
O isotope geothermometry
Intergrown
Calcite-hematite
III
Calcite FI
Quartz FI
II
Muscovite-calcite
I
Quartz FI
Stage
TABLE 1. Synthesis of Microthermometric and Oxygen Isotope Geothermometric Data, Mantoverde District
IV
Calcite FI
429
429
430
BENAVIDES ET AL.
430
FIG. 17. Textural relationships of the chlorite and sericite (muscovite)-dominated hydrolytic stage II and the replacement
textures associated with stage III chalcopyrite. (A). Advanced stages of hydrolytic alteration led to the formation of a chlorite-cemented breccia (Brecha Verde: Vila et al., 1996), containing fragments of K-feldspathized host rock (Kfs). The opaque
mineral in the matrix is hematite. Sample 2448, drill hole 00DS05, 403 m (plane-polarized transmitted light). (B). Stage II
chlorite (Chl) generally encloses fine, euhedral pyrite grains (Py) and very small, subhedral tourmaline crystals (Tur). Note
the tourmaline inclusion in the pyrite grain. Sample 2397, drill hole 01DS18, 190 m (plane-polarized transmitted light).
(C). Host rock completely replaced by muscovite (Ms), which is in turn cut by thin chlorite veins (Chl), both of stage II. Sample 2500, drill hole 01CN03, 8 m (plane-polarized transmitted light). (D). Idiomorphic crystals of pyrite (Py) coexisting with
stage II muscovite (Ms) and hematite (Hem). Sample 2394, drill hole 01DS16, 296 m (plane-polarized reflected light).
(E). At advanced stages of replacement, very small rounded relics of pyrite (Py) survive in a chalcopyrite-bearing matrix
(Cpy). Sample 1391, drill hole 99MS01, 576 m (plane-polarized reflected light). (F). Chalcopyrite (Cpy) enclosing very fine,
rounded pyrite relics (Py) occurs as irregular aggregates or veinlets in host rocks altered to K feldspar (Kfs) and chlorite (Chl).
Sample 2470, drill hole 01DS13, 830 m (plane-polarized reflected light).
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
431
431
432
BENAVIDES ET AL.
Analytical methods
Selection of samples for 34S analysis was based on detailed
petrographic study. Pyrite and chalcopyrite separates of 0.2
and 0.3 mg, respectively, were converted to SO2 in a Carlo
Erba element analyzer NCS 2500, with CuO as oxidant. The
sulfur isotope composition was measured with a Finnigan
MAT 252 mass spectrometer at the Queens Facility for Isotope Research. Data are reported using the notation in units
of per mil, relative to the CDT standard (Can Diablo
troilite). The analytical precision for 34S values is 0.3 per
mil. Using the above procedure, the 34S values of NIST-123
and NIST-127 are 17.1 and 20.0 per mil, respectively.
