1-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS

In order to determine the properties of materials many standard

tests have been devised. This tutorial covers the main tests for
determining mechanical properties.
Testing can be divided up into Destructive and Non Destructive and
as the names imply, one destroys the sample and the other does
not. Non destructive tests may be carried out on the actual
component or structure to see if it has any defects (e.g. checking
aircraft skins for cracks). Destructive tests may use a specimen
from a batch of new bulk material to check the batch or the
specimen may be made from a structure that has been in use (e.g.
checking material that failed unexpectedly).

1-1TENSILE TESTING

The tensile test is conducted in order to find the following

properties of a material.

The yield or proof stress

The ultimate tensile stress

The elastic range
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Properties of Materials

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The ductile range
The modulus of elasticity
Ductility is indicated by two results from the test as follows.
The % elongation.
The % area reduction.

There are other properties that can be discovered for materials with
more complex behaviour.

1-2 TEST SPECIMENS

Let's now look at Figure .
the gauge length (L0) is
the length over which the
elongation of the specimen
is

measured.

minimum

parallel

The
length

(Lc) is the minimum length

over which the specimen
must maintain a constant
cross-sectional area before
the test

load is applied.

The lengths L0. Lc, Li. and

the

cross-sectional

area

(A) are all specified in BS 18.

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The elongation obtained for a given force depends upon the length
and area of the cross-section of the specimen or component, since.

applied force x L
Elongation
ExA
Where
L = length
A = cross-sectional area
E = elastic modulus
Therefore if the ratio [ L/A ] is kept constant (as it is in a
proportional test piece), and E remains

constant for a given

material, then comparisons can be made between elongation and

applied force for specimens of different sizes.

1-3 Tensile test results

Let's now look at the sort of results we would get from a typical
tensile test on a piece of annealed low-carbon steel. The load
applied to the specimen and the corresponding extension can be
plotted in the form of a graph, as shown in Figure

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Properties of Materials

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From A to B the extension is proportional to the applied load. Also,

if the load is removed the specimen returns to its original length.
Under these relatively lightly loaded conditions the material is
showing elastic properties.
From B to C it can be seen from the graph that the metal suddenly
extends with no increase in load. If the load is removed at this
point the metal will not spring back to its original length and it is
said to have taken a permanent set. Therefore, B is called "limit
of proportionality

",

and if the force is increased beyond this

point a stage is reached where a sudden extension takes place

with no increase in force.

This

is

known

as

the " yield

point" C.
The yield stress is the stress at the yield point; that is, the load at
B divided by the original cross-section area of the specimen.
Usually, a designer works at 50 per cent of this figure to allow for
a 'factor of safety'
From C to D extension is no longer proportional to the load, and if
the load is removed little or no spring back will occur. Under these
relatively greater loads the material is showing plastic properties.
The point D is referred to as the 'ultimate tensile strength' when
referred extension graphs or the 'ultimate tensile stress' (UTS)
when referred to stress-strain graphs. The ultimate tensile stress
is calculated by dividing the load at D by the original crosssectional area of

the specimen. Although a useful figure for

comparing the relative strengths of materials, it has little practical

value since engineering equipment is not usually operated so near
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to the breaking point.

From D to E the specimen appears to be stretching under reduced
load conditions. In fact the specimen is thinning out (necking) so
that the 'load per unit area' or stress is actually increasing. The
specimen finally work hardens to such an extent that it breaks at
E.
In practice, values of load and extension are of limited use since
they apply to one particular size of specimen and it is more usual
to plot the stress- strain curve.
Stress and strain are calculated as follows.
stress()

load
areaofcros section

steain() extension
originallength
The physicist Robert Hooke found that within its elastic range the
strain produced in a material is proportional to the stress applied. It
was left to Thomas Young to quantify this law in terms of a
mathematical constant for any given material.

strain stress
stress
therefore

strain

= constant(E)

