UNIT I

INTRODUCTION SCOPE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION:Civil Engineering is the oldest branch of engineering which is growing right from the stone-age civilization.
American Society of Civil Engineering defines civil engineering as the profession in which knowledge of the
mathematical and physical sciences gained by study, experience and practice is applied with judgment to
develop ways to utilize economically the materials and forces of the nature for the progressive well-being of
man.
In this chapter various civil engineering infrastructure projects for 21st century are listed and the role of civil
engineer is presented. Apart from civil engineering there are other infrastructural facilities required by the
public which need coordination with other engineers. Importance of this interdisciplinary approach in
engineering is also presented in this chapter.

SCOPE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING:The world has realized that a government should not involve itself in production and distribution but develop
infrastructure to create an atmosphere for economical development. Civil Engineering activities in the
infrastructure development are as under:
1. A good planning of towns and extension areas in the cities is required. Each extension area should be selfsufficient in accommodating offices, educational institutions, markets, hospitals, recreational facility and
residential accommodations.
2. Fast rate of urbanization and increase in the cost of land has forced civil engineers to go for vertical
growth in cities. In metropolitan cities, 25 storey buildings have become common. Even in small towns
multi-storey buildings have become necessity. These requirements have brought in new building
technologies and sophisticated analysis methods. Civil Engineers have to solve the problems of rural areas
and poor people also. Low cost housing is the need of the day to make poor people afford their own houses.
3. Water is an important need for all living beings. Civil engineers have to exploit various water resources
and ensure water supply to urban areas throughout the year. Rural areas need water for agriculture also.
Hence civil engineers have to build dams and tanks and bring water to houses through pipes, and to fields
through canals and distributaries.
4. Another important amenity that public require is good roads. Design of appropriate base course thickness,
finishing surfaces, cross drainage, design of horizontal and vertical curves are the duties of civil engineers.
Proper design of intersection of roads is necessary. Construction of culverts, bridges and tunnels became part
of road works. Railway is an important long distance facility. Construction of railway lines and railway
station is an important infrastructure activity. Globalization has resulted in need for building airports and
harbors also.
5. Other important infrastructural activities of civil engineering are controlling air pollution, noise pollution
and land pollution.

ROLE OF ENGINEERS IN THE INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT:A civil engineer has to conceive, plan, estimate, get approval, create and maintain all civil engineering
infrastructure activities. Civil engineer has a very important role in the development of the following
infrastructures:
1. Measure and map the earths surface.
2. Plan and develop extensions of towns and cities.
3. Build the suitable structures for the rural and urban areas for various utilities.
4. Build the tanks and dams to exploit water resources.
5. Build river navigation and flood control projects.
6. Build canals and distributaries to take water to agricultural fields.
7. Purify and supply water to needy areas like houses, schools, offices etc.
8. Provide and maintain communication systems like roads, railways, harbors and airports.
9. Devise systems for control and efficient flow of traffic.
10. Provide, build and maintain drainage and waste water disposal system.
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11. Monitor land, water and air pollution, and take measures to control them. Fast growing industrialization
has put heavy responsibilities on civil engineers to preserve and protect environment.

GENERAL CONCEPTS RELATED TO BUILDING

SELECTION OF SITE:The selection of a site for affordable housing should reflect the particular needs of the population that your
housing development will serve. An important consideration is the location of the property in relation to the
services residents will need to access, such as shopping, medical, schools and transportation. A steep piece of
property is generally not suitable for elderly or physically disabled residents. Location of the site may also
have a significant impact on the cost of your project. You will have to strike a balance between meeting the
needs of your residents and the final location of your project The shape, slope and soil conditions of a piece
of property will all have an impact on the practicality of development. An odd-shaped lot may present design
challenges and the cost to remediate a polluted site will have a serious impact on project viability. The
availability of services to a site is another important consideration, as it is expensive to bring or upgrade
water, sewer, power and other utilities, as well as roads and sidewalks, to a piece of property.
There are many factors which must be taken in to account while selecting a site for a commercial and
residential buildings. Some of these factors are given below.
1. Shape of the Plot
2. Location of the plot
3. Availability of amenities
4. Water Table
5. Sewerage system
1. Shape of the plot: Geometry of the plot for any kind of construction is very important which can largely
affect the appearance of your structure. Shape of the plot should be such that the construction can be easily
made with cost low as possible. And also in the future you can further expand it. A plot with more routes will
be considered a good one.
2. Location of the plot: The surround area of the residential plot is very important. It effects the price and
the beauty of the plot. Plot should be taken in the area provided with a lot of services. And in a suitable
environment free from all kind of pollutions. Efforts should be make to buy it near to main road. Because
such plots are more valuable as compared to the plots situated away from the main road.
3. Availability of Amenities: Plot for a residential building should be taken in the area provided with much
number of amenities. Such as electricity, Telephone, Fax, Internet, Gas, School, Colleges, University etc. and
the most important is the good and fast transport system. So that communication becomes more fast and
quick.
4. Water table: The water table at the site of residential building should not be very high. Otherwise it will
affect the quality of water which is used for drinking and domestic purposes. A plot with normal water table
will
be
more
preferred
as
compared
with
other
plots
having
high
water table.
5. Sewerage System: There should be proper sewerage system at the site of residential plots. So that the
extra water of houses can easily be drawn out especially in rains and floods. If in case there is no sewerage
system the dirty water effect the building and as well the occupants as well.

BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF BUILDINGS:

The design and performance of a good building should satisfy the following basic requirements:
1. Strength and stability: The structure should be stable to resist all the loads i. e. dead load, live load, and
wind load. Building should be capable of transferring the expected loads in its life period safely to the
ground. Design of various structural components like slabs, beams, walls, columns and footing should ensure
safety. None of the structural components should buckle, overturn and collapse. To achieve strength and
stability of building, proper load factor should be applied while designing a structure.
2. Dimensional Stability: Excessive deformation of structural components gives a sense of instability and
result into crack in walls, flooring etc. All structural components should be so designed that deflections do
not exceed the permissible values specified in the codes.
3. Resistance to Dampness: Dampness in a building is a great nuisance and it may reduce the life of the
building. Great care should be taken in planning and in the construction of the building to avoid dampness.
The presence of moisture in any building deteriorates the strength of materials and results in reduction in
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durability. In order to prevent the entry of damp into a building, damp-proof courses are provided at various
levels.
4. Resistance to Fire: To protect the building against fire, composite and noncombustible materials should
be used in the construction of walls, columns, beams, etc. Also standards of fire safety or fire extinguishers
as specified in the building codes should be provided with sufficient and quick fire exit.
Regarding achieving resistance to fire, the basic requirements laid down in the codes are:
(a) The structure should not ignite easily.
(b) Building orientation should be such that spread of fire is slow.
(c) In case of fire, there should be means of easy access to vacate building quickly.
5. Heat Insulation: A building should be so oriented and designed that it insulates interior from heat. To
achieve heat insulation requirements for different types of building, one or more following means should be
adopted :
1. In the construction of cavity walls, roofs, floors, etc. to fill air spaces in construction materials, heat
insulating materials like slag wool, light weight concrete should be used.
2. The buildings should be provided with chhajjas, canopy, weather sheds, verandah, courtyards, tress,
garden etc. to achieve heat insulation.
3. Top terrace of the building should be insulated against heat insulation against heat economically by using
special flooring method.
6. Sound Insulation: Buildings should be planned against outdoor and indoor noises. It is necessary to give
attention to the sound insulation of buildings because of various factors such as increase in population,
change in habits of community, increase in noise pollution, improvement in building construction practices,
etc. The function of sound insulating construction is to reduce the sound passing through it. Generally hard
materials are used for sound insulating construction.
7. Protection from Termite: Termites are known as white ants as they are no related to ants. The termites
live in colony and they are very fast in eating wood and other cellulosic materials as food. The cellulose
forms their basic nutrient. They also damage household articles like furniture, furnishings, clothing,
stationary, plastic, leather, rubber etc. for the removal of termites from the building adopt pre-construction
techniques of termite-proofing. The post construction treatments of termite proofing consist of opening earth
around the building and treating it with chemicals; drilling holes in damaged portions of masonry and
woodwork and injecting chemicals under pressure.
8. Durability: Period of time up to which the building remains habitable is called its durability.
1. Durability of a building depends upon following factors:
2. Degree of maintenance
3. Method of construction adopted
4. Types of materials used in building.
5. Exposure condition to weathering which is determined by the climate environment, site, aspect and
height of building
To increase and maintain durability of a building following steps should be taken
1. Proper features like projecting eaves, copings, sunshades, parapets, sills etc. should be provided in
building to prevent from rainfall, sunlight, moisture and other exposures of weather.
2. Proper care is to be taken in designing a building, in maintenance of building, in choice of materials
and in the protection of a building against weathering effects.
9. Security against Burglary: For the safety of building, the external walls should be strong enough. Also
window openings should be protected with M. S. grill or concrete jail or by any other means. In important
buildings where high security is required, automatic alarm system is also provided.
10. Lighting and Ventilation: For healthy and happy living natural light and ventilations are required. In
every building position, number and sizes of doors and windows should be such that sufficient day light free
from glare comes from the right direction. Sufficient daylight should reach in every room of building, to
create pleasing environment to work and to live. Ventilation in the building means passage of clean air in a
building. Hence windows or openings should be provided on the opposite sides to facilitate cross ventilation.

TYPES OF BUILDING:Building is defined in many aspects as: As a Civil Engineering structures such as a house, worship
centre, Factories etc. that has a foundation, wall, roof etc. that protect human being and their properties from
direct harsh effect of weather like rain, wind, sun etc.
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I) RESIDENTIAL BUILDING:- Residential buildings are called houses/homes, though buildings

containing large numbers of separate dwelling units are often called apartment buildings or apartment blocks
to differentiate them from the more 'individual' house.
Building types may range from one-room wood-framed, masonry, or adobe dwellings to multi-million dollar
high-rise buildings able to house thousands of people. Increasing settlement density in buildings (and closer
distances between buildings) is usually a response to high ground prices resulting from many people wanting
to live close to work or similar attractors.
II) PUBLIC BUILDING:- (i) public building means any building(a) Used as a(i) School (including a tutorial school) or college (including a tutorial college) or
University or other educational institution;
(ii) Hostel;
(iii) Library;
(iv) Hospital, nursing home, dispensary, clinic or maternity centre;
(v) club;
(vi) Lodging house, boarding house or hotel; or
(vii) choultry;
(b) ordinarily used for public meetings or for celebrating marriage functions
III) COMMERCIAL BUILDING:- A commercial building is a building that is used for commercial use.
Types can include office buildings, warehouses, or retail (i.e. convenience stores, 'big box' stores, shopping
malls, etc.. In urban locations, a commercial building often combines functions, such as an office on levels 210, with retail on floor 1. Local authorities commonly maintain strict regulations on commercial zoning, and
have the authority to designate any
zoned area as such. A business must be located in a commercial area or area zoned at least partially for
commerce
IV) INDUSTRIAL BUILDING:- An industrial building, is a building used for industrial activities.
Types of industrial buildings: Brewery
Factory
Foundry
Mining
Power plant
Refinery
Mill
Oil Rig.