432
433
Depth
(m)
Manto Ruso
2469
DDH01GT11
155008
RCH04MR68
1378A
DDH01GT11
154856
RCH04MR66
1378B
DDH01GT11
154856-1 RCH04MR66
154866
RCH04MR66
1373
DDH01GT11
1378
DDH01GT11
1375
DDH01GT11
1391
DDH99MS01
West Manto Ruso
1368
DDH01DS07
SE Manto Ruso
1400-1
DDH99CN12
1398
DDH99CN12
1399
DDH99CN12
1399B
DDH99CN12
1400
DDH99CN12
1400-2
DDH99CN12
1400-C-2 DDH99CN12
1400-C-1 DDH99CN12
East Laura sector
1362-B
DDH01CN03
1361
DDH01CN03
1362
DDH01CN03
1363-02
DDH01CN03
1363
DDH01CN03
1362
DDH01CN03
1356
DDH01CN03
1358
DDH01CN03
NNE-Mantoverde main pit
2492
DDH99MV06
2488B
DDH99MV06
2488
DDH99MV06
2475C
DDH01CN04
2475A
DDH01CN04
2477
DDH01CN04
2477B
DDH01CN04
2473
DDH01CN04
2475B
DDH01CN04
NW Ferrifera
2496
DDH00CN02
2498
DDH00CN02
2498
DDH00CN02
2496
DDH00CN02
2483
DDH01DS22
AFS-East Mantoverde main pit
2457
DDH99MS03
2459
DDH99MS03
2459B
DDH99MS03
2459
DDH99MS03
2459B
DDH99MS03
SE-Mantoverde main pit
2470A
DDH01DS13
2470
DDH01DS13
2470B
DDH01DS13
2359
DDH01DS13
2465
DDH01DS13
2357
DDH01DS13
2358
DDH01DS13
2447
DDH00DS05
North-Mantoverde pit south
2430
DDH01GT01
NW-M.V. pit south
2425
DDH00DS02
2427
DDH00DS02
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
UTM_E
UTM_N
Stage
Sulfide
Host mineral/rock
Habit/texture
34S
653
218
876
234
876
236
254
351
876
501
576
369,200
369,475
369,200
369,135
369,200
369,135
369,135
369,200
369,200
369,200
370,170
7,065,700
7,065,390
7,065,700
7,065,580
7,065,700
7,065,580
7,065,580
7,065,700
7,065,700
7,065,700
7,066,140
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
II
Cpy>>Py
Cpy
Cpy>>Py
Cpy
Cpy
Cpy>>Py
Py
Py>>Cpy
Py
Py>>Cpy
Py>>Cpy
Specular hematite
Specular hematite
Quartz
Specular hematite
Quartz
Specular hematite
Specular hematite
Specular hematite
Quartz
Specular hematite
Potassic alteration
Irregular aggregate
Irregular aggregate
Irregular and fine aggregates
Fine aggregate
Irregular and fine aggregates
Irregular aggregate
Rounded crystals
Subhedral grains
Irregular and fine aggregates
Irregular aggregates
Vein
8.9
10.0
6.6
7.2
5.1
9.3
1.9
4.6
6.8
5.5
6.8
294
368,560
7,065,570
III
Cpy
Calcite vein
Fine/rounded aggregates
4.7
386
255
340
340
388
386
386
386
370,065
370,065
370,065
370,065
370,065
370,065
370,065
370,065
7,065,490
7,065,490
7,065,490
7,065,490
7,065,490
7,065,490
7,065,490
7,065,490
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
Cpy
Cpy>>Py
Cpy
Cpy
Cpy
Cpy
Cpy
Py
Calcite vein
Specular hematite
Specular hematite
Specular hematite
Specular hematite
Calcite vein
Calcite vein
Calcite vein
Irregular aggregate
Irregular filling
Irregular filling
Irregular filling
Open space fillings
Aggregate
Irregular and massive aggregates
Irregular aggregates
2.2
2.5
6.1
5.0
3.7
0.9
0.4
2.8
758
732