This constant term (E) is variously known as 'Young's modulus', the

'modulus of elasticity' or the 'tensile modulus'. Thus:
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Properties of Materials

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Tensile or Compressive Stress

E=
Strain
(force) (original cross-sectional areal
=
(change in length)(original length)
Increase in length
Elongation%=

x100
Original length

Increase in length (elongation)= length at failure- original length

Lu - Lo
Elongation%=

x100
Lo

Example 1
Calculate the modulus of elasticity for a material which produces
the following data when undergoing test.
Applied

load=35.7

kN,

Cross-sectional

area = 25 mm2

Gauge length=28 mm Extension= 0.2 mm

stress
E=
strain

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Where

Properties of Materials

Materials Tasting
35.7kN

stress ()=

=1.428 MPa
25mm

And

0.2mm

strain () =

=0.007
28mm

Therefore
35.7 X28
E=

=199.92 kN / mm2
25 X0.2

= 200 GPa (approx.)

This would be a typical value for a low-carbon steel.
The diagram shows typical Force extension graphs for some
materials.
Elongation in gauge length of a standard test piece at the point of
fracture when subjected to a tensile test to destruction.
increase in length
Elongation % =

X 100
original length

The increase in length is determined by fitting the pieces of the

fractured specimen together carefully and measuring the length at
failure.
increase in length (elongation) = length at failure original length

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Properties of Materials

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Figure . shows a specimen for a soft, ductile material before and
after testing. It can be seen that the specimen does not reduce in
cross-sectional area uniformly, but that server local necking occurs
prior to fracture. Since most of the plastic deformation and,
therefore, most

of

the

elongation occurs in the necked region,

doubling the gauge length dose not double the elongation when
calculated as a percentage of gauge length. Therefore it is
important to use a standard gauge length if comparability between
results is to be achieved.
Elongation is calculated as follows.

Elongation.

Lu - Lo
Elongation % =

X100
Lo

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Properties of Materials

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2-The compression test
Because of the presence of submicroscopic cracks,
brittle materials are often weak in tension, as
tensile stress tends to propagate those cracks which
are oriented perpendicular to the axis of tension.
The tensile strengths they exhibit are low and
usually vary from sample to sample. These

same

materials can nevertheless be quite strong in compression. Brittle

materials are chiefly used in compression, where their strengths are
much higher. A schematic diagram of a typical compression test is
shown in figure
shows a comparison of the compressive and tensile strengths of
gray cast iron and concrete, both of which are brittle materials.

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Properties of Materials

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Tensile and compressive engineering stress-strain curves for gray
cast iron and concrete.

2-1Ductility testing
The percentage elongation, as determined by the tensile test, has
already been discussed as a measure of ductility. Another way of
assessing ductility is a simple bend test. There are several ways in
which this test can be applied, as shown in figure 13. The test
chosen will depend upon the ductility of the material and the
severity of the test required.
Close bend test The specimen is bent over on itself and flattened.
No allowance is made for spring back, and

the

material

is

satisfactory if the test can be completed without the metal tearing

or fracturing. This also applies to the following tests.
Angle bend test The material is bent over a former and the nose
radius of the former and the angle of bend () are fixed by
specification. Again no allowance is made for spring back.
180 bend test This

is

a development of the angle

bend test

using a flat former as shown. Only the nose radius of the former
is specified.

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Properties of Materials

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Bend tests: (a) close bend; (b) angle bend; (c) 180 :C bend

2-2Impact testing (toughness testing)

Figure (a)
Impact tests consist of striking a suitable specimen with a
controlled blow and measuring the energy absorbed in bending or
breaking the specimen. The energy value indicates the toughness of
the material under test.

Figure (b)

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Figure (b) shows a typical impact testing machine which has a
hammer that is suspended like a pendulum, a vice for holding the
specimen in the correct position relative to the hammer and a dial
for indicating the energy absorbed in carrying out the test in joules
(J).
When the heavy pendulum, released from a known height, strikes
and breaks the sample before it continues its upward swing. From
knowledge of the mass of the pendulum and the difference
between the

initial and final heights, the energy absorbed in

fracture can be calculated, as

shown in figure (a) the schematic

drawing of the impact test machine.