PRINCIPAL OF PLANNING
A building must be planned on paper and on the architect drawing before construction of that
building is undertaken. Residential building such as bungalows, farmhouse, flat system, apartments,
township and public building such as post office, banks, hostels, cinema theaters, and railway station require
rigorous planning before construction activity is undertaken. In the planning process some basic principles
are involved which are known as Principle of planning.
Principle of planning involves planning for meeting the following requirements also:
1. Orientation- aspects and prospects
2. Privacy
3. Grouping
4. Circulation
5. Roominess
6. Sanitary convenience
7. Flexibility
8. Elegance
9. Economy
1. Orientation: proper orientation means setting or placing of the rooms of the residential building which
allow the inmates of the house to enjoy the utmost whatever are good and to avoid whatever is bad in respect
of comforts in the elements of nature such as the sun, wind, and rain. Good orientation means placement of
rooms in relation to sun, wind, rain, topography and outlook and at the same time providing a convenient
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access both to the courtyard, compound or street. To protect the main rooms from the effect of heat of the
sun, they should always be on east or north. Activities in a house take place at different times of the day, thus
one needs sun shine in the morning and cool after noon in the kitchen. So a kitchen is planned with main
windows fixed towards east. It is better to place the kitchen facing east. Living rooms have some windows
towards east and a few towards north. Bed rooms are placed in the north, West or south west direction.
Verandahs are provided towards East and west to protect rooms from the effect of intense heat of the sun.
1 a. Aspect: It is the placement of various rooms of a building in accordance with various activities meant to
be performed there at different times of the day. This term has nothing to do with the architectural aspect of
outlook of building.
1 b. Prospects: It is about locating and selecting types of doors and windows so as to reveal pleasant
features and conceal undesirable features of the buildings from a person viewing from outside.
2. Privacy: Planning should take care of privacy of one room from other room in a building as well as some
parts of a building from neighboring buildings and from streets. It is ensured by proper grouping of rooms
and by suitably providing doors, windows and ventilators. Planning the entrance at appropriate position also
contributes a lot in providing privacy.
3. Grouping: Grouping means disposition of various rooms in the building for the convenience of users and
their utility. Arrangement of various rooms with reference to their relatedness of functions is called grouping.
Grouping in different types of buildings vary due to different nature of functions. For instance dining room
or dining space should be close to the kitchen. Bedroom should have sanitary arrangements nearby. The
corridor area in a house should be minimum and well ventilated.
4. Circulation: Circulation means the space to be provided for movement from room to room or floor to
floor. The external an internal movement of persons, vehicles and good in and around a building is referred
to as circulation. It depends upon the function of the building and on the way the spaces are arranged, along
which movement of person or vehicles or both takes place. It usually follows a regular and recurring pattern.
Different circulation patterns have been observed for different buildings:
(i) Horizontal Circulation Pattern: Movement occurs on a horizontal plane. Passages, lobbies, halls provided
serve horizontal circulation.
(ii) Vertical Circulation Pattern : This refers to the mass movements taking place through stairs, lifts or other
mechanized means in multi-storied buildings. In contrast to horizontal circulation pattern, here a third
dimension of height is added. True vertical circulation pattern would follow only in some tower like
building, say Qutab Minar.
5. Roominess: It refers to suitable proportioning of length, width and height of rooms in the building to get
maximum benefit from the minimum dimensions. Length to width ratio should be 1.2 to 1.5. If it is nearly
square lot of area is wasted for movement, while, it is more than 1.5, it gives the tunnel effect. Doors for
rooms should be properly located so that utility and privacy are maximum. Cupboards and lofts should be
provided to increase roominess. Proper colours to wall and floor also give roominess effect. Light colour
gives effect of more space.
6. Sanitary Convenience: Sanitary conveniences include provision of bathrooms, lavatories, Urinals etc.
Provision of these is not only necessities but statutory requirement also. These facilities should be located
giving free access to all users. In these blocks, suitable slopes should be given to the floors to drain out water
easily.
7. Flexibility: This aspect of planning means a room designed for a specific purpose should be possible to
use for other purposes, if necessary. A study room may be planned for using as a guest room. If partition is
provided between living room and dining room, it is possible to remove partition and use living room plus
dining room for the family functions. If independent access is given to backyard from kitchen, backyard can
be used for dinner functions. Thus in planning flexibility also should be considered.
8. Elegance: Elegance means general effect produced for a viewer from outside. It depends upon proper
positioning of doors, windows, ventilators, chhajjas, balconies etc. Elevations should be attractive. The
width, height and the projections in the building contribute a lot for the elegance. Taj Mahal is an example
famous for its elegance.
11. Economy: Economy without sacrificing comfort, conveniences and durability is another
basic principle of planning a building. For this circulation area should be minimized. Materials should be so
selected that maintenance cost is minimized.
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INTRODUCTION TO BYE-LAWS
During planning and construction of any building, certain restrictions are laid down by municipal
bodies, urban development authorities and other government departments as town planning trusts related to
clear spaces to be left round the buildings, permissible height of building, permissible construction areas etc.
Hence the proposed plans of buildings are to be prepared according to these bye-laws which are checked and
approved by above authorities. Minimum provisions designed from national building code by various
authorities to protect the safety of the public with regarding to structural sufficiency, fire hazards and health
aspects are called building bye-laws.
The building bye-laws and regulations govern the following building aspects :1. Building Line
2. Height Of Building
3. Open Space Requirement
4. F.S.I. (Floor Space Index)
5. Carpet Area
6. Built Up Area
7. Setbacks
8. Ventilation.
1. Building Line: Building line is laid down in each case parallel to the plot boundaries by the local
authorities beyond which nothing can be constructed towards the plot boundaries. Certain buildings like
cinema, business centers, factories etc which attract large no. of people and vehicles as such more space is
required. Hence the buildings should be set back a further distance away from the building line. The line
which accounts for this extra margin is called control line. The fixation of building line depends upon the site
of proposed building keeping in views present width and future widening requirement.
2. Height Of Building: The vertical distance from the average grade for a building or other structure, or for a
wing or distinct portion of a building or other structure, to the highest point of the roof for that wing or
distinct portion of the building or structure. The maximum height of the building depends upon width of
street on which building fronts, minimum width of rear space and vicinity of aerodromes.
Width of street

Maximum height of building

< 8m

1.5 times width of street

8m to 12m
> 12m

12m
< 24m

3. Open Space Requirement: The open space around the building is required to be provided to meet
requirements regarding lighting, ventilation, future expansion, and approach. Open space for front, rear and
side yard depend upon height of building and can be calculated by formula
W=Width of open space around the building in m=3+ (h/10)/3
Where h= height of the building in m < 25m
Open space for yard for the building of height less than 10m should be 3m average but in no case less than
1.8m.
4. F.S.I. (Floor Space Index): It is the ratio of total built up area to plot area. It is a measure of intensity of
land use. It is introduced to regulate population density and to control over crowding of dwelling units.
It limits the floor area of a building in relation to the plot area. Thus if F.S.I is 1, then total permissible area
of all the floor in the building is equal to the area of the plot.
The F.S.I changes as per the locality.

. . =
5. Carpet Area: It is defined as actual area of usable room at any floor level. (Literally means the area
where carpet can be laid). It does not include sanitary accommodation, verandahs, corridors, and passage,
stores in domestic building, staircase and shafts for lifts, garages, air condition ducts and plant room.
6. Built Up Area: It is the area covered by all floors of a building. It includes everything covered under roof.
Area occupied by balcony, staircase is excluded from the built up area.
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7. Setbacks: It is the distance measured from centerline of road up to which plinth of building may extend. It
is provided to facilitate future road widening, parking of vehicles, free circulation of air etc. set back distance
is about 1.5 to1.67 times more for theatres, commercial complexes, factories than residential building.
Type of Road
Minimum set back distance
Ratio of column 3
to column 2
Residential
Industrial
building
building
Village Road
9m
15m
1.67
Major district Road
15m
24m
1.60
National or state highway 30m
45m
1.50
Advantages
Widening of roads
Improve visibility and impart safety to traffic
Better condition of light, air, ventilation of building
It is used for parking space or developing as garden.
It protect the building from street nuisance
They reduce the danger of fire by increasing distance between opposite building.
If setback is uniform, the buildings are constructed in one line parallel to axis of road, result in
improvement of road.
8. Ventilation: Ventilation is used to remove unpleasant smells and excessive moisture, introduce outside
air, to keep interior building air circulating, and to prevent stagnation of the interior air. Ventilation includes
both the exchange of air to the outside as well as circulation of air within the building. It is one of the most
important factors for maintaining acceptable indoor air quality in buildings. Windows, ventilation, direct
opening to external air should be provided for proper ventilation.

INTRODUCTION TO TYPES OF LOADS ON BUILDINGS

To get safe structures at the same time without ignoring economy of the structure, it is necessary to
estimate the various loads acting suitably. Indian standard code IS: 8751987 specifies various design loads
for buildings and structures. They have grouped various loads as under:
1. Dead loads (DL)
2. Imposed loads or Live Load (LL)
3. Wind loads (WL)
4. Earthquake loads (EQL)
Details of earthquake load are covered in IS: 1893 1984 which should be considered along with
other types of loads given in IS-875. The code also gives various load combinations to be considered in the
design.
DEAD LOAD (DL): - The dead load in a building comprises the weight of roofs, floors, beams, columns,
walls, and partition walls etc. which form permanent part of the building. It is to be found by working out
volume of each part and then multiplying with unit weight. Unit weight of various materials is listed in part-I
of IS: 875.
IMPOSED LOADS (IL):- The loads which keep on changing from time to time are called as imposed
loads. Common Examples of such loads in a building are the weight of the persons, weights of movable
partition, dust loads and weight of furnitures. These loads were formerly known as live loads. These loads
are to be suitably assumed by the designer. It is one of the major load in the design. The minimum values to
be assumed are given in IS 875 (part 2)1987. It depends upon the intended use of the building. These values
are presented for square metre of floor area.
WIND LOADS (WL):- The force exerted by the horizontal component of wind is to be considered in the
design of buildings. It depends upon the velocity of wind and shape and size of the building. Complete
details of calculating wind load on structures are given in IS-875 (Part 3) -1987.
EARTHQUAKE FORCES (EQL): - Earthquake shocks cause movement of foundation of structures. Due
to inertia additional forces develop on super structure. The total vibration caused by earthquake may be
resolved into three mutually perpendicular directions, usually taken as vertical and two horizontal directions.
The movement in vertical direction does not cause forces in superstructure to any significant extent. But
movement in vertical direction does not cause forces in superstructure to any significant extent. But
7

movement in horizontal directions causes considerable forces. The intensity of vibration of ground expected
at any location depends upon the magnitude of earthquake, the depth of focus, the distance from the
epicenter and the strata on which the structure stands. The response of the structure to the ground vibration is
a function of the nature of foundation soil, size and mode of construction and the duration and intensity of
ground motion. IS: 18931984 gives the details of such calculations for structures standing on soils which
will not considerably settle or slide appreciably due to earthquake. The seismic accelerations for the design
may be arrived at from seismic coefficients, which are defined as the ratio of acceleration due to earthquake
and acceleration due to gravity. For the purpose of determining the seismic forces, India is divided into five
zones. Depending on the problem, one of the following two methods may be used for computing the seismic
forces:
(a) Seismic coefficient method
(b) Response spectrum method

SUBSTRUCTURE
SOILS:
'Soil' is defined as a natural aggregate of mineral grains with or without organic matter. Soils are
obtained from continuous process of weathering of rocks on the earths surface. The loads of the structure
are transferred to sub-soil.
Soils are classified as:
1. Non- Cohesive soils
2. Cohesive soils
1. Non- cohesive soils: Non- Cohesive soils are made of coarser particles. In dry state they possess no
plasticity. Lack any cohesion
Non- Cohesive soils are classified as:
1. Gravel
2. Sandy Soil
3. Silt
1. Gravel: Gravels are weathered and disintegrated rock fragments from residual deposits Grain sizes,
coarsed particles of rock having sizes 4.75 mm to 80 mm are known as Gravels. They include river deposits
made of rounded pebbles and shingles. Cemented and compact
gravels do not shrink or swell due to
evaporation or absorption of water. Gravel can be well compacted
and allows water to drain freely. The
variety in particle sizes in gravel means that even when
closely packed it still contains voids and drains
well. Gravel soils do not hold water. They sustain heavy load without any appreciable settlement. They
provide very good foundation next to rock.
2. Sandy Soil: Sandy soils are non- cohesive deposits from rock disintegration. Coarser particles of silica
obtained from disintegration of rocks having sizes 0.06 mm to 4.75 mm are known as Sandy Soil. They are
mostly river deposits. This soil is formed by the disintegration and weathering of rocks such as limestone,
granite, quartz and shale. This soil retains a certain amount of moisture and nutrients. In a way sandy soil is
good for plants since it lets the water drain easily, so that it prevents root problems. Sands provide good
foundation except when they are loose and not confined.
3. Silt: The finer particles of rock having sizes 0.002 mm to 0.06 mm are known as Silt. It is a fine grained
soil and has little plasticity. Silt is relatively impervious. It shrinks or swells due to evaporation or absorption
of water. It is composed of minerals like quartz and fine organic particles. Silty soil is found in flood plains
or around lakes. It is granular like sandy soil but it has more nutrients than sandy soil and offers better
drainage. This type of soil can hold more moisture and at times becomes compact. It is much easier to work
with when it has moisture. They do not sustain heavy load and shows signs of settlement. It is not a very
good foundation material unless it has been compressed and hardened, or has been dried out. Hence it is not
suitable for foundation.

2. Cohesive soils: Non- Cohesive soils are made of finer particles. They possess plasticity and cohesion
Cohesive soils are classified as:
1. Shale
2. Clayey Soil
3. Black cotton soil
4. Peat
5. Made up grounds
1. Shale: It is a fine-grained sedimentary rock that forms from the compaction of silt and clay-size mineral
particles that we commonly call "mud". This composition places shale in a category of sedimentary rocks
known as "mudstones. It is a compressed form of laminated clay. Shale usually contains other clay-size
mineral particles such as quartz, chert and feldspar. Shale breaks into thin pieces with sharp edges. It occurs
in a wide range of colors that include: red, brown, green, gray, and black. It is the most common sedimentary
rock and is found in sedimentary basins worldwide.
2. Clayey Soil: Finer soil particles having sizes less than 0.002 mm is known as Clay. Clay soil is formed
after years of rock disintegration and weathering. It is a soft plastic and can be molded in moist condition
when dry it shrinks and when wet it swells.Clay drains slowly and compresses when foundations are placed
upon them. It takes large settlement and takes long time for it. Therefore difficult to predict the settlement
and time taken for it.Hence it is not suitable for foundation.
3. Black cotton soil: High percentage of montomonillonite renders high degree of expansiveness. These
property results cracks in soil without any warning. These cracks may sometimes extent to severe limit like
wide and 12 deep. So building to be founded on this soil may suffer severe damage with the change of
atmospheric conditions. It shows large shrinkage and settlement.Hence it forms very poor base for
foundation.
4. Peat: This kind of soil is basically formed by the accumulation of dead and decayed organic matter; it
naturally contains much more organic matter than most of the soils. The decomposition of the organic matter
in this soil is
blocked by the acidity of the soil. This kind of soil is formed in wet climate. It is generally
found in marshy areas. Hence it not suitable for foundation.
5. Made up grounds: The ground is formed after filling with refuse. Hence it is very un-suitable for
foundation.

BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL:

Bearing capacity of soil denotes the ability of soil to sustain the total load of the structure without yielding
or showing any settlement.
Types of Bearing capacity
1. Ultimate Bearing Capacity : It denotes the ultimate load per unit area, which would cause
the soil to displace.
2. Safe Bearing Capacity : It denotes the maximum load per unit area, that the soil can
resist safely without displacement.

The factors affecting bearing capacity of soil are:1. Type and nature of soil, such as coarsed grained, fine grained soils etc.
2. Environmental conditions: Drainage, seepage and accumulation of water affects the bearing capacity.
3. Extent of soil compaction.
4. Physical properties: such as density, shear strength etc.
5. Moisture content.
6. Flexibility or rigidity of the foundation.
7. Differential settlement.
8. Types of foundation.
9. Depth of foundation.
10. Proximity of ground water table.
9

FOUNDATION:
The lowest artificially prepared part of the structures which are in direct contact with the ground and which
transmit the load of the structures to the ground are known as Foundations or Substructure. The soil ground
on which the foundations rest is called the Foundation Bed or Foundation Soil and it ultimately bears the
load and interacts with the foundations of the building. The lower most portion of the foundation which is in
direct contact with the subsoil is called the Footing.