757
798
798
752
448
591
369,300
369,300
369,300
369,300
369,300
369,300
369,300
369,300
7,064,660
7,064,660
7,064,660
7,064,660
7,064,660
7,064,660
7,064,660
7,064,660
III
III
III
III
III
III
II
III
Cpy
Cpy
Cpy>>Py
Cpy
Cpy
Py>>Cpy
Py>>Cpy
Py>>Cpy
Calcite vein
Calcite vein
Calcite vein
Calcite/Fe oxide
Calcite/Fe oxide
Calcite vein
Chlorite
Specular hematite
Irregular aggregate
Irregular aggregate
Aggregate
Irregular aggregate
Irregular vein
Irregular aggregate
Irregular fillings
Irregular aggregates
0.4
0.1
0.1
2.5
0.9
5.1
4.9
5.1
549
167
167
404
404
404
404
311
404
369,620
369,620
369,620
369,360
369,360
369,360
369,360
369,360
369,360
7,062,950
7,062,950
7,062,950
7,063,785
7,063,785
7,063,785
7,063,785
7,063,785
7,063,785
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
Cpy>>Py
Cpy
Py>>Cpy
Cpy>>Py
Cpy>>Py
Cpy>>Py
Cpy>>Py
Cpy>>Py
Cpy>>Py
Calcite vein
Specular hematite
Specular hematite
Specular hematite
Specular hematite
Specular hematite
Specular hematite
Specular hematite
Specular hematite
Fine aggregates
Open space fillings
Irregular filling
Irregular aggregate
Irregular aggregate
Irregular fracture fillings
Irregular fracture fillings
Irregular fracture fillings
Irregular aggregate
5.4
4.0
11.2
8.7
5.3
3.8
3.9
1.4
4.5
302
448
448
301
236
370,090
370,090
370,090
370,090
370,180
7,063,930
7,063,930
7,063,930
7,063,930
7,063,950
III
III
III
III
III
Cpy>>Py
Py
Py
Py
Py
Specular hematite
Specular hematite
Specular hematite
Specular hematite
Quartz vein
Irregular aggregate
Irregular aggregate
Irregular aggregate
Subhedral cumulates
Subhedral cumulates
3.9
3.6
3.1
5.0
8.0
324
453
453
453
453
370,525
370,525
370,525
370,525
370,525
7,062,700
7,062,700
7,062,700
7,062,700
7,062,700
II
II
II
II
II
Py
Py>>Cpy
Py
Py>>Cpy
Py>>Cpy
Chl/sericite
Chl/sericite
Chl/sericite
Chlorite
Chlorite
Disseminations
Subhedral cumulates
Subhedral cumulates
Subrounded grains
Subrounded grains
1.5
1.7
0.9
0.7
1.2
830
830
830
970
427
954
968
290
369,930
369,930
369,930
369,930
369,930
369,930
369,930
369,535
7,062,510
7,062,510
7,062,510
7,062,510
7,062,510
7,062,510
7,062,510
7,062,490
III
III
III
I
II
II
II
III
Cpy>>Py
Cpy>>Py
Cpy>>Py
Py
Py
Py>>Cpy
Py
Cpy
Calcite vein
Calcite vein
Calcite vein
Magnetite
Sericite
Chlorite
Chl/sericite
Specular hematite
Irregular aggregate
Irregular aggregate
Irregular aggregate
Subhedral cumulates
Fracture filling
Irregular aggregates
Rounded disseminations
Irregular fillings/veins
2
1.8
1.4
0.5
9.1
1.0
0.9
4.5
290
369,610
7,061,130
II
Py
Matrix of breccia
1.2
216
357
369,880
369,880
7,061,050
7,061,050
I
II
Cpy
Cpy
Magnetite
Altered host rock
Irregular aggregate
Discontinous veinlet
2.0
0.9
433
434
BENAVIDES ET AL.
TABLE 2. (Cont.)
Depth
(m)
UTM_E
UTM_N
Stage
Sulfide
Host mineral/rock
Habit/texture
34S
216
302
369,880
369,880
7,061,050
7,061,050
I
II
Cpy
Py>>Cpy
Magnetite
Chlorite
Irregular fillings/veins
Subhedral grains
0.6
0.5
169
220
370,445
370,445
7,060,290
7,060,290
II
II
Py>>Cpy
Py
Chlorite
Chlorite
Subhedral cumulates
Subhedral grains
0.8
0.0
194
296
296
370,860
370,860
370,860
7,057,050
7,057,050
7,057,050
III
II
II
Cpy
Py
Py
Calcite vein
Sericite
Sericite
242
210
238
232
110
371,040
371,040
371,040
371,040
371,230
7,056,550
7,056,550
7,056,550
7,056,550
7,055,650
II
II
II
II
II
Py>>Cpy
Py
Py
Py
Py
Chl-qtz/magnetite
Chl-qtz/magnetite
Chl-qtz/magnetite
Chl-qtz/magnetite
Chl-qtz/magnetite
Irregular aggregate
Irregular aggregate
Dissemination/aggregates
Fine disseminations
Disseminations
370,180
7,063,950
Py
Magnetite/apatite
Fine disseminations
1.7
370,525
370,525
7,062,700
7,062,700
Py
Py
Magnetite/apatite
Magnetite/apatite
Irregular aggregates
Irregular aggregates
0.6
0.9
2425A
DDH00DS02
2426
DDH00DS02
SE Mantoverde pit south
2395
DDH01DS18
2398
DDH01DS18
Trillizos
2386
DDH01DS16
2394
DDH01DS16
2394-1
DDH01DS16
S-SSW of Franco
155687
RCH04DT01
155671
RCH04DT01
155685
RCH04DT01
155682
RCH04DT01
155762
RCH04DT02
Magnetite-apatite-pyrite bodies
NW Ferrifera
2483A
DDH01DS22
236
Ferrifera
2389
DDH99MS03
264
2389-1
DDH99MS03
264
4.1
1.1
0.6
0.5
0.4
1.4
0.9
0.6
Samples are tabulated from north to south; for locations of the drill hole collars, see Figure 2
fides associated with stage III calcite veins tend to have lower
values, 5.5 to +5.1 per mil, with chalcopyrite having lower
values than pyrite (Fig. 19, Table 2).
Sulfides from the central and northern parts of the district, (i.e., north of the Mantoverde main open pit; Fig. 3),
have the widest range of 34S values. In this sector, the lowest 34S value (i.e., 6.8 in sample 1378: Table 2) was
found in pyrite from a deep stage III quartz-calcite vein at
Manto Ruso, whereas the highest values (i.e., +7.2+10:
Table 2) occur in sulfides in shallow specular hematite-cemented breccias and veins in the vicinity of Manto Ruso
(Fig. 3). Pyrite associated with intensely chloritized volcanic host rocks and massive bodies of magnetite in the
southern part of the district (i.e., Montecristo, Franco, and
Trillizos sectors: Fig. 3) has 34S values close to 0 per mil
(Table 2).
Oxygen isotope compositions of iron oxides
A histogram of the 18O values of iron oxide phases is
shown in Figure 20. The magnetites include samples from
both the magnetite-apatite-pyrite bodies at Ferrfera and the
stage I magnetite bodies associated with the Cu-mineralized
orebodies contiguous with the Mantoverde fault. Hematite
samples are from chalcopyrite-rich hydrothermal breccias assigned to paragenetic stage III (Fig. 10, Table 3).
The iron oxides have 18O values which vary overall from
1.9 to +4.1 per mil (Fig. 20, Table 3). The highest values are
shown by magnetite and range from +1.4 to +4.1 per mil.
Magnetite in the sulfide-bearing orebodies has slightly lower
values, from +1.4 to +3.1 per mil, than those in the magnetite-apatite-pyrite bodies, which vary from +2.2 to +4.1 per
mil. Stage III hematite has lower isotopic values of 2.0 to
+1.7 per mil (Fig. 20).