Figure( c) shows how a piece of high carbon steel rod will bend
when in the annealed condition, after hardening and lightly
tempering, the same piece of steel will fracture when hit with a
different hammer.

Figure(c).
Figure(c). Impact loading: (a) a rod of high-carbon (1.0%) steel in
the annealed (soft) condition will bend struck with a hammer (UTS
925 MPa); (b) after hardening and lightly tempering, the same
piece steel will fracture when hit with a hammer despite its UTS
having increased to 1285 MPa.
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There are several types of the impact tests and the most famous
type is the Izod test. Figure (d)

Figure(d)
In

the

Izod
test,

10mm
square,
notched specimen is used, it is preferred to use a specimen that
have a more than one or two and even three notched in the same
specimen. The striker of the pendulum hits the specimen with a
kinetic energy of 162.72 J at a velocity of 3.8m/s. Figure(E)
shows details of the specimen and the manner in which it is
supported

Figure(E)

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Properties of Materials

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Figure(E) Izod test (a/I dimensions in millimeters); (a) detail of
notch; (b) section of test piece (at notch); (c) position of strike
Since test use a notched specimen, useful information can be
obtained regarding the resistance of the material to the spread of
a crack which may originate from a point of stress concentration
such as sharp comers, undercuts, sudden changes in section,
and machining. Marks in stressed components. Such points of
stress concentration should be eliminated during design and
manufacture
A second type of impact test is the Charpy test. While in the Izod
test the specimen is supported as a cantilever, but in the Charpy
test it is supported as a beam. It is struck with a kinetic energy of
298.3 J at a velocity of 5m/s. The Charpy impact test is usually
use for testing the toughness of polymers.

Figure( F) .shows

details of the Charpy tes: manner in which it is supported.

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Figure( F)
Charpy test (all dimensions in millimeters)

3-Hardness testing

Hardness has already been defined as the resistance of a material

to indentation or abrasion by another hard body ( good hardness
generally means that the material is resistant to scratching and
wear) . It is by indentation that most hardness tests are performed.
A hard indenter is pressed into the specimen by a standard load,
and the magnitude of the indentation (either area or depth) is
taken as a measure of hardness.

Hardness

tests

are

commonly

used for assessing material properties because they are quick and
convenient. However, a variety of testing methods is appropriate
due to differences in hardness among different materials. The most
well known hardness tests are Brinell and Rockwell

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3-1The Brinell hardness test

In this test, hardness is measured by pressing a hard steel ball into
the surface of the test piece, using a known load. It is important to
choose the combination of load and ball size carefully so that the
indentation is free from distortion and suitable for measurement.
The relationship of the Brinell hardness [HB] which is between
load P (kg), the diameter D (mm) of the hardened ball indenter
and the diameter d (mm) of the indentation on the surface is given
by the expression.

HB

Load ( Kg )
surface curved of Areaindent ation of

P ( Kg )
HB
1 / 2 x D ( D2 d 2 )( mm2 )
For different aterimals, the ratio p/D2 has been standardized in
order to obtain accurate and comparative results such as:

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P
k 2
D
Where K is. a constant; typical values of K are.
Ferrous metals
Copper and copper alloys
Aluminum and aluminum
alloys
Lead, tin and white-bearing
metals

K = 30
K = 10
K=5
K=1

Figure( j) shows how the Brinell hardness value is determined.

The diameter of the indentation is measured in two directions at
right angles and the average taken. The diameter is measured
either by using a microscope scale, or by a projection screen with
micrometer adjustment.

Figure( j)

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To ensure consistent results, the following precautions should be
observed.
The thickness of the specimen should be at least seven times the
depth of the indentation to allow unrestricted plastic flow below
the indenter.
The edge of the indentation should be at least three times the
diameter of the indentation from the edge of the test piece.
The test is unsuitable for materials whose hardness exceeds 500
HB, as the ball indenter tends to flatten.
There are a definite relationship between strength and hardness so
it is possible to measure the tensile strength from the hardness
test.

3-2 The Vickers hardness test

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This test is preferable to the Brinell test where hard materials are
concerned, as it uses a diamond indenter. (Diamond is the hardest
material known - approximately 6000 HB.) The diamond indenter is
in the form of.a square-based pyramid with an angle of 1 36
between opposite faces.Since only one type of indenter is used the
load has to be varied for different hardness ranges. Standard loads
are 5, 10, 20, 30, 50 and100 kg. It is necessary to state the load
when specifying a Vickers hardness number. For example, if the
hardness number is found to be 200 when using a 50 kg load, then
the hardness number is written as HV (50) = 200.
Figure (h) shows the measuring screen for determining the
distance across the corners of the indentation. The screen can be
rotated so that two readings at right angles can be taken and the
average is used to determine the hardness number (HD). This is
calculated by dividing the load by the projected area of the
indentation

Figure (h)

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Properties of Materials

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H v ( mm 2 )

Hv

Load ( Kg )
indentation of area Surface

P ( Kg )
1
d 2 / 2 sin (1360 )( mm2 )
2

P
H v 1854
d2
Where P is the load in Kg and d (mm) is the diagonal of the
impression made by the indenter made by the diamond.

3-3The Rockwell hardness test

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Although not as reliable as the Brinell and Vickers hardness tests for
laboratory purposes, the Rockwell test is widely used in industry as it
is quick, simple and direct reading. Universal electronic hardness
testing machines are now widely used which, at the turn of a switch,
can provide either Brinell, Vickers or Rockwell tests
the

and

show

hardness number as a digital readout automatically. They also

give a "hard copy' printout of the test result together together with
the test conditions and date.
In principle the Rockwell hardness test compares the difference

in

depth of penetration of the indenter when using forces of two different

values. That is, a minor force is first applied (to take up the backlash
and pierce the skin of the component) and the scale are set to read
zero. Then a major force is applied over and above the minor force
and the increased depth of penetration is shown on the scales of the
machine as a direct reading of hardness without the need for
calculation or conversion tables. Figure( g) shows a typical Rockwell
hardness testing machine.The standard Rockwell test can not be used
for very thin sheet and foils and for these the Rockwell superficial
hardness test is used.

Figure( g)

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Properties of Materials

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4- Shoe Scleroscope
The test piece must be small enough to mount in the testing machine,
and hardness is measured as a function of indentation. However, the
scleroscope is not like other types of hardness tests

based their

measure on the ratio of applied load divided by the resulting

impression are [ like Brinell and Vicker well] or by the depth of
impression [ like Rock well].The scleroscope is an instrument that
measures the rebound height of.
A hammer droped from a certain distance above the surface of the
material to be tested. The hammer consist of a weight with diamond
indenter attached to it. The scleroscope therefore
mechanical energy absorbed by the

material

measures

when the

the

indenters

strikes the surface. The energy absorbed gives an indication of

resistance to penetration, which matches our definition of hardness.
As shown in figure (k) The primary use of the sclerscope seems to
be in measuring the hardness of large parts of steel, large rolls,
casting and gears. And since the seclroscope can be carried to the
work piece, it is useful for testing large surfaces and other
components which could not easily be placed on the testing tables of
any other testing machines.

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Properties of Materials

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figure (k)

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Properties of Materials

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The table below shows the different in the ways of measuring the
hardness numbers for methods we mentioned above

Exercises
1- What types of destructive tests
2- Calculate the modulus of elasticity for a material which produces
the following data when undergoing test.
Applied

load=25.7

kN,

Cross-sectional

area = 20 mm2

Gauge length=25 mm Extension= 0.2 mm

3- What types of hardness tests

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