Shallow foundation: When the depth of foundation 'D' is less or equal to the width 'B' it is called as
Shallow Foundation or open foundation i.e. D B. It is placed immediately beneath the lower part of the
super structure. The main object of this type of foundation is to spread the load of the super structure over a
larger area to bring the pressure intensity within safe limits. These are generally used for all ordinary
buildings which carry light or moderate loads and where good bearing capacity is available at shallow depth,
or reasonable depth. i.e. D 5 m.
The various types of shallow foundations are as follows:
1. Wall Footing (Strip)
2. Column Footing
1. Wall Footing (Strip): It consists of a continuous strip of footing to spread the load of wall over a larger
area. Hence, it is also called spread footing. The width and depth of the strip depends upon the load on
foundation and S.B.C. of the so footings can be either simple or stepped.
2. Column footing: These are used to support individual columns.
TYPES OF COULUMN FOOTING
(a) Isolated Footing
(b) Combined Footing
(c) Cantilever Footing or Strap Footing
(d) Raft / Mat Footing
(a) Isolated Footing: It is also known as independent footing because for each column separate footing is
provided. It is generally provided under a column to distribute the point or concentrated load in the form of
uniformly distributed load on the soil below. It may be of brick or stone masonry, R.C.C. etc. This type of
footing is also known as 'pad footing. The shape may be square, rectangular or circular in plan. As per the
10

construction of the pad, they are known as flat and sloped footings. These are commonly used for framed
structures. It can be Simple, Stepped, Sloped

(a) Simple Spread Footing

(b)Stepped Footing

Sloped Footing
(b) Combined Footing: When two columns rest on a single footing, it is called as 'Combined Footing'. They
may be rectangular or trapezoidal in shape.This type of construction is found necessary when an external
column is situated near the boundary line of the plot and it is not possible to project its footing in that
direction. In such case a combined footing is adopted so that the external column footing will not encroach
upon the area outside the boundary line of the building. Sometimes the two columns may be very near to
each other and it may so happen that footings of these columns overlap each other. In that case both the
columns are made to rest on a combined footing. It can be of two types: (i) Rectangular (ii) Trapezoidal
(c) Cantilever Footing or Strap Beam Footing: This is also called as eccentrically loaded footing or Strap
Footing. In this case it may so happen that the extreme column of the building is very close to the boundary
so that the extreme column footing is likely to encroach upon the area outside the boundary line of the plot.
In such a case a strap or beam of sufficient strength is provided at the bottom connecting the boundary or
exterior column and the nearest interior column. The strap or beam thus provided supports the weight of the
exterior column. The interior column rests on its own footing so an eccentric footing is therefore provided
just below the exterior column. The beam jointing the two footings need not touch the soil or rest on the
ground. The cantilever footing is constructed in reinforced cement concrete.

Strap Beam Footing

11

(d) Raft / Mat Footing: In case of made up grounds, soft clay or marshy site or in case of possibility of
differential settlement, the usual spread footing, will not be suitable. Also, if excavations are made for
footings, very little is left to be excavated. In such case, it is wiser on our part to excavate over the entire
area of the building for its foundation. Generally a R.C.C. slab of suitable thickness is laid over the entire
area of the building in the form of raft or mat and is therefore known as raft or mat foundation. It is so
designed that the allowable bearing power of the soil is not exceeded. If necessary beams and columns
construction is carried out to improve the strength and stability of the foundation. The raft is designed as an
inverted R.C.C. roof subjected to the uniform distributed load of soil pressure and supported by walls, beams
and columns.
DEEP FOUNDATION: When a stratum of good bearing capacity is not available at reasonable depth i.e. D
> 4B and where other types of foundations such as grillage or raft foundations are not suitable, then deep
foundation must be adopted to attain a bearing stratum which will be suitable in all respect. They are
generally provided when depth of foundation is more than 5 meters. In addition to the above, there may be
many other conditions which may require deep foundation for scouring stability and durability of the
structure. For example, in bridge construction, the pier must be founded well below the scouring depth, even
though good bearing stratum may be available at shallow depth.
The various types of deep foundations are as follows:
1. Pile Foundation
2. Pier Foundation
1. Pile Foundation: A pile is defined as a shaft of suitable diameter employed to transfer the loads deep into
a soil which may be capable of sustaining the load of the structure. A pile may be short or long. A pile is
considered to be long when its length is more than 30 m. Pile foundation is generally adopted when the
spread foundation, raft or grillage foundations are likely to be unsuitable, very expensive or practically
impossible. In case of compressible soil, soil of made up type, water-logged soil, piles are usually used
advantageously for foundation for any type of construction. Piles are usually used for foundations of
buildings, bridges, piers, docks, etc. In short pile foundation is very helpful to solve the problems of all
difficult foundations.
Based upon the function piles are classified as :
(i) Bearing Piles
(ii) Friction Piles
(iii) Fender Piles
(iv) Anchor Pile
(v) Batter Piles
(iii) Sheet Piles
Bearing Piles: Piles are the poles made of timber, plain concrete, R.C.C. or steel. These piles
are hammered down to rest on hard surface. On top of a number of piles a concrete cap is cast
and over that construction activity of building starts. Thus bearing piles transfer the load to hard
surface directly.
Friction Piles: When hard surface is not met at reasonable depth, the frictional resistance between the
adjoining soil and pile is checked and the pile length is kept sufficient enough to
Transfer the load by friction. Figure 4.9 shows typical pile foundations.

12

2.Pier Foundation: Small piers are generally used for buildings, towers etc. For multistoried or skyscrapers, they may be made massive as much large as 3 m. in diameter and could be sunk to a depth of 30 to
40 m. When the soil met with is boulder, the ordinary pile driving becomes impracticable. In such cases piers
are usually used. Piers are constructed in open excavation or in bore holes as such they do not cause any
disturbance to the adjoining soil. Accordingly they are termed as excavated pier, drilled pier, etc.
3. Cassion Foundation: The word caisson is a French word meaning a box. In civil engineering caisson is
defined as a water-tight structure, made up of wood, steel, R.C.C. constructed for foundations involving
under water construction, i.e. for foundations of piers, abutments of bridges, dock-structures, break-waters,
lamp-houses etc. The caisson remains in the position and subsequently becomes integral part of the structure.
The caissons are classified as:
1. Box-caisson
2. Wells or open caisson
3. Pneumatic caisson.

SUITABILITY OF FOUNDATION UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITIONS

1. For low bearing capacity of ground such as soft clay, murum, black cotton soil or marshy site, wide
spread (strip) foundation, raft or mat foundation or even pile foundation an suitable.
2. If the ground is soft, use spread or inverted arch foundation to distribute the load over larger area.
3. In case of uneven soils or made-up grounds where there is possibility of differential settlement,
provide raft or mat foundation.
4. If the load is concentrated on columns as in case of framed structure with panel walls, use isolated,
independent or pad footing.
5. If columns are placed very close to each other, provide combined or continuous footing.
6. In case the extreme column of the building is very close to the boundary line of the pier use cantilever
or strap footing.
7. If hard stratum is available at great depth where raft, grillage foundations are likely to be unsuitable,
and very expensive, use pile foundation.
8. When a heavy building is to be constructed in soft soil or sandy soil overlaying hard bed at
reasonable depth, use pier foundation.

SUPERSTRUCTURE
The part of the building which is above ground level is known as Superstructure. A part of
superstructure located between the ground level and the floor level is known as the Plinth. Plinth is the
portion of the structure between the surface of the surrounding ground and level of the floor immediately
above the ground.
Types of construction:
1. Load Bearing Structure
2. Framed Structure
1. Load Bearing Structure: In this case the loads of roof and floors are borne by the walls and they finally
transfer the same to the foundation below. These walls are known as load bearing walls and the structure is
therefore known as load bearing walled structure. The walls in the ground floor have to bear the loads of all
the floors above and as such, they should be sufficiently thick on account of which they consume more
useful floor space. Each element of the building participates in transferring the load. The load is distributed
to the area coming is in the zone of 45 or 60. The lateral stability is achieved by floors and roofs
Uses: These types of structures are suitable for residential buildings up to three storey.
2. Framed Structure: To meet out the growing demand for mass housing, due to population explosion, and
the acute shortage of land or the high cost of land, in big cities, multistoried buildings are generally
constructed. If these are built as load bearing walled structures, the walls of very large thickness will have to
be provided. As such they become very heavy and costly. They also occupy large space. Since, now-a-days
space has much value every inch of the space must be utilized carefully. So here load bearing construction
becomes unsuitable and impracticable. In such a case some sort of skeleton or frame is erected consisting of
slabs, beams and columns. All these structural elements are properly. Connected together to form a structure.
Such a structure is known as framed structure.
Uses: The framed structure is widely used for high-rise buildings or sky-scrapers and heavy structures like
factories, work-shops resisting dynamic forces.
13

COMPARISION BETWEEN LAOD BEARING STRUCTURES AND FRAMED STRUCTURES

Sr.
Load bearing structure
Framed structure
No.
Almost all the walls are load
All the walls are partition walls or screen
1.
bearing walls.
walls. None of the wall is load bearing.
Almost all the walls are provided with shallow or All the walls rest on plinth beams and not
2.
deep foundations.
provided with Any foundations
All load bearing walls are taken
Only columns are taken deep into the subsoil
3.
Deep into the subsoil for foundation.
and are provided with footings.
4.
5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Load bearing walls are constructed of bricks or Columns, beams and slabs are
stones.
constructed of R.C.C.
Only exterior walls are of thickness 200 mm
Thickness of load bearing walls
and all interior walls are of thick-ness 100
in any case is not less than 200 mm.
mm or less.
A load bearing wall when once
The walls of framed structure can be shifted
Constructed shall remain in position and should at any place as they are lighter and not load
never be dismantled.
bearing.
There is no such restriction in framed
Too many openings for doors, windows,
structure. The space between two columns
Ventilators, etc. are not permissible.
can be kept fully or partially
open as per planning and requirements .
Plans for different .floors remain same
Planning for each floor is independent and
as every wall on the upper floors must
free from whatever the planning of lower
be a corresponding wall in continuation of the
floor.
wall of lower floor.
Even in the case of soil with poor bearing
It requires soil of good bearing
capacity, piles may be driven until hard
capacity like rocks, sandy soil, gravelly soil, etc. stratum is reached and R.C.C. columns are
constructed over them.
Best suited for multistoried and high rise
Best suited for small residential houses, rural buildings, commercial complexes, public
houses and houses up to three storey.
buildings, etc.

BUILDING MATERIALS
BRICKS:
Brick is a rectangular block of regular shape obtained by moulding a mixture of clay and sand and
generally burnt at high temperature. The earth for good brick should contain clay or Alumina 20 to 30%,
sand or silica 35 to 50%, silt 20 to 35% by weight. The mineral constituents of bricks are alumina
(plasticity), silica (cracking, shrinkage), lime (binding), magnesia (binding) and iron oxide (binding,
strength, colour). The brick clay should have plasticity and good binding property. It should with stand high
temperature without-deformation. It should be free from pebbles, stones, gravel, grit, alkaline salts, lumps of
lime, vegetables and organic matter.

14

Bricks sizes
1. Modular brick or Standard Brick: The bricks confirming to IS 1077-1976 are known as modular
brick. The size of brick is 19 cm x 9 cm x 9 cm. With mortar joint the size becomes 20 cm x 10 cm x
10 cm.
2. Traditional brick or Conventional Brick: These bricks are manufactured traditionally or right from
ancient times. here is a slight variation in the size of the brick from place to place. The common size
is 23 cm x 11.4 cm x 7 cm.
Classes of bricks

Properties & tests on bricks

1. Bricks should be well-burnt, copper coloured.
2. They should be free form crack, fissures, tones etc.
3. Brick should have perfect edges, required shape and standard size 19 x 9 x 9 cm (Modular brick)
(Dimension Tolerance Test).
4. Bricks should be sufficiently hard i.e. when scratched with a nail, no impression be present.
5. Bricks should give clear metallic ringing sound when struck with each other.
6. Bricks should be homogeneous and free from blow holes, cracks, voids, the latter is dangerous as
they slake upon absorption of water, expand in volume and cause the crumble or split.
7. Bricks should not absorb water more than 20% and 22% by weight for 1st and 2nd bricks respectively
when soaked in cold water for 24 hours (Water Absorption Test).
8. Bricks should not break, when struck against another brick or when dropped from a height of 1 m on
the firm ground.
9. Bricks should be sound proof, fire resistant, and weather resistant.
10. Bricks should be free from harmful constituents like soluble salts of calcium ma and potassium
(Efflorescence Test).
11. Bricks should be strong and durable. The crushing strength should be 3.5 N/mm2 (Compressive
Strength Test).
12. Bricks should have 5 to 7 N / mm2 shearing strength.
13. The density of brick should be 1.7 to 1.9 kN / mm2.
Uses of bricks
1. Bricks are used for the construction of walls.
2. Hallow blocks i.e. bricks with cavities are used in the construction of walls, as they are very light so
very useful for high rise buildings.
3. Bricks are also used for the construction of columns, compound walls, chimney and other special
works.
4. Bricks of good quality i.e. 1st class bricks are used for fencing of wall.
15

5. Paving bricks manufactured from clay containing large percentage of iron are used pavements since
they resist abrasion.
6. Fire bricks manufactured from fire clay are used as refractory bricks for lining furnace.
7. Sand-lime bricks are used for decorative work.