434
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
435
164
296
296
296
164
128
218
236
264
180
252
180
264
236
01DS16
01DS16
01DS17
01DS18
01DS16
04DT041
04DT041
01DS22
99MS03
99MS03
99MS03
99MS03
99MS04
01DS22
180
99MS03
158
968
968
01DS13
01DS13
96GM21
404
500
167
223
223
01CN04
01CN04
99MV06
01DS05
01DS05
172
190
732
798
798
301
01CN03
01CN03
01CN03
00CN02
01DS18
01DS18
294
01DS07
216
302
387
254
99CN12
99CN12
00DS02
00DS02
351
Depth (m)
01GT11
Drill hole
370,180
370,525
370,525
370,525
370,525
370,525
370,180
371,100
371,100
370,860
370,860
370,860
370,860
370,860
370,110
370,445
370,445
369,880
369,880
370,525
369,930
369,930
369,360
369,360
369,620
369,540
369,540
369,300
369,300
369,300
370,090
368,570
370,065
370,065
369,200
UTM_E
7,063,950
7,062,700
7,062,700
7,062,700
7,062,700
7,062,700
7,063,950
7,055,800
7,055,800
7,057,050
7,057,050
7,057,050
7,057,050
7,057,050
7,059,370
7,60,290
7,60,290
7,061,050
7,061,050
7,062,700
7,062,510
7,062,510
7,063,785
7,063,785
7,062,950
7,062,500
7,062,500
7,064,660
7,064,660
7,064,660
7,063,930
7,065,570
7,065,490
7,065,490
7,065,700
UTM_N
II
II
I
II
II
II
II
II
II
I
I
II
I
III
III
III
III
II
II
III
III
III
III
II
III
III
III
Stage
Notes: for locations of the drill hole collars, see Figure 3; D and 13C values from Benavides (2006)
1 Reverse circulation drill holes
Manto Ruso
1375
SE Manto Ruso
1400
1398A
SW Manto Ruso
1368
NE-E Laura sector
1361
1363
1363
2496
NNE-Mantoverde main pit
2475
2477
2488
2446A
2446B
E-Mantoverde main pit
2358
2358A
South Ferrfera-E Mantoverde main pit
2454
NW-Mantoverde pit south
2425
2426
SE-Mantoverde pit south
2396
2397
Montecristo
2384
Trillizos
2387
2394
2394
2394
2387
South Trillizos
156613
156680
Eastern branch, AFS (Ferrfera)
2483
2389
2454
2456
2454A
2390
2483
Sample/location
Magnetite
Magnetite
Magnetite
Magnetite
Magnetite
Apatite
Apatite
Chlorite
Chlorite
Magnetite
Hematite
Muscovite
Calcite
Chlorite
Magnetite
Chlorite
Chlorite
Magnetite
Magnetite
Chlorite
Magnetite
Hematite
Hematite
Hematite
Hematite
Chlorite
Chlorite
Hematite
Hematite
Calcite
Hematite
Chlorite
Hematite
Hematite
Hematite
Mineral
Magnetite-apatite-pyrite bodies
Magnetite-apatite-pyrite bodies
Magnetite-apatite-pyrite bodies
Magnetite-apatite-pyrite bodies
Magnetite-apatite-pyrite bodies
Magnetite-apatite-pyrite bodies
Magnetite-apatite-pyrite bodies
Massive bodies
Breccia
Intergrown
Intergrown
Chloritized volcanic rock
Massive bodies
Chlorite-bearing breccia
Chlorite-bearing breccia
Massive bodies
Massive bodies
Fine grained
Fractured bodies
Vein
Breccia
Breccia
Breccia
Chloritized granitoid
Chloritized granitoid
Vein
Breccia
Breccia
Breccia
Breccia
Breccia
Breccia
Texture/host
TABLE 3. Oxygen, Hydrogen, and Carbon Isotope Compositions of Selected Minerals, Mantoverde District
4.1
2.2
3.5
2.5
3.1
7.2
8.2
8.4
7.8
2.5
1.5
9.3
12.5
9.5
3.1
11.2
9.0
1.4
3.4
5.6
1.4
1.9
1
0.5
0.0
9.7
8.7
1.7
1.9
11.3
1
7.6
1.7
1.0
1.7
18O
54
46
71
54
62
62
55
70
60
66
5.3
13C
435
436
BENAVIDES ET AL.
14
12
FREQUENCY
10
0
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
10
11
12
13
S (, CDT)
34
LEGEND
FIG.19. Sulfur isotope composition of pyrite and chalcopyrite in the Mantoverde district, including sulfides associated
with the magnetite-apatite-pyrite bodies at Ferrfera. The 34S values range widely from 6.8 to +11.2 per mil (n = 73) and,
despite the extensive overlap, 34S values vary systematically with paragenetic stage. Sulfides associated with stage III hydrothermal breccias exhibit a wider range (+1.4 to +11.2, n = 25) and higher 34S values than those of stage I sulfides (0.6
to +2, n = 3). The isotopic composition of sulfides associated with both chlorite and sericite of stage II ranges from 0.9
to +4.9 per mil (n = 18), and that for stage III calcite veins is 5.0 to +5.1 per mil (n = 14). The 34S values of sulfides associated with bodies of magnetite-apatite at Ferrfera (n = 3) and stage I metasomatic magnetite in the Mantoverde district (n
= 3) are similar and close to 0 per mil. See text for details. Abbreviations: Ap = apatite, Cal = calcite, Chl = chlorite, Cpy =
chalcopyrite, Mag = magnetite, Py = pyrite, Qtz = quartz, Ser = sericite.
436
437
FREQUENCY
0
-3
-2
-1
delta 18O
O (, SMOW)
18
LEGEND
Stage III-Hematite (Mantoverde)
Stage I- Magnetite (Mantoverde)
Magnetite-apatite-pyrite (Ferrifera)
FIG. 20. Frequency histogram of 18O values of magnetite and hematite
in the Mantoverde district (n = 20). The average value for magnetite is +3.5
per mil (n = 10), whereas hematite tends to have lower values, with an average of 0.6 per mil (n = 10). The isotopic composition of metasomatic magnetite (stage I, Figs. 11, 14) at Mantoverde is indistinguishable from that of
massive bodies of magnetite-apatite pyrite located along the eastern branch
of the Atacama fault system (i.e., Ferrfera, see Figs. 3, 15).
TABLE 4. 34S Values of Sulfides from Paragenetic Stages I to III and Inferred Sulfur Isotopic Compositions of Ore Fluid
Paragenetic stage association
34Ssulfides
Estimated depositional
temperature1
fO2 indicator(s)
fO2 in bars 2
= 34Ssulfide - 34Sfluid
34Sfluid
I
(Mag-Py)
II
(Chl-Ms-Py Hem)
III
(Hem-Cpy-Py)
0.6 to +2.0
0.9 to +4.9
+ 1.4 to +11.2
460 to 550C
Mag-Py
1018
1 to 2
+ 0.4 to + 4
~350C
Py-(Hem)
1022.5
10
+ 9.1 to +14.9
~230250C
Hem-Py
1033
25
+ 26.4 to +36.2
Notes: The isotopic compositions of the fluid are calculated according to the procedures of Ohmoto and Rye (1979) and Ohmoto and Goldhaber (1997);
abbreviations: Py = Pyrite, Cpy = Chalcopyrite, Mag = Magnetite, Ms = Muscovite, Chl = Chlorite, Hem = Hematite, Cal = Calcite
1 For depositional temperature see Table 1
2 For stage I, based on Ohmoto and Rye (1979). For stages II and III, according to phase diagrams of Shi (1992)
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BENAVIDES ET AL.
that a major change in the isotopic chemistry, and hence predominant reservoir, occurred between stages I and II. Taken
in conjunction with the observations of Ullrich and Clark
(1999) and Ullrich et al. (2001) on the larger and higher grade
La Candelaria deposit, and those of Ripley and Ohmoto
(1977) on the small, high-grade, Ral-Condestable deposit,
the sulfur and oxygen isotope compositions for the different
paragenetic stages in the Mantoverde district strongly imply
that, at the least, exotic sulfur input was a prerequisite for
economic, or even subeconomic, copper mineralization in the
Andean IOCG centers. Moreover, the direct correlation between Cu and Au in these deposits implies that gold enrichment may also have been influenced by the incursion of such
nonmagmatic fluids.
The requirement for the introduction of sulfur from the
wider exocontact environment is indeed a satisfactory explanation for the fortuitous involvement of externally derived
brines in Cu-rich IOCG mineralization, in the central Andes
and elsewhere (Sillitoe, 2003). The geochemical relationships
documented in this study are consistent with the concepts of
Barton and Johnson (1996, 2000), in that seawater, plausibly
mediated through evaporitic processes, is the most likely
reservoir for the high 34S and low 18O fluids implicated in
the later stages of the Mantoverde and La Candelaria (Ullrich
et al., 2001) hydrothermal systems. It should be emphasized
that Cornejo et al. (2000) earlier proposed a fluid mixing
model for the Mantoverde deposit but envisaged meteoric
water rather than evaporite-sourced brines as the nonmagmatic component. However, the isotopic relationships preclude major meteoric water contributions, even in the terminal stages of hydrothermal activity.
Whereas the involvement of sulfur-bearing fluids with high
34S values (36.2 at Mantoverde; 20.2 at La Candelaria) is unambiguous in these two largest documented Andean IOCG deposits, there is no evidence that Cu and associated minor ore metals were similarly derived from either
the postulated evaporitic reservoir or from andesitic host
rocks. In this regard, the temporal relationships between initial chalcopyrite deposition and the introduction of exotic
sulfur are critical. At Mantoverde, marked changes in 34S
fluid occurred during the chlorite-dominated stage II (Fig.
10, Table 4), and therefore all significant Cu mineralization
took place from fluids with high 34S values. In contrast, Ullrich and Clark (1999) showed that chalcopyrite deposition at
La Candelaria was initiated by fluids with magmatic 34S values of 0.4 to +5.7 per mil, preceding marked increases in
34Sfluid values. Moreover, this polymetallic substage also involved the deposition of minor sphalerite and molybdenite.
These relationships suggest that at Mantoverde the dominant
ore metal reservoir may similarly have been magmatic.
Regional setting of mineralization
Sillitoe (2003) has emphasized that evaporitic successions
are either absent or minimally exposed in the vicinity of most
central Andean IOCG centers. This would constitute as a cogent objection to the involvement of evaporite-derived brines
in the genesis of these deposits. However, the Chaarcillo
Group is probably vestigially preserved in northern Chile as a
result of erosion during inversion of the back-arc basins, and
any evaporites also would have been eroded. In the case of
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
438
fluids and at the outset of a period of intense hydrolytic alteration. Rather than representing merely a retrograde acidification of hydrothermal fluids, the chlorite-dominated stage II
assemblages are therefore envisaged as a key link between the
barren magnetite-rich mineralization and the stage III
hematitic breccias and stockworks, which host all significant
chalcopyrite. Mantoverde therefore adheres in fundamental
respects to the genetic model advocated by Barton and Johnson (1996, 2000), as do La Candelaria (Ullrich and Clark,
1999; Ullrich et al., 2001) and Ral-Condestable (Ripley and
Ohmoto, 1977; de Haller et al., 2002, 2006). Whereas the ore
metals in central Andean iron oxide-copper-gold deposits are
probably magma derived (e.g., Ullrich and Clark, 1999; Sillitoe, 2003), an influx of sulfur from a nonmagmatic source was
apparently essential for even subeconomic copper concentration in these hydrothermal centers. The paths followed by
such regionally derived brines may be partially revealed by
the district-scale distribution of scapolitic alteration.
Acknowledgments
This study is a component of the senior authors Ph.D. research and constitutes a contribution to the Queens University Central Andean Metallogenic Project (Q CAMP). Field
studies were generously facilitated by the geology staff of the
Mantoverde division of Anglo American-Chile, which has authorized publication of the paper. Kerry Klassen, Queens Facility for Isotopic Research, is greatly thanked for her valuable
support during isotopic analysis. Joan Charbonneau assisted
with the preparation of the revised manuscript. Critical and
constructive reviews by R.H. Sillitoe, J. Perell, S.J.
Matthews, and P.J. Pollard have considerably improved the
manuscript, as did Mark Hannington, editor. This project has
received generous financial and logistic support from AngloAmerican plc and was supported by the Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), the
Canada Foundation for Innovation (CFI), and the Ontario
Innovation Trust (OIT). Anglo American has also contributed
to the costs of color printing.
December 2, 2005; April 9, 2007
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