Types of Ethical Violations: Violating Disclosure agreements,Misrepresenting results, Breaking participant

confidentiality, Deceiving people, using invoicing irregularities, Avoiding legal liability.Components of IC:Identify
researchers,Describe survey topic,Describe target sample,Identify sponsor,Describe purpose of research,Promise
anonymity and confidentiality,Give good-faith estimate of required time commitment,State participation is
voluntary,State item-non response is acceptable,Ask for permission Effective Codes of Ethics:
Regulate,Protect,Enforceable,Specify Behavior.

A concept is a bundle of meanings or characteristics associated with certain concrete, unambiguous events,
objects, conditions, or situations. A construct is a definition specifically invented to represent an abstract
phenomena for a given research project. A conceptual scheme is the interrelationship between concepts and
constructs.An operational definition defines a variable in terms of specific measurement and testing criteria.A
variable is used as a synonym for the construct being studied. A proposition is a statement about observable
phenomena that may be judged as true or false.A hypothesis is a proposition formulated for empirical testing.A
theory is a set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that are advanced to explain or
predict phenomena. A model is a representation of a system constructed to study some aspect of that system

Types of Variables: For the purposes of data entry and analysis, we assign numerical values to a variable based
on that variables properties. Dichotomous variables have only two values that reflect the absence or presence of a
property. Variables also take on values representing added categories such as demographic variables. All such
variables are said to be discrete since only certain values are possible. Continuous variables take on values within a

A strong hypothesis should fulfill three conditions:

Adequate for its purpose,Testable, Better than its rivals.
given range or, in some cases, an infinite set.

Moderating variables are variables that are believed to have a significant contributory or contingent effect on the
originally stated IV-DV relationship. Whether a variable is treated as an independent or as a moderating variable
depends on the hypothesis. Extraneous Variables(Independent variables that are not related to purpose of study but
may affect the dependent variable are extraneous or confounding variables) Extraneous variables are variables that
could conceivably affect a given relationship. Some can be treated as independent or moderating variables or
assumed or excluded from the study. If an extraneous variable might confound the study, the extraneous variable
may be introduced as a control variable to help interpret the relationship between variables. An intervening
variable (IVV) is a factor that affects the observed phenomenon but cannot be measured or manipulated. It is a
conceptual mechanism through which the IV and MV might affect the DV. (A Mediating variable (IVV) comes to stage
when the independent variable influences the dependent variable indirectly)
Exposition consists of statements that describe without attempting to explain.Argument allows us to explain,
interpret, defend, challenge, and explore meaning. There are two types of argument: deduction and
induction.Deduction is a form of reasoning in which the conclusion must necessarily follow from the premises given.
The next slide provides an example of a deductive argument. Induction is a form of reasoning that draws a
conclusion from one or more particular facts or pieces of evidence. Slide 2-8 illustrates an inductive argument.

Reliability = dependability; consistency; repeatability (Repeated use of the measure with identical subjects yields
identical and consistent results. It is improved by:Clear conceptualization,Precise measurement,Multiple
indicators,Pilot-testing) Validity = accuracy; truthfulness; the degree of match between the construct or the way it is
conceptualized or defined(Specifically, measurement validity Measures are valid for a single purposeThree types of
validity:Faceas judged by others or by logic,Contentcaptures the entire ,meaning of the experience,Criterion
agrees with a validates, reliable external source:Concurrent, agrees with a preexisting measure Predictive, agrees
with a future behavior or outcome)
Clarifying the Research Question,Proposing Research,Designing the Research Project, Data Collection and
Preparation(Data may be characterized by their Abstractness, (data is metaphorical than
real)Verifiability,Elusiveness, and ClosenessTo the phenomenon.), Data Analysis and Interpretation,(Reducing data
to manageable size,Developing summaries,Looking for patterns,Applying statistical techniques) Reporting the

Results. The executive summary consists of a synopsis of the problem, findings, and recommendations.The
overview of research explains the background, exploratory findings from secondary data, the research design and
procedures, and the conclusions.The implementation strategies section expands on recommendations.A technical
appendix contains all the materials necessary to replicate the project.

Structure of the research proposal: Title,Executive Summary,Problem statement,Research Objectives,Literature

Review,Importance and Benefits of the Study,Research Design,Data Analysis,Nature & form of Results,Qualification
of Researchers,Budget,Schedule,Facilities & Special Resources,Project Management,Bibliography,Appendix

LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
NOMINAL

ORDINAL

INTERVAL

RATIO

EXAMPLES

Names of activities,
locations, gender

Ranks, preferences

Attitude scales,

Length of stay,
income, age

PROPERTIES

Identity
(equivalence)

Identity, magnitude
(relativity)

Identity, magnitude,
equal intervals

Identity, magnitude,
equal intervals, true
zero

MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS

Count (frequency)

Rank order

Rank order, add,

subtract, average

Rank order, add,

subtract, average,
multiply, divide

TYPE OF DATA

Nominal

Ranks

Scale

Scores

TYPES OF COMPARISONS

A is not equal/equal
to B

A is less
than/greater than

A is three units
more/less than B

A is twice as
large/small as B