Cement:
Cement is an artificial material manufactured by burning a mixture of calcareous material (containing
lime) silicious material (containing silica) argillaceous material (containing aluminia) in proper
proportion at a very high temperature of 1400 to 1450 C to form calcined product known as clinker to
which a small quantity of gypsum (cas04) about 2 % to 3 % is added to retard the action of flash setting
and pulverized into a very fine powder in a ball mill known as cement. There are two processes known as
"wet" and "dry" processes depending upon whether the mixing and grinding of raw materials is done in
wet or dry conditions. With a little change in the above process there is a semi-dry process also where the
raw materials are ground dry and then mixed with about 10 to 14 per cent of water and then burnt to
clinkering temperature. This cement, on setting appears like a variety of sand stone found in Portland in
England, and hence, the name Portland cement. Cement is mostly supplied in bags. Each bag of cement
contains 35 litres or 0.035 cubic metre of cement. Cement, when mixed with water, a chemical action
takes place called hydration of cement as a result, the cement paste first sets and finally hardens to a solid
mass. When mixed with water and sand it forms, mortar. When mixed with sand, crushed rock and water,
it forms Plain cement concrete (P.C.C.) and with addition of steel, it becomes reinforced cement concrete
(R.C.C.). Being a very good binding material, it is considered as one of the most important building
materials and largely employed in all kinds.
Grades of cement
Grade refers to the compressive strength of cement at 28 days, when tested as per IS: 4031-1988.
(a) 33 Grade: It has compressive strength not less than 33 N / mm2.
(b) 43 Grade: It has compressive strength not less than 43 N / mm2.
(c) 53 Grade: It has compressive strength not less than 53 N / mm2.
Test on cement
1. The colour should be grey greenish and it should be uniform.
2. When touched, cement should feel uniform, and cool. It should be free from lumps.
3. Cement, when thrown into a bucket of water in small quantity, the particles should float for some
time before they sink.
4. The weight of residue on Sieve No.9 should be less than 10% and the specific surface of cement
should be more than 2250 mm2/ gm. as per Fineness Test (Degree of grinding of cement). It increases
the quality of cement.
5. The expansion of cement should not be more than 10 mm as per Soundness Test (Le Chateliar
method)
Uses of cement
1. Cement slurry is used for filling cracks in concrete structures.
2. Cement mortar is used for masonry work, plastering and pointing.
3. Cement concrete is used for the construction of various structures like buildings, bridges, water tanks,
tunnels, docks, harbors, bridges etc.
4. Cement is used to manufacture lamp posts, telephone posts, railway sleepers, piles etc.
5. For manufacturing cement pipes, garden seats, dust bins, flower pots etc. cement is commonly used.
6. It is useful for the construction of roads, footpaths, courts for various sports etc.
7. Coloured cement is used for interior and exterior decorative works.
Types of cement
By changing properties and adding certain ingredients it is possible to obtain which can exhibit different
qualities for the use under different conditions.
1. Ordinary Portland Cement
2. Quick setting Cement
3. Rapid hardening Cement
4. Low heat Cement
5. Blast furnace slag Cement
6. Port land Pozzolana Cement
7. Sulphate resisting Cement
8. High alumina Cement
9. Air entrained Cement
16

10. Expansive Cement

11. White Cement
12. Coloured Cement
1. Ordinary portland cement
It is one of the most important building material admirably suited for use in general concrete
construction, where there is no exposure to sulphate in the soil or in ground water. It is used as a binding
material with sand and crushed rock. When mixed with sand and water it forms cement mortar which is used
for stone an wall construction, jointing and plastering. When mixed with sand, crushed rock and forms
cement concrete and with steel it forms reinforced cement concrete.This cement is manufactured on a large
scale
USES:
It is used in all construction work such as foundation, slabs, beams, columns, curtain walls, lintel
tanks, pipes, posts.
For important and heavy structures such as dams, bridges, roads, culverts etc.
2. Quick setting cement
This type of cement has the quick setting property known as quick setting cement. This cement starts
setting within five minutes on adding of water. This property is achieved by reducing the percentage of
gypsum and adding certain amount of sulphate during grinding process of manufacture of cement.
USES:
It is used where work is to be completed in very short time such as concreting in a static or running water.
3. Rapid hardening cement
This type of cement contains high percentage of lime than ordinary cement. It is burnt at very high
temperature and fine grinding is done, which it to attain greater strength at early ages ; that is why it is
known as high-early cement or rapid hardening cement.
USES:
This cement is used in construction work when early strength is necessary for early removal of formwork for reuse.
To open the road to traffic with minimum delay, winter concreting, urgent repair works, wall sealing
etc
4. Low heat cement
This type of cement is manufactured by reducing the percentage of lime and alumina. The heat of
hydration generated in this cement is very low. The high heat of hydration generated in mass concrete
structures is dangerous because it may cause cracks due to development of internal stresses during setting.
Low heat cement also has a better inherent resistance to chemical deterioration than ordinary portland
cement.
USES:
Low heat cement which generates low heat of hydration is very suitable for mass concrete structures such
as retaining walls, dams, and bridges etc.
5. Blast furnace slag cement
It is manufactured by adding 25% to 60% blast furnace lag to the clinker during the manufacture of
Portland cement. The blending by no means detracts from any desired property of cement. Indeed, it confers
upon it some additional advantages.
USES:
In view of its low heat evolution, it can be used in mass concrete structures such as retaining walls,
dams, bridge abutments, foundation, sea-water construction, and such works that are subjected to sulphate
and acidic attack.
6. Portland pozzolana cement
This is the most ancient type of manufactured cement. It was first made from naturally occurring
volcanic ash obtained from Mount Vesuvius in the district of Pozzuoli in Italy and hence, the name. The ash
contains silicates of calcium, aluminum, iron etc. An intimate mixture of volcanic ash and lime is heated at a
high temperature to give Pozzolana cement.
USES :
Portland Pozzolana has a low heat evolution and is therefore widely used for the construction of large dams
(Bhakra dam), marine structures, sewage works etc.
7. Sulphate resisting cement
This type of cement is manufactured by reducing the percentage of tricalcium aluminates below 6%. It
resists the action of acids, alkalies, fumes, gases and sea water.
USES :
17

 It is used for the construction of tanks, pipe lines, sewers etc. at chemical plants.
It is also used for the construction of docks, harbours, to protect them from the action of sea water.
8. High alumina cement
This type of cement is manufactured by mixing aluminum ore, bauxite and lime. It is a type of rapid
hardening cement. Its initial setting time is 3 5 hours and final setting time is 5 hours. Hence, it used in
situation, where more time is required for mixing and placing concrete. Due to its high early strength, the
speed of construction is also increased.
USES :
It is useful for road-works and for early removal of form works for reuse. It is also used in concrete
works where it has to resist frost, high temperature, acids, alkalies
9. Air- entrained cement
The cement is made by mixing a small amount of air entraining agent like alkali salts of wood resins. If
resists frost action.
USES :
The primary purpose of air entrainment cements to increase the durability of the hardened concrete,
especially in climates subject to freeze-thaw
The secondary purpose is to increase workability of the concrete while in a plastic state.
10. Expansive cement
This cement expands as it sets. This property is achieved by adding expanding medium like sulpho
aluminates and a stabilizing agent to ordinary cement.
USES :
This is used for filling the cracks in concrete structures
11. White cement
It is ordinary Portland cement white in colour. It is manufactured from raw materials which are entirely
free from iron-oxide. In the manufacture of this cement, the oil fuel is used instead of coal for burning.
USES :
It is useful for works such as external renderings of buildings, facing slabs, terrazzo tiles and floorings,
bath-rooms, water closets, garden paths, ornamental concrete products, etc. In swimming pools white cement
is used to replace glazed tiles. It is used for fixing marbles and glazed tiles.
12. Coloured cement
The cements of desired colours are produced by intimately mixing pigments with ordinary cement. The
chlorium oxide gives green colour. Cobalt produce blue colour. Iron oxide with different proportion produce
brown, red or yellow colour. Addition of manganese dioxide gives black or brown coloured cement.
USES :
The are used for interior and exterior decorative works.
These cements are used for giving finishing touches to floors, walls, window sills, roofs etc.

STONES:
Stone is a natural occurring material of construction and is obtained from rocks by 'quarrying' i.e. by
excavating, heating, wedging and blasting. Therefore they are irregular in shape and size. Stones are easily,
readily and cheaply available from rocky and hilly areas and are best suited for building construction.
DRESSED & UNDRESSED STONES:
DRESSED STONES: The sharp corners of the stones are removed and made smooth if required to make
them suitable for construction. This process is known as "dressing of stones". It is commonly done by means
of chisels and hammers. For large work they are dressed by machine. It should be easy to dress so that the
cost of dressing is reduced. However the care should be taken so that, this is not be at the cost of the required
strength and the durability.
APPLICATION OF STONES IN CONSTRUCTION
Stones are used in the following civil engineering constructions:
1. Stone masonry is used for the construction of foundations, walls, columns and arches.
2. Stone slabs are used as damp proof courses, lintels and even as roofing materials.
3. Stones with good appearance are used for the face works of buildings. Polished marbles and granite
are commonly used for face works.
4. Stones are used for paving of roads, footpaths and open spaces round the buildings.
5. Stones are also used in the constructions of piers and abutments of bridges, dams and retaining
walls.
18

6. Crushed stones with graved are used to provide base coarse for roads. When mixed with tar they
form finishing coat.
7. It is the prime material used in the construction of pavements of cement concrete, bituminous
concrete, and water bound macadam roads.
8. Broken stones are used for road work and for laying railway tracks as stone ballast.
9. Broken stones are used for the preparation of cement concrete as coarse aggregates. The concrete is
used for the construction of foundations, columns, lintels, beams, floors etc.
10. Crushed stones are used for making artificial stones and building blocks
11. Crushed stone is used as alternative substitute for artificial sand.
12. Lime stones are used in the manufacture of lime, cement and other chemical processes.

AGGREGATES:
Sand and stone chips are collectively known as aggregates.
Types of aggregates:
Aggregates are classified as
1. Fine aggregates
2. Coarse aggregates

1. Fine aggregates
The material which passes through I.S. Sieve of size 4.75 mm and retained on I.S. Sieve No. 5 (.05 mm) is
considered as Fine aggregate
e.g. Natural sand, surkhi etc.
The Fineness Modulus should be between 2 to 3.5 (an empirical factor determined by finding the cumulative
percentage of material retained on the set of I.S. Sieves and then dividing the sum by 100 (Fineness Modulus
Test).

2. Coarse aggregates
The material which passes through an 80 mm sieve and retained on 4.75 mm sieve is considered as Coarse
aggregate. E.g. Pebbles, gravel, crushed rock etc. If the size of aggregate is 4.75 to 30 mm it is called fine
gravel. If 30 to 80 mm it is called coarse gravel. The Fineness Modulus should be between 6 to 8.5.

3. Light weight aggregates

A lightweight inert material, such as foamed slag, vermiculite, clinker, and perlite, used in unreinforced
concrete for making structures of low weight and high insulation are termed as Light weight
aggregates. Lightweight aggregates can be processed natural materials (for example expanded clay or
expanded shale), processed by-products (for example foamed slag or sintered pulverized fuel ash) or
unprocessed materials -natural (for example pumice).
Uses of light weight aggregates:
1. It has many and varied applications including multistory building frames and floors, bridges, offshore
oil platforms, and prestressed or precast elements of all types.
2. Light weight aggregates can be used both for insulation purposes and to reduce settlement and
improve stability of fills on soft subsoil.

USES OF AGGREGATES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

They are used to make concrete aggregates.

Aggregates can be used as a road base and coverings and for road stabilization,.
To form asphaltic concrete aggregates and other bituminous mixtures.
Aggregates can be used as construction fill.
They are useful in the manufacture of concrete products such as blocks, bricks, pipes, etc.,
They serve as railroad ballast.
Aggregates are used in construction to provide drainage, fill voids, protect pipes, and to provide hard
surfaces.
8. They are also used in water filtration and sewage treatment processes. Water will percolate through a
trench filled with aggregate more quickly than it will through the surrounding soil, thus enabling an
area to be drained of surface water.
9. This is frequently used alongside roads in order to disperse water collected from the asphalt
surfacing.

19

REINFORCING STEEL:
Types of steel:
Steel is an alloy of ferrous metal with 0.25 to 1.5 percent of carbon. Higher the carbon content, harder is the
steel. Steel is an intermediate form between cast iron and wrought iron. Steel bars of circular cross sections
are mainly used as reinforcement to strengthen concrete structures.
There are three types of reinforcing steel:
1. Mild steel
2. High Yield Strength Deformed bars (HYSD)/TOR steel
3. High tensile steel.
1. MILD STEEL
It contains carbon up to 0.23 to 0.25%.
Higher value is permitted for bars of 20 mm and above diameter.
It is available in diameters of 6, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25 and 32 mm.
Its yield strength is 250 N/mm2 and youngs modulus 2 105 N/mm2.
USES OF MILD STEEL
Mild steel is used as distribution steel in R.C.C members. Mild steel is used as rolled structural
sections like I-section, T-section, channel section, angle iron, plates; round and square rods in
construction work.
Plain and corrugated sheets of mild steel are used as roof coverings, partitions.
Mild steel is also used in the manufacture of various tools and equipments, machine parts, towers
and industrial buildings etc.
It is used as window bars, for grills and for making steel gates.
It is used for miscellaneous metallic items like springs nuts, bolts, nails, rivets, wire ropes, etc.
It is used for tanks, pipes, boiler plates, tubes, castings, forging, stamping and ships.
It is used for balustrades of stairs, grills, doors and windows.
It is used for water supply and sanitary fittings.
It is used for pile sections, rails etc.
2. HYSD BARS OR TOR STEEL
These bars are provided with ribs deformation on surface so that bond between concrete and steel
improves.
These bars are available in diameters 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 22,25, 28 and 32 mm.
USES OF HYSD BARS OR TOR STEEL
Nowadays these bars are replacing mild steel bars as reinforcement since their strength in tension and
bond is higher.
Tor steel is used as main steel in R.C.C members.
In the fabrication, of steel tank, steel pipes.
In the fabrication of structural steel in trusses, stanchions, beams in the form of various sections.
3. HIGH TENSILE STEEL
High tensile steel bars are made with 0.8 % carbon and 0.6 % manganese apart from small percentages of
silicon, sulphur and phosphorous. The process of making these wires involve cold drawing and
tempering. hey are usually available in 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 mm diameters. They may be bundled with number
of them to form a strand. These bars are having tensile strength as high as 1400 N/mm2 to 1900 N/mm2.
The youngs modulus of steels is also same as that of mild steel.
USES HIGH TENSILE STEEL
High tensile bars are used as reinforcement in prestressed concrete.
4. TMT Thermo Mechanically Treated steel
It is a new-generation-high-strength steel having superior properties such as weld ability, strength, ductility
and bend ability meeting highest quality standards at international level
USES OF TMT
Concrete re-enforcement structures
Infrastructure applications like Dams, Bridges, Flyovers, Roads, Tunnels etc.
Commercial applications like skyscrapers, malls, complexes, factories etc.
Residential projects of any size.
Use in coastal and humid areas due to its corrosion resistance property
Earthquake prone areas due to superior strength
Construction of Industrial structures, Concrete roads, Underground structures
20

STRUCTURAL STEEL:

Structural steel is steel construction material, a profile, formed with a specific shape or cross
section and certain standards of chemical composition and mechanical properties.
Variety of heavy steel shapes (such as the H-beams, I-beams, and T-beams) used
as load bearing members of a structural frame are collectively called Structural Steel.
Steel is very ductile and has elastic properties. Carbon plays an important role which increases its
strength and reduces ductility to some extent. The ductility is the required property of the structural
steel.
Mild steel having carbon content of 0.1 to 0.25% is used for all structural works.
Steel is manufactured in steel mills and is available only in standard shapes and sizes.
These standard sections are made by rolling, hence, they are called 'Rolled Steel Sections', which are
usually known by their shapes seen in cross-section and are readily available in market
TYPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
1. Steel Bars
2. Plates
3. Flats
4. Standard Sections
1. STEEL BARS
Bars are the common form used in building construction. Bars may be round or square in cross sections.
(i) Round Bars

Round bars are available in lengths of 10 to 12 m.

The diameter varies from 6 to 32 mm.

(ii) Square Section Bars
Square section of 5 to 32 mm is most common.
(iii) Tor Steel Bars or Deformed Bars
Certain special type of bars having slight projections or helical ribs on their surface.
The diameter varies from 8 to32 mm.
USES OF STEEL BARS
The steel bars are also used in reinforced brick work construction.
Square section bars are used as railing in buildings for grill work and gates.
Tor Steel or Deformed Bars which are widely used as reinforcement in all type of R.C.C.
construction.
2. PLATES
The plates are used as webs and flanges for beams, columns, and column bases.
They have a maximum area of 30 m2 and thickness varies from 5 to 28 mm.
Plates thinner than 5 mm are known as Sheets.
They are either plain or corrugated.
Corrugations increase the strength of plain sheets.
USES
These are used as roof coverings, Gusset Plates etc
3. FLATS
These are similarly rolled as plates but are larger and have shorter width. The thickness varies from 3 to 80
mm and width from 18 to 500 mm.
USES
These are used in railings, grill work and built-up sections.
4. STANDARDS SECTIONS
(i) Angle Sections: Angle sections may be of
(a) Equal legs
(b) Unequal legs
USES
They are used in bridges, trusses and general structural Steel work.
(ii) Channel Sections: They are in the form of C shape.
USES
These are used for columns, trusses, roof purlins, composite beams and girders.
(iii) I-Sections: They are also called Rolled Steel Joist (R.SJ.) or girders.
USES
They are used for columns, beams, in buildings. They are also used as bridge girders.
21

(iv) T-Sections: They are widely used for steel roof trusses and to form built up sections.
(v) H-Sections: These are used for columns.
(vi) Tubular Sections: These are used for columns, trusses and pipes

STRUCTURAL GLAZING
Structural glazing is a system of bonding glass to a buildings structural framing members utilizing a high
strength, high performance silicone sealant specifically
designed and tested for structural glazing
applications. In structural glazing applications, dynamic wind loads are transferred from the glass, by the
structural silicone sealant, to the perimeter structural support.
The net results of this glazing technique are:

Four-sided systems which yield an unobstructed glass surface

Two-sided systems, where horizontal or vertical accents can be achieved.

FOUR-SIDED SYSTEMS
Four-sided structural glazing impresses by monolithic frameless appearance.
All four sides of the plane element are bonded to an adapter frame with silicone adhesive sealants.
These prefabricated glass modules are subsequently attached to the structure.
The joints between are either wet-sealed with compatible weather sealant or dry- sealed with
preformed gaskets.
TWO-SIDED SYSTEMS
In the two-sided structural glazing system, only two mutually opposite glass or panel edges are
bonded (horizontally or vertically) to a frame with Sikasil SG silicone adhesive.
The two other mutually opposite sides are fixed mechanically like capped curtain wall systems.
Due to mechanical fixation this system is saver.
SCOPE
Allows for broader architectural design flexibility
Increases the thermal efficiency of buildings, because the exterior exposure of metal framing is
Either reduced or eliminated.
Reduces or eliminates water and air infiltration
Reduces the potential for thermal breakage of glass and unnecessary metal can further reduce
Building costs. The technology promotes optimum heat and Sound insulation.

CONCRETE TYPES:
1. Plain Cement Concrete (PCC)
2. Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC)
3. Prestressed Concrete
4. Precast Concrete
5. Ready Mix Concrete.
1. Plain Cement Concrete (PCC):
It is a mixture of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water. The proportion of these ingredients
depends upon the grade of mix required for meeting the requirements of a particular job. The grades of
P.C.C. are generally designated as M15, M20, M25 etc. Where M stand for mix and the number stands for
compressive strength of that mix after 28 days expressed in N/mm2
The proportion ingredients for various mixes can be decided by using nominal mixes. For example a mix of
1:2:4 i.e. 1 part of cement, 2 parts of fine aggregate and 4 parts of coarse aggregate along with water in
proportion to water-cement ratio makes a concrete of grade M15. The concrete is manufactured either by
hand mixing or machine mixing using volume batching or weight batching techniques for measuring the
22

quantities of the ingredients. Plain cement concrete has very less tensile strength and therefore it is not used
for flexural members.
2. Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC):
As P.C.C has a little usable tensile strength (l/10th of strength in compression) it is reinforced with a
tensile material usually steel. Due to bonding between steel and concrete stresses are transferred from one
material to another thus concrete caters for compressive stresses and steel for tensile stresses. Recently use of
M15 concrete for any type of R.C.C. work is prohibited by Indian standards. The minimum grade of concrete
to be used is M20. The concrete manufactured on site is termed as 'in-situ- concrete'.
Uses of PCC and RCC
PCC: Footing, Mass Concrete, Compound Walls, Concrete Flooring, Piers, Abutments, etc.
RCC : Beams, Columns, Slabs, Stairs, Lintels, Foundations
3. Prestressed Concrete :
This is a reinforced concrete in which concrete is subjected to compressive stresses, before the external
loads are applied, by inducing tensile stresses in the reinforcement to counteract tensile stresses caused in the
concrete by external loads. If the tensile reinforcement is subjected to tensile stresses before the external
loads are applied compressive stresses are induced in the concrete of the beam which absorbs or counteracts
the tensile stresses caused by external loads in concrete. Thus concrete can therefore be used effectively in
resisting tensile stresses also. Steel cables of high tensile strength are used as reinforcements along with rich
concrete mix (preferably above M30).
The prestressed concrete members are generally precast. The prestressing is done either by pretensioning or post tensioning. In pre-tensioning the cables are prestressed in place in the form, before
concrete is placed. In post tensioning prestressing force is applied to already placed cables after the concrete
has completely set and attained the desired strength. The prestressing force is applied using hydraulic jacks.
The prestressing technique has eliminated the 'weakness of concrete in tension resulting into crack free
members.
Uses
Girders for bridges (Balgandharv bridge, Harris bridge Pune)
Beams for large spans (Nehru memorial hall, Pune)
Railway slippers
Electric poles
4. Precast Concrete:
The term precast concrete is applied to individual concrete members of various which are cast in separate
forms before they are placed in the structure. Precast members are cast either on building sites or in casting
yards located at distance or in precast concrete factories. Precast members are then transported to the site and
then placed in position by cranes other devices if they are heavy like beam or slab units.
Uses
For casting various building elements such as beams, columns, slabs, water tank.
For manufacture of compound poles, electricity poles, ornamental structures.
Fabrication of RC.C. pipes, bridge girders, bridge piers, concrete piles.
5. Ready Mix Concrete:
Concrete supplied by ready mix concrete plants under controlled conditions like electronic weightment,
controlled materials and proper mixture proportioning.
Uses:
The first and foremost advantage is that, the concrete is produced exactly as per the mix design.
The batching is very precise weight batching and hence it is very exact and sticks very closely to the
actual mix design.
Modern RMC plants are entirely computerized and automated and this gives consistent quality,
flexibility, immediate availability of any design mix you want to order, and high grade of quality
control.
Advantages of RMC:
Uniform assured quality of concrete.
Removes chances of mishandling and adulteration.
Faster construction speed.
Storage needs at construction sites are eliminated.
Reduction in the wastage of materials.
Documentation of mix design.

23

UNIT II

SURVEYING
Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative positions of points above, on, or beneath
the earths surface and locating the points in the field. It is the process of measuring horizontal distances,
vertical distances and included angles to determine the location of points on, above or below the earth
surfaces. The term surveying is the representation of surface features in a horizontal plane. The process of
determining the relative heights in the vertical plane is referred as Leveling. The data obtained by surveying
are used to prepare the plan or map showing the ground features. For setting out of any engineering work
like buildings, roads, railway tracks, bridges and dams involves surveying.
Principles of Surveying:
Principle 1: To Work from whole to part
A number of control points are fixed in the area concerned by adopting very accurate and precise
methods. The lines joining these control points will be control lines. Other measurements are made to locate
points inside these control lines. Thus, main triangles and traverses are formed first. The main triangles and
traverses are divided into smaller ones by using less rigorous methods. By doing so, accumulation of errors is
avoided and any local error can be easily identified. If survey work is started from a part (smaller triangle or
traverse) and preceded to whole there are chances of errors getting multiplied at every stage. Hence any
survey work should be from whole to part and not from part to whole

Principle 2: To locate new station by at least two independent measurements New points should be fixed by
at least two independent measurements
As per the Principle 2, the location of a new point involves one of the following.
1. Measurement of two distances.
2. Measurement of two angles
3. Measurement one angle and one distance

Fig 1: It shows the method of locating R with reference to known length PQ by using the known distances of
PR (l1) and QR (l2)
Fig 2: It shows the method of locating R with reference to the length PQ by using the known angles QPR (1)
and PQR (2)
Fig 3: It shows the method of locating R with reference to known length PQ by using the known distance of
PR (l1) and known angle QPR (1)

24

PLAN:
Scale - The ratio between the distances of two points on the map, plan or photograph and the actual distance
between the same two points on the ground.
Plan: Graphical representation of a building structure like residential, commercial, public, bridge, dam etc. to
a smaller scale such as 1 : 20, 1 : 50, 1 : 100 etc.
MAPS:
A selective, symbolized and generalized representation of the whole or part of the earth at a reduced scale.
Graphical representation of a very bigger land like land of city, land of nation to a greater scale such as 1 :
1000, 1 : 5000, 1 : 10000 etc. is called as map. A map is a graphic form, normally to scale of spatial
abstraction of features on, or in relation to, the surface of the earth. For example: Map of Maharashtra, map
of India, map of city like Pune, Nagpur.
TYPES OF MAPS
1. Surveying Maps
2. Thematic Maps
1. Surveying Maps: Following are the various types of surveying maps:
a. Topographic maps
b. Engineering maps
c. Geographic maps
d. Cadastral maps
a. Topographic maps: It shows natural and artificial features on the surface of the earth. Surveying done for
this purpose is called topographic surveying.
b. Engineering maps: This maps shows the details of engineering projects e.g. roads, dams, bridge.
Surveying done for this purpose is called engineering surveying.
c. Geographic maps: These are about the political boundaries of the country and used by general public.
Surveying done for this purpose are undertaken by state agency. Map, representation of geographic area,
usually a portion of the earth surface, drawn or printed on a flat surface. In most instances a map is a
diagrammatic rather than a pictorial representation of terrain, it usually contains a number of generally
accepted symbols., which indicate the various natural, artificial or cultural, cultural, features of the area, it
covers.
d.cadastral maps: These shows ownership rights of individual or communities. Surveying done for this
purpose is called cadastral surveying.
2. Thematic Maps or Special Maps:
There are the special maps used for special purposes. A tool to communicate geographical concept such as
distribution of population densities, climate, movement of goods, land use etc. is called as Thematic Maps.
Introduction to various survey instruments:
Revolutionary changes have taken place in last few years in surveying instruments that are used for
measuring level differences, distances and angles. This has become possible because of introduction of
electronics in these measurements. With rapid advancements in the technology and availability of cheaper
and innovative electronic components, these instruments have become affordable and easy to use. This
module outlines developments in the technology for various survey measurements such as digital levels,
electronic distance measuring instruments, electronic theodolites, and total stations.
Various Instruments are as follows:
1. EDM
2. Lasers
3. Total Station
25

4. Digital planimeter
1. Electronic distance measuring instruments (EDM)
EDMl can be manufactured for use with theodolites (both digital and optical) or as an independent unit.
These can be mounted on standard units or theodolites or can also be tribrach mounted.
The advantage is mainly functional Precise linear measurement can now be used for longer base lines and
field operations can be simplified and trilateration can replace or augment triangulation.
2. Lasers:
Laser is an acronym for "light amplification by the stimulated emission of radiation". Device that stimulates
atoms or molecules to emit light at particular wavelengths and amplifies that light, typically producing a very
narrow beam of radiation. The emission generally covers an extremely limited range of visible, infrared, or
ultraviolet wavelengths.
Uses:
1. These laser tools are used for leveling, plumbing, machine control, excavation work, landscaping,
swimming pool construction, concrete leveling, home building, and many various site tasks.
2. Crystals, glasses, semiconductors, gases, liquids, beams of high-energy electrons, etc. generate laser
beams.
3. Eye surgery
4. Machining of electronic and medical parts
5. Fluorescence measurements
6. Mastering of CDs and DVDs
7. Biomedical instruments, high-speed printers
8. Next-generation optical disc players
9. Light shows
10. DVD players, bar-code scanners, laser pointers
11. Airborne weapons
12. Industrial cutting and drilling, surgery
Application:
Align and plumb your walls
Leveling floors
Attach your laser to a wall or ceiling mount for easy drop ceiling
installation
Easily check door or window heights
Installing drop ceilings
Align shelves, cabinets
Use a tripod for easy installation and alignment of cabinets, chair rails, etc.
Any type of basic surveys
Lasers easily check and level posts and beams on decks, fences and porches
Site layout
Easily check land elevations
Lasers with a slope capability can set grade for proper drainage and irrigation.
3. Total Station
A Total Station is one such instrument used in modern surveying. It is a combination of an electronic
theodolite, an electronic distance meter (EDM) and a dedicated software running on an external computer.
Some Total Stations also have a GPS interface which combines these two technologies to make use of the
advantages of both and reduce the consequences of each technology's disadvantages. These instruments can
record horizontal and vertical angles together with slope distance and can be considered as combined EDM
plus electronic theodolite
Application:
Point location
Slope reduction
Missing line measurement (MLM)
26

Resection
Offset measurements
Layout or setting out operation
Area computation

4. Digital planimeter
An electronic digital planimeter is used now-a-days to obtain the areas of irregular figures directly,
accurately as well as quickly, which saves lot of time and labor. There are different types of digital
planimeters such as X-PLAN 360, PLANIX 5000.

INTRODUCTION TO GIS, GPS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS:

Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
The station points used in surveying are to be identified before executing any project: For this purpose,
surveyors used permanent objects as reference points and made reference sketches of station points.
Navigators used sun and stars as references. Sometimes when the project is taken up the so called parmanent
object (like building corner) may not exist when the execution of project work is taken up. For navigations
weather conditions may obstruct the observations. Now a days this problem is overcome by using an
instrument called Global Positioning System (GPS). This was developed by United States defence
department and was called as Navigational System with Time and Ranging Global Positioning System
(NAVSTAR) or which is now simply known as GPS. There are 24 geostationary satellites positioned around
the earth by US air force. These satellites are used as reference points to locate any point on the earth. These
satellites are at an altitude of 20200 km above the earth. The 24 satellites are positioned such that from any
point on the earth a minimum of 4 satellites are visible. A user needs only GPS receiver. The receiver
measures the travel time of the signals from satellites and calculate position (latitude and longitude) and the
elevation altitude of the station with reference to a selected datum. The advantages of using GPS are:
1. Can be used in day as well as in night.
2. Intervisibility of the two stations on the earth is not a requirement.
3. Time required to establish the position of a point is much less.
4. Man power required is less.
5. Accuracy is high. Most expensive GPS provide accuracies within 10 mm.
Uses of GPS
GPS is very useful in
1. Marine navigation
2. Airborne aviation
3. Surveying of land.
4. Sports such as yatching, hiking.
5. The sophistication of GPS has improved so much that drivers of automobiles can get directions
to their destinations easily on the screen.

27

Geographical information system (GIS):

Maps are used as the languages of simple geography. Importance of map making is recognised long
ago. Surveyors went round the land and prepared maps. Data required for locating and calculating extent of a
place/region is called spatial data. Physical properties and human activities related to a place/region are
stored in the form of tables, charts and texts. This information is called attribute data. Referring to
maps/plans and then to attribute data stored in hard copies like books is time consuming updating and
managing the data is difficult. This problem is overcome by combining spatial data and attribute data of the
location by appropriate data base management in computers. The location information (spatial data) is
digitized from available maps and stored in computers. For this data structure used is either raster data or
vector
data format. In raster data structures pickcells are associated with the spatial information, while in vector
data structure coordinates are associated with each region and sub-regions. Over the spatial data attribute
data is overlayed and stored. Once this geographical information system is developed, the user can access the
attribute data of any place by clicking over the spatial data of that place. The user can utilise the information
for further analysis, planning or for the management. For example, if land records of a village are developed
as GIS data, the user can click the state map to pick up the district map and then access taluka map. Then he
will access it to pick up the village map. Then land record of that village can be obtained and property map
of any owner can be checked and printed. All this can be achieved in a very short time from any convenient
place.
Remote sensing and GIS go hand in hand, since lot of data for GIS is from remote sensing.
Remote sensing needs GIS for data analysis. Some of the areas of GIS application are:
1. Drainage systems
2. Streams and river basins management
3. Lakes
4. Canals
5. Roads
6. Railways
7. Land records
8. Layout of residential areas
9. Location of market, industrial, cultural and other utilities
10. Land use of different crops etc.
The above information helps in planning infrastructural development activities such as planning
Roads, rail routes, dams, canals, tunnels, etc. It helps in taking steps to check hazards of soil erosion and
environmental pollution. Monitoring of crop pattern and condition helps in taking necessary action to the
challenges in future.

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
Transportation means the movements of the people and materials from one place to another. Transportation
engineering is a branch of civil engineering which deals with the study, design and construction of roads,
railways, bridges, tunnels, waterways, seaways and air-ways.
ROLE OF TRANSPORTATION IN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Economic Development
Social Development
Cultural Development
Political Development
A good system of transportation is very essential for the rapid economic, industrial and cultural growth of
a country.
As blood transportation through arteries of the body is essential for the human welfare, so also a similar
good system of transportation is essential for national welfare.
For rapid growth of a country, good net work of communication is essential. It is the back-bone of
overall progress of a country.
To raise the production of raw materials, fuels and machineries etc. by providing market to it. Widens the
size of the market.
Facilitates establishment of industries in backward areas. Solves the problem of unemployment in rural
areas
28

Protect the people from the difficulties of war, natural calamities and other problems.
Establish relationship among different parts of the people and strengthens the feeling of unity and
brotherhood.
Utilization of natural resources lying unutilized in different hills, mountains, forests and mines.Supply of
Raw materials, fuel and machineries to different industries.

Modes of transport
1. Road ways
2. Railways
3. Air ways
4. Water ways
5. Other means of Transport
1. Road ways
Roadways provide a channel for movement of people and goods between various centres of the city.
Roads can be used by all types of vehicles such as bullock carts, carriages, rickshaws, cycles, scooters,
jeeps, cars, buses, lorries etc.There is complete freedom to road users to transfer the vehicle from one
place to another. But this flexibility in particular in railways is not possible. Roads can lead to any remote
places and farm products can be brought to market. They help in the growth of trade and other economic
activities of the country. In emergencies such as accidents, the injured person can be rushed to the
hospital by way of roads only. During floods and draughts, roads are found to be a great boon in
transferring the basic commodities efficiently. They are equally useful during movements of the defense
force. They help to maintain law and order within the country. In short, roadways are essential for wellbeing of the nation. Roads are the dominant mode of transportation in India today. They carry almost 90
percent of the countrys passenger traffic and 65 percent of its freight. The density of Indias highway
network is about 0.66 km of highway per square kilometer of land which is similar to that of the United
States (0.65) and much greater than China's (0.16) or Brazil's (0.20). However, most highways in India
are narrow and congested with poor surface quality, and 40 percent of Indias villages do not have access
to all-weather roads. Road network of India is the largest road networks (3.314 million kilometers ) in the
world.
2. RAILWAYS
It is a convenient mode of transport for travelling long distances.
They carry heavy and bulky materials.
They are called permanent ways since the steel rails are laid permanently along the route on which
the train runs.
It is relatively faster than road transport.
It is suitable for carrying heavy goods in large quantities over long distances.
Its operation is less affected by adverse weathers conditions like rain, floods, fog, etc.
Now-a-days underground railways also called tubeways are coming into practice. Metro Rail is again
a faster mode of transport.
It is one of the largest railways under single management.
It carries some 17 million passengers and 2 million tons of freight a day and is one of the worlds
largest employer.
The railways play a leading role in carrying passengers and cargo across India's vast territory.
The trains were introduced by the British in 1853.
The Indian railways improved a lot from then on to become the one of the longest railway networks
in the world.
There are 16 railway zones in India.
There are almost 8000 railway stations in the country.
The total route length of the railway network is 64,061 km (39,806 mi).
About 46% of the railway route is electrified.
The Indian railways use 4 gauges: broad gauge, standard gauge, meter gauge, narrow gauge.
29

3. AIRWAYS
These include aeroplanes, helicopters, air crafts, jet planes etc. It is the fastest method of travel.
They are useful for quick transport of perishable foods and valuable goods.
They are very useful during war times in transportation of armies and weapons and to supply of
essential commodities during famine, floods and draughts.
They require constructions of run-ways, control tower, terminal buildings, hangars etc. Hence, the
cost of construction and maintenance is high.
The hot air balloons are also used for air-travels, but are suitable for short distances.
It is the fastest mode of transport.
It is very useful in transporting goods and passengers to the area, which are not accessible by any
other means.
It is the most convenient mode of transport during natural calamities.
It provides vital support to the national security and defence
4.

WATERWAYS
The transport on water is by boats and steamers.
These are the cheapest form of transport and include navigation on rivers, lakes etc.
The transportation is very slow and therefore, consumes more time.
It is a relatively economical mode of transport for bulky and heavy goods.
It is a safe mode of transport with respect to occurrence of accidents.
The cost of maintaining and constructing routes is very low most of them are naturally made.
It promotes international trade.

SEAWAYS: They transport the goods through seas and oceans from one harbour to other. The
transportation is by ships, boats and steamers. They consume more time. They also carry large volume of
bulky goods. They require constructions of ports, docks, harbours, breakwaters, light-houses etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF HIGHWAYS
Expressways
National Highways
State Highways
Major District Roads
Other District Roads
Village Roads
EXPRESSWAYS:
A new category - Express Highways is suggested in the Third Road Development Plan (1981 - 2001)
(20 Year Road Plan).
These are meant to function as divided arterial highways for the movement of moving motor traffic
under free flow condition in big metropolitan cities like Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, Chennai.
They have the highest design speed.
They connect major centres of traffic generation and intended to serve trips of medium and long
length between large residential areas, industrial or commercial concentrations and the central
business districts (C.B.D.).
Two or three such express highways are necessarily to be provided around big cities of modern days
to face the tremendous growth of traffic.
As per the restrictions, the speed of the vehicles should never be less than specified minimum limit
while travelling on the express highway.
They are therefore, restricted only for very fast moving vehicles.
Parking, loading, un-loading of goods and pedestrian traffic are not permitted on these express
highways.
30

 They have at least four lanes and are generally provided with divided carriage way, controlled access,
grade separators at intersections and fencing.
Express highways are designed with easy gradients and smooth curves so as to carry traffic speedily
and safely.
These are comparable next to railways in cost and carrying capacity of traffic.
NATIONAL HIGHWAYS
They run through the length and breadth of the country.
They connect all national capitals with state capitals, major cities, towns, border areas.
These are considered as arteries of the communication system in the country.
They are more important from strategic point of view.
They also connect neighbouring countries.
They should have at least two traffic lanes and good surface finishing and excellent strength to carry
heavy traffic.
The construction and maintenance of these roads are usually carried by the Central Government.
All the national highways are assigned numbers for example highway connecting ChennaiBelgaumPune-Mumbai is called N.H.- 4 ; Mumbai-Ahemdabad-Jaipur-Delhi is called N.H.- 8 ; MaduraiRameshwaram is called N.H.- 49 and so on.

Typical cross section of national highway

STATE HIGHWAYS
These are the main roads running within the states.
They connect the important towns, and cities of the state with national high ways and highways of
neighboring states.
They generally have one lane but two lanes are always preferred.
They have modern type of bituminous or concrete surfacing.
They are considered as the main arteries of the communication system of the state.
The construction and maintenance are usually carried by the state government by taking grants from
central government.
Total length of all SH in the country is 1, 37,119 Kms.
MAJOR DISTRICT ROADS
These roads connect all the districts, all production areas and markets with state high way or national
high way or railways.
They also further connect the Taluka places within the district.
They have a single metalled lane of traffic.
They have modern type of surfaces.
India has a total of 4, 70,000 kms of MDR.
31

OTHER DISTRICT ROADS

These are also called as minor district roads.
These are roads connecting a particular town to a town or a village with some other roads.
They have some lower specifications than major district roads and state highways.
These roads should have good metalled surface, proper drainage and should be accessible throughout
the year.
They possess much importance because they provide direct link to the villages and serve a large rural
population, as such they should be motorable throughout the year.
They establish connections with major district roads and state high ways.
The construction and maintenance are carried by the district authorities or Zilla Parishad. (Z.P.).
VILLAGE ROADS
These are meant mainly for village use.
These roads connect a village to a village or a village to a district or a taluka headquarters.
These are generally stabilized earth roads but the metal surface is preferable to serve more useful
purpose.
The construction and maintenance are carried by the local district boards.
There are more than 2,25,000 km long village roads in the state of Maharashtra.

India has 26,50,000 kms of ODR+VR out of the total 33,15,231 kms of all type of roads.

PAVEMENT: Definition
Pavement is the durable surface material laid down on an area intended to sustain vehicular or foot traffic,
such as road or walkway.
Types of Pavements:
Flexible Pavement
Rigid Pavement
1. Flexible Pavement
Hot mix asphalt (HMA) pavements Called "flexible" since the total pavement structure bends (or flexes) to
accommodate traffic loads. Flexible pavements will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by grainto-grain transfer through the points of contact in the granular structure. The design of flexible pavement uses
the concept of layered system.Flexible pavements are constructed using bituminous materials
Structure
Surface course
Base course
Subbase course
Subgrade
Typical Cross section of Flexible Pavement

32

Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement includes seal coat, surface course, tack coat, binder
course, prime coat, base course, sub-base course, compacted sub-grade, and natural sub-grade
Seal Coat: Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface and to provide skid
resistance.
Tack Coat: Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion diluted with water. It
provides proper bonding between two layer of binder course and must be thin, uniformly cover the entire
surface, and set very fast.
Prime Coat: Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent surface like
granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides bonding between two layers. Unlike tack coat,
prime coat penetrates into the layer below, plugs the voids, and forms a water tight surface.
Surface course: It is the layer directly in contact with tract loads and generally contains superior quality
materials. They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt concrete (AC).
Binder course: This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. Its chief purpose is to distribute
load to the base course. The binder course generally consists of aggregates having less asphalt and doesn't
require quality as high as the surface course, so replacing a part of the surface course by the binder course
results in more economical design.
Base course: The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of binder course and it
provides additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-surface drainage. It may be composed of
crushed stone, crushed slag, and other untreated or stabilized materials.
Sub-Base course: The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course and the primary
functions are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and reduce the intrusion of fines from the subgrade in the pavement structure.If the base course is open graded, then the sub-base course with more fines
can serve as a filler between sub-grade and the base course.A sub-base course is not always needed or used
Sub-grade: The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses from the layers
above. It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed. It should be compacted to the desirable
density, near the optimum moisture content.
Rigid Pavement
Portland cement concrete (PCC) pavements. Called rigid since PCCs high modulus of elasticity does
not allow them to flex appreciably. Pavements are placed either directly on the prepared sub- grade or on a
single layer of granular or stabilized material. Since there is only one layer of material between the concrete
and the sub-grade, this layer can be called as base or sub-base course. Rigid pavements have sufficient
flexural strength to transmit the wheel load stresses to a wider area below.
Typical Cross section of Rigid Pavement

Types of Rigid Pavement

Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)
Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP)
Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP)
Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).
Difference between Flexible & Rigid Pavement
Flexible Pavement

Rigid Pavement

1.Deformation in the sub grade is transferred to 1. Deformation in the subgrade is not transferred to
the upper layers
subsequent layers
2.Design
is based
on
load
distributing characteristics of the
component 2.Design is based on flexural strength or slab action
layers
3.Have low flexural strength

3.Have high flexural strength

33

4.No such phenomenon of grain to grain load

transfer exists
5.Have low completion cost but repairing cost 5.Have low repairing cost but completion cost is
is high
high
4.Load is transferred by grain to grain contact

6.Have low life span

6.Life span is more as compare to flexible

7. Surfacing cannot be laid directly on the sub

7.Surfacing can be directly laid on the sub grade
grade but a sub base is needed
8.No thermal stresses are induced as the 8.Thermal stresses are more vulnerable to be
pavement have the ability to contract and induced as the ability to contract and expand is very
expand freely
less in concrete
9. expansion joints are not needed

9.expansion joints are needed

10. Strength of road is highly dependent on the 10. Strength of road is less dependent on the
strength of the sub grade
strength of the sub grade
11. Rolling of surfacing is needed

11. Rolling of surfacing is not needed

12. Road can be used for traffic within 24 hours 12. Road cannot be used until 14 days of curing
13. Force of friction is less

13. Force of friction is high

TRAFFIC SIGNS
1. Regulatory
2. Warning
3. Informatory
(A)Regulatory Signs:
Regulatory Signs are meant to inform the road user of certain laws, regulations and prohibitions. The
violation of these signs is a legal offence.
Example:
Stop and give way sign
Prohibitory signs
No Parking signs
Speed limit and vehicle control signs
Restriction end sign
Compulsory direction control and other signs
Regulatory Signs

34

(B) Warning Signs:

Warning or cautionary signs are used to warn the road user of certain hazardous conditions that exists
on or adjacent to the roadway.

The warning signs are in the shape of a equilateral triangle with its apex pointing upwards.

The warning signs are to be located at sufficient distance in advance of the hazard warned against;
these distances are 120, 90, 60, and 40 m respectively on NH/SH,MDR, ODR, and VR. On urban
road the distance is 50 m

Warning Signs

(C)Informatory Signs:
These signs are used to guide the road user along routes, inform them of destination and provide with the
information to make travel easier, safe and pleasant.
Example:
Direction and place identification Sign
Facilities Information Signs
Other Useful information Signs
Parking Signs
Flood gauge

35

Traffic Signals:
Definition: Traffic Signals are control devices which could alternately direct the traffic to stop and proceed
at intersections using red and green traffic light signals automatically.
Advantages of Signals:
1. Signal is provided at intersection to manage the traffic flow.
2. Signals provide safety to vehicular traffic and pedestrian. They reduce and avoid the accidents.
3. Signals are easy to understand compare to traffic police management at intersection.
Disadvantages of Signals:
1. Fast moving vehicles may cause rear end collision at signalized intersection
2. Improper design of signal cycle length can cause fixed delay.
3. Duration off-peak hour unnecessary delay occurs at signalized intersection.
Purposes:
At Intersection where a large number of crossing and right turn traffic, there is possibility of collision
and accident.
To provide orderly movement with safety and speed, signals are provided at intersection.
The crossing streams of traffic flow are separated by time segregation.
Types Of traffic Signals

Fixed Time
Manually Operated
Traffic actuated
Pedestrian
Special Traffic

Fixed Time Signals: are set to repeat regularly a cycle of red, amber and green lights. The timing demand to
clear off the intersection with the help of detectors which are installed at the approaches. These are very
costly.
Pedestrian Signals: are meant to give the right of way to pedestrians to cross a road. The vehicular traffic
should be stopped by red or stop signal on the traffic signal of the road.
Traffic actuated Signals: are those in which the timings of the phase and cycle are changed according to
traffic demand to clear off the intersection with the help of detectors which are installed at the approaches.
They are very costly.

36

PARKING SYSTEM
Types of Parking System
1. On -Street Parking
2. Off- Street Parking
1. On street parking (Kerb parking):
The vehicles are parked on the kerb or on the side of street or road.
Types of Kerb Parking:
Parallel Parking
Angle parking
Parallel Parking:
Parallel parking is a method of parking a vehicle in line with other parked vehicles. Vehicles parked
in parallel are in one line, parallel to the kerb, with the front bumper of each facing the back bumper of the
next. Parallel parking allows a vehicle to park in a smaller space than would be true of forward parking.
Parallel parking requires initially driving the vehicle slightly past the parking space followed by reversing
into the space. Subsequent position adjustment may be required by the use of forward and reverse gears
Angle parking:
Angled parking is on-street parking in which the vehicle has it's front closest to the curb. Angled parking
uses less linear curb length per parking space than traditional parallel parking so more spaces can be
provided on the same block. This type of parking commonly occurs in parking lots, shopping centers and on
very wide streets in some communities. In addition, angled parking acts as a traffic claiming device because
a passing driver is aware that a parked vehicle could back into the roadway at any moment. Angle parking is
more convenient for the motorists than the parallel parking. Angle parking is more convenient for the
motorists than the parallel parking. Out of various angle parking, 45 0 angle parking is the best and most
convenient.
Types of Angle parking:
30 0 angle parking
60 0 angle parking
45 0 angle parking
90 0 angle parking
2. Off street parking
When parking facility is provided at a separate place away from the kerb it is known as off-street
parking.
Off-street parking is an important part of the transportation system.
It is an efficient means of storing vehicles while they arent in use, and it causes little disruption to
the neighboring roadways.
Additionally, since parking is the terminal or destination for a trip, the availability of off-street
parking can affect the attractiveness of destinations as well as transportation modes.
Off-street parking facilities range from:
Car garage in the home
Multi-story garages

Off-street parking becomes a necessity wherever the need for vehicle parking exceeds the capacity
of on-street parking.
Types of off street parking:
Surface parking lots
Multi floor parking garages
A parking lot also known as car lot, is a cleared area that is intended for parking vehicles. Usually, the
term refers to a dedicated area that has been provided with a durable or semi-durable surface. In most
countries where cars are the dominant mode of transportation; parking lots are a feature of every city and
suburban area. Shopping Malls, sports stadiums, mega churches and similar venues often feature parking lots
of immense area.

37

CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Drivers: Excessive speed and rash driving, violation of rules and regulayion, sleep or alcohol.
Pedestrians: Violating regulation, carelessness in using the carriageway meant for vehicular traffic.
Passengers: Alighting from or getting into moving vehicles.
Vehicle defects: Failure of breaks, streeting system, lighting system, and any other defects in the
vehicles.
Road conditions: slippery or skidding road surface, pot holes and other damaged condition of road
surface.
Road design: Defective geometric design like sight distance, improper curve, design overtaking sight
distance etc.
Weather: Unfavorable weather like mist, fog, snow, dust, heavy rainfall etc.
Animals: Stray animals on the road.
Other Causes: Incorrect signs or signals, badly located advertisement board, ribbon development etc.

38

UNIT III

ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT

WATER SUPPLY
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Importance and necessity of water supply schemes
Water supply scheme involves:
(a) Collection
(b) Conveyance
(c) Treatment
(d) Distribution of water
For every living being water, air, food, shelter etc are the primary needs of which the water has the
greatest importance. It is truly said that the water is best of all things. Everywhere water is required
for various purposes such as:
a) For drinking and cooking
b) For bathing and washing
c) Washing of clothes and utensils
d) For watering of lawns and gardens
e) For heating and air conditioning systems
f) For growing of crops
g) Fire fighting
h) Steam power and various industrial processes
i) Construction works
j) Washing of vehicles
k) Street washing
l) Recreation in swimming pools fountains and cascades etc.
Without food human can survive for a number of days, but water is such an essential element without
it he cannot. In the ancient times humans required water for drinking, bating, cooking etc. but with the
advancement of civilization the utility of water enormously increased and now such a stage has come that
without well organized public water supply scheme, it is impossible to run the present civic life and develop
the towns.
In ancient times the water was collected from surface sources like rivers, lakes and ponds.etc. The
original small water source become insufficient and large water sources become inevitable. The large water
source may be far away from the township and the water may not be safe for dinking. The role of water
supply scheme, i.e. collection, conveyance treatment and distribution of water comes in handy here. For
every town or a city, an administrative body, either the municipality or corporation has been established to
look after the public health and to supply potable water to consumers after proper treatment.

2) SOURCES
Following are the sources of water:
1) Surface sources:
a) Rivers, streams
b) Lakes
c) Ponds
d) Impounded reservoirs.
2) Underground sources(sub-surface):
a) Springs
b) Wells
39

1) Artesian well
2) Dug/draw well
3) Tube well
c) Infiltration galleries.

SURFACE SOURCES:
Natural Ponds and Lakes
In mountains at some places natural basins are formed with impervious bed by springs and streams are
known as lakes. The quality of water in the natural ponds and lakes depends upon the basins capacity,
catchment area, annual rainfall, porosity of ground etc. But lakes and ponds situated at higher altitudes
contain almost pure water which can be used without any treatment. But ponds formed due to construction of
houses, road, and railways contains large amount of impurities and therefore cannot be used for water supply
purposes.
Streams and Rivers
Rivers and streams are the main source of surface source of water. In summer the quality of river water is
better than monsoon because in rainy season the run-off water also carries with clay, sand, silt etc which
make the water turbid. So river and stream water require special treatments. Some rivers are snow fed and
perennial and have water throughout the year and therefore they do not require any arrangements to hold the
water. But some rivers dry up wholly or partially in summer. So they require special arrangements to meet
the water demand during hot weather. Mostly all the cities are situated near the rivers discharge their used
water of sewage in the rivers, therefore much care should be taken while drawing water from the river.
Impounding Reservoirs:
In some rivers the flow becomes very small and cannot meet the requirements of hot weather. In such cases,
the water can be stored by constructing a bund, a weir or a dam across the river at such places where
minimum area of land is submerged in the water and max. Quantity of water to be stored. In lakes and
reservoirs, suspended impurities settle down in the bottom, but in their beds algae, weeds, vegetable and
organic growth takes place which produce bad smell, taste and colour in water. Therefore this water should
be used after purification. When water is stored for long time in reservoirs it should be aerated.
SUBSURFACE SOURCES:

Infiltration Galleries
Infiltration Wells:
In order to obtain large quantity of water, the infiltration wells are sunk in series in the blanks of river. The
wells are closed at top and open at bottom. They are constructed by brick masonry with open joints as shown
in fig.

Infiltration Well

Jack Well
40

For the purpose of inspection of well, the manholes are provided in the top cover. The water filtrates through
the bottom of such wells and as it has to pass through sand bed, it gets purified to some extent. The
infiltration well in turn is connected by porous. pipes to collecting sump called jack well and there water is
pumped to purification plant for treatment

Springs:
Sometimes ground water reappears at the ground surface in the form of springs. Springs generally supply
small springs. Springs generally supply small quantity of water and hence suitable for the hill towns. Some
springs discharge hot water due to presence of sulphur and useful only for the curve of certain skin disease
patients.
Types of springs:
1. Gravity Springs: When the surface of the earth drops sharply the water bearing stratum is exposed to
atmosphere and gravity springs are formed as shown in fig.

2. Surface Spring: This is formed when an impervious stratum which is supporting the ground water
reservoir becomes out crops as shown in fig.

Surface Spring
3. Artesian Spring: When the ground water rises through a fissure in the upper impervious stratum as
shown in fig.

Artesian spring
When the water-bearing stratum has too much hydraulic gradient and is closed between two imperious
stratums, the formation of artesian spring from deep seated spring.

Artesian spring
41

Wells:
A well is defined as an artificial hole or pit made in the ground for the purpose of tapping water. In India 75
to 85% of Indian population has to depend on wells for its water supply.
The three factors which form the basis of theory of wells are
1. Geological conditions of the earths surface
2. Porosity of various layers
3. Quantity of water, which is absorbed and stored in different layers.
The following are different types of wells
1. Shallow wells
2. Deep wells
3. Tube wells
4. Artesian wells
(a) Shallow Wells:
Shallow wells are constructed in the uppermost layer of the earths surface. The diameter of well varies from
2 to 6 m and a maximum depth of 7m. Shallow wells may be lined or unlined from inside. Fig. shows a
shallow well with lining (steining). These wells are also called draw wells or gravity wells or open wells or
drag wells or percolation wells.

Shallow Well
Quantity of water available from shallow wells is limited as their source of supply is uppermost layer of
earth only and sometimes may even dry up in summer. Hence they are not suitable for public water supply
schemes. The quantity of water obtained from shallow wells is better than the river water but requires
purification. The shallow wells should be constructed away from septic tanks, soak pits etc because of the
contamination of effluent.
The shallow wells are used as the source of water supply for small villages, undeveloped municipal towns,
isolated buildings etc because of limited supply and bad quality of water.
(b) Deep Wells :
The Deep wells obtain their quota of water from an aquifer below the impervious layer as shown in fig No.
The theory of deep well is based on the travel of water from the outcrop to the site of deep well. The outcrop
is the place where aquifer is exposed to the atmosphere. The rain water entered at outcrop and gets
thoroughly purified when it reaches to the site of deep well. But it dissolves certain salts and therefore
become hard. In such cases, some treatment would be necessary to remove the hardness of water.

Deep Well
The depth of deep well should be decided in such a way that the location of out crop is not very near to the
site of well. The water available at a pressure greater atmospheric pressure, therefore deep wells are also
referred to as a pressure wells.

3) DRINKING WATER REQUIRMENTS

Absolutely pure water is never found in nature. Absolutely pure water is that water which only
contains two parts of Hydrogen and one part of Oxygen by volume and nothing else. But the water found in
nature contains number of impurities in varying amounts. While falling in the form of rains the water absorbs
number of gases, dust and organic and inorganic impurities. This water when moves on ground further
42

carries the silts and other impurities. Therefore the runoff water has large no of impurities. These impurities
make the water unsuitable for the drinking. Therefore such impurities must be removed from the water as
well as while removing such impurities the essential elements and bacterias that naturally present in water
and mostly useful for the human health must not be removed.
Therefore the drinking water has the following requirements
a) It should be free from the bacterias that causes the diseases.
b) It should be colourless
c) It should be odourless
d) It should be tasty and cool
e) It should be free from the silts
f) It should be free from any objectionable matter
g) It should have dissolved oxygen and free carbonic acid so that it may remain fresh
h) It should not corrode pipes
The water supplied to the community should be strictly according to the standards laid down from time to
time.

4) WATER DEMAND
4.1 Types of Demands:
While designing the water supply schemes of the town, it is also necessary to determine the total years
demand. Following are the various types of water demand of a city or town:
(i) Domestic water demand.
(ii) Commercial and Industrial demand.
(iii) Fire-demand.
(iv) Demand for public uses.
(v) Compensate losses demand.

4.2 Domestic Water Demand

It includes the quantity of water required in the houses for drinking, bathing, cooking, washing etc. The
quantity of water required for domestic use mainly depends on the habits, social status, Climatic conditions
and customs of the people. In India on an average, the domestic consumption of water under normal
condition is about135 litres/day/capita as per IS: 1172-1171. In developed countries this figure may be as
high as 350 litres/day/capita. The increase in water consumption in developed countries is mainly due to use
of air coolers, air conditioners, maintenance of lawns, automatic household appliances such as home
laundries, dishwashers etc.
Domestic Water Demand: The total consumption in this demand, generally amounts to 55 to 60% of the
total water consumption the break up of 135 litres/day/capita may be taken as follows: .
Table 4.1 Average Domestic Water Consumption in an Indian City.
Heads

Use

Consumption in litres /day/ person

(a)

Drinking

(h)

Cooking

(c)

Bathing

55

(d)

Washing of clothes

20

(e)

Washing of utensils

10

(j)
(g)

Washing and cleaning of houses and

residences
Flushing of Latrines etc.
Total

10
30
135
43

4.2 Demands For Public Use

Quantity of water required for public utility purposes such as for washing and sprinkling or roads
cleaning of sewers, watering of public parks, gardens, public fountains etc, comes under public demand.
To meet the water demand for public use, provision of 5% of the total consumption is made while
designing the water works for a city.
The requirements of water for public purposes shall be taken as given in Table 5.2.
Table 4.2. Water Requirements For Public Purpose.
S. No.

Purpose

Water Requirement

1.

Public parks

1.4 litres/day/capita

2.

Street washing

1.0 litres/day/capita

3.

Sewer cleaning

litres/day/capita

4.3 Per Capita Demand

In community water is used for various purposes as described above. For the purpose of estimation of
total requirements of water, the demand is calculated on an average basic, which is expressed as so many
litres/capita/day.
If Q is the total quantity of water required by a town per year in litres, and the population of the town is
P, the per capita demand will be.
Per capital demand =
Q
litres / day.
P x 365
QUANTITY OF WATER
The per capita demand of the town depends on various factors and will be according to the living
standard of the public and the number and type of the commerical places in the town etc. For an average
Indian town, the requirement of water in various uses is as under:
(i) Domestic use
135 litres/capita/day
(iij Industrial
40 litres/capita/day
(iii) Public use
25 litres/capita/day
(iv) Fire demand
15 litres/capita/day
(v) Losses, wastage and thefts
55 litres/capita/day
Total quantity of water required by the town per day shall be 270 multiplied with the total population
of litres/day.

5) IMPURITIES IN WATER AND THEIR EFFECT

Impurities in water can be listed as follows:
a) Suspended impurities
b) Colloidal Impurities
c) Dissolved impurities
(a) Suspended Impurities: These impurities are the suspension of solid particles that are large enough to
be removed by filtration or surface and heavier ones settle down. The suspended particles which have same
specific gravity as that of water are mixed in the water. Suspended impurities include clay, algae, fungi,
organic and inorganic matter and mineral matter etc.
These all impurities are macroscopic and cause turbidity in water. The concentration of suspended
matter in water is measured by its turbidity.
Examples: sand clay and other inorganic soils, algae, bacterias.
(b) Colloidal Impurities: It is very finely divided dispersion of particles in water. These particles are so
small that these particles cannot be removed by ordinary filters and are not visible to the naked eye. As a
matter of fact all the colloidal impurities are electrically charged and remain in continuous motion. The
electric charge is due to presence of absorbed ions on the surface of the solid. Acid or neutral materials
such as silica, glass and most organic particles acquire negative charge in neutral water, where as basic
materials such as metallic oxides AL2O3 and. Fe2O3 are positively charged. These electric charges on the
surfaces of particles are large enough in comparison with their mass to cause the particles to repel one
another when they move within the sphere of action of each others charge. Due to this repelling action all
colloidal particles remain in motion and do not settle. That is why there removal is very difficult. These
44

colloidal impurities are generally associated with organic matter containing bacterias and are the chief
source of epidemics.
Most of the colour of water is due to colloidal impurities their quantity is determined by the colour
tests. The size of colloidal particles is in between (1=1 micron=0.001mm) to (1=1 milli micron
=0.000001mm) or (10-3 mm to 10-6mm).
Examples: Silica, clay, iron oxide Fe2O3 , aluminum AL2O3 , manganese oxide MnO2 ,Vegetable and
organic waste.
(c) Dissolved Impurities: Some impurities are dissolved in water when it moves over the rocks, soil etc.
solids, liquids; gases are dissolved in natural waters. These dissolved impurities may contain organic
compounds, inorganic salts and gases etc. The concentration of local dissolved solids is usually expressed
in p.p.m and is obtained by weighing the residue after evaporation of the water sample from a filtered
sample.
Examples: calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, iron, salts, gases like hydrogen.

Effects of the impurities

IMPURITY
Suspended
Impurities

Dissolved
Impurities

CONSTITUENTS

EFFECTS

a) Bacteria
b)Algae, Protozoa
c)Silts
a)Salts
1)Calcium
&
Magnesium

Some cause diseases

Odour, Colour, Turbidity
Murkiness or Turbidity
Alkalinity
Alkalinity & Hardness
Hardness
Hardness Corrosion

Bicarbonate
Carbonate
Sulphate

Chloride
Bicarbonate
Carbonate
2)sodium
Sulphate
Fluoride
Chloride
b) Metals and Compounds
Iron oxide
Manganese
Lead
Arsenic
Barium
Cadmium
Cyanide
Boron
Selenium
Silver
nitrates

Alkalinity, Softening effect

Alkalinity, Softening effect
Foaming in Boilers
Dental Flurosis or mottled enamel
Taste

Taste, red colour, corrosiveness, hardness

Black or brown colour
Cumulative poisoning
Toxicity , poisoning
Toxic effect on heart and nerves
Toxic & illness
Fatal
Affect central nervous system
Highly toxic to animals
Discoloration of skin & eyes
Blue baby conditions, infant poisoning,
colour, acidity

( c ) Vegetable Dyes
( d ) gases

Oxygen
Carbon Dioxide
Hydrogen Sulphide

Corrosiveness to metals
Acidity, corrosiveness
Odour, acidity, corrosiveness

6) TREATMENT OF WATER (Purification of Water)

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Water available in various sources contains various types of impurities and cannot be directly used by the
public for various purposes, before removing the impurities. For potability water should be free from
unpleasant tastes, odours and must have sparkling appearance. The water must be free from diseasespreading germs. The amount and type of treatment process will depend on the quality of raw water and the
standards of quality of raw water and the standards of quality to be required after treatment as per the table
no.
45

The surface sources generally contains large amount of impurities therefore they requires sedimentation,
filtration and chlorination as treatment. If the water contains algae or other micro organisms, pre
chlorination has to be done tastes and odours , dissolved gases like CO2, H2S are removed by aeration.
During the flood season, the turbidity of the surface water may be high and flocculation may become
necessary to remove turbidity.
Ground water which is usually clear may require only disinfection and chemical treatment for the removal
of pathogens, Iron removal, Softening etc. Sometimes ground water contains dissolved gases like hydrogen
sulphide (H2S) carbon dioxide (CO2), which gives very bad odour and requires its removal by aeration.

PURIFICATION OF WATER
Object: The water from sources may have some characteristics which are unsuitable for human
consumption, industrial use, commercial use etc. the following are some of those characteristics:
a) Turbidity
b) It may contain colour
c) It may contain acids, salts and gases which have corrosive action and may impart hardness of
water.
d) It may contain bacteria which may cause water borne diseases.
Therefore the object of purification of water is to remove those impurities and make the water suitable for
domestic, industrial, commercial uses. Underground water may be free from the above impurities but
sometimes it may possess the property of hardness which should be removed.
PRIMARY TREATMENT OF WATER
(TREATMENT UNIT FLOW DIAGRAM)

Water treatment includes many operations like Aeration, Flocculation, Sedimentation, Filtration, Softening,
Chlorination and demineralization. Depending upon the quality of raw water and the quality of water
desired. Several combinations of the above processes may be adopted as shown in the flow diagram above
processes may be adopted as shown in the flow diagram

One complete water treatment plant requires the following process starting from the source of water up to
the distribution zone in order of sequence
SEQUENCE OF UNITS:
1) Intake point
2) Pump house
3) Plain sedimentation tank
4) Coagulation tank
5) Filtration unit
6) Chlorination unit
7) Water softening plant
8) Over-head reservoir

46

The following points should be kept in mind while giving layout of any treatment plant.
1. The W.T.P. should be located as near to the town so as to avoid the contamination.
2. All the units of plant should be located in order of sequence and flow from one unit to
other by gravity.
3. All the units are arranged in such a way that minimum area is required so as to reduce
the cost of construction.
4. Sufficient area should be reserved for the future expansion
5. Staff quarters and office should be provided near the treatment plants so that the
operators can watch the plants easily.
6. The site of treatment plant should be very neat and give very good aesthetic
appearance.
47

Functions of units:
1) Intake point: The function of this unit is to collect water in the intake well so that the water can
be supplied throughout the year.
2) Pump House: The function of this unit is to draw the water from the intake well and to supply
same to the treatment plat.
3) Plain Sedimentation Tank: The function of this unit is to remove the heavier suspended
particles in water. In this tank the water is detained for some period or allowed to flow at very low velocity
so that the heavier suspended particles are settle down at the bottom of the of sedimentation tank but some
lighter particles still remain in suspension.
4) Coagulation Tank: the function of this unit is to remove the lighter suspended particles by the
application of some coagulants. In this tank some recommended coagulants is mixed with water and the
water is allowed to flow at very low velocity through the coagulation tank. The coagulants make the liter
particles to gain the settle able size and ultimately settle down at the bottom of the tank but some finer
colloidal particles still remain in the suspension.

Sedimentation with Coagulation

5) Filtration Unit: The function of this unit is to remove the finer colloidal particles and some
bacteria for filtering media of sand and gravel but some bacteria still remain in the water.
6) Chlorination unit: the function of this unit is to destroy the bacteria by application of chlorine.
7) Water Softening Tank: the function of this unit is to remove the hardness of water to make it fit
for commercial purpose. This unit is not always necessary.
8) Overhead Reservoir: The function of this unit is to store purified water after the treatment is
complete. The water from the reservoir is supplied to the consumers by gravity.

7) DISINFECTION OF WATER
NECESSITY OF DISINFECTION: The processes of destroying harmful bacteria from water and to
make it safe for drinking is known as disinfection. The substances used for disinfection used for
disinfectants. The common disinfectants are lime, iodine and bromine, ozone, potassium permanganate,
silver; chlorine etc. chlorine is the most important disinfectant which has a wonderful power for killing
bacteria in short span of time with a minimum amount of expenditure. So this chemical is used in most
developing countries.
The processes of destroying all the bacteria (either harmful or harmless) are known as sterilization.
But in a water supply scheme, we require only the removal of harmful bacterias (i.e. pathogenic bacteria)
which may cause water borne diseases like cholera, dysentery, typhoid etc.
REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD DISINFECTANTS

1. They should destroy all the harmful pathogens and make it safe for use,.
2. They should not take more time in killing bacteria
3. They should be economical and easily available
4. They should not require high skill for their application
5. After treatment the water should not become toxic and objectionable to the user.
6. The concentration should be determined by simply and quickly.
METHODS OF DISINFECTION:
a) Disinfection by boiling
b) By ultra-violet rays
c) By iodine and bromine
d) By excess lime
e) By ozone
48

f) By potassium permanganate
g) By silver
h) By chlorine
Disinfection by Boiling: When water is boiled to the boiling temperature ( 100oc ) the bacteria is
completely removed. It should be boiled at least for 10-15 minutes. Boiling also removes some of the
dissolved salts. It is the most effective method of disinfection. But this is not suitable for large scale. It is
suitable for domestic purpose, i.e. to boil water before its use as drinking water. In case of an epidemic, the
consumers should always boil water to check the water borne diseases.
Disinfection by ultraviolet rays: When mercury enclosed in a quarts bulb an electric current is passed
through it, the ultra violet rays are emitted. These rays are found to be very powerful in killing all type of
bacteria. In this method the water is allowed to flow under the bulb for several times. The depth of flow
should not exceed 10-15 cm. this method does not impart any taste or colour to the water or there is no
possibility of overdosing. It is costly processes and suitable for small water supply installations like
factories, institutions, training camp, etc.
Disinfection by iodine and bromine: the iodine and bromine also have property of killing bacteria. Dose
of iodine and bromine should be 8-10 ppm. These chemicals are available in the form of small pellets. The
water is stored in a suitable container and required number of pellets are dropped in the water and left for 5
minutes. Water becomes safe for drinking. This method is suitable for small water supply installations like
industries, military or survey camps.
Disinfection by excess lime: naturally lime is added to the water is to remove some salts but when excess
lime is added to the water it is found to be act as a disinfectant. The excesses lime increases the pH value of
water i.e. increases the alkalinity of water which is detrimental to bacteria because bacteria cannot resist the
alkalinity of water. It is found that pH value 9-10 can remove bacteria to the extent of 99% but after
treatment the residual lime should be removed by the method of re carbonation.
Disinfection by ozone: in atmosphere the molecules of oxygen contains two items (O2 ) but it changes to
three when electric current of high voltage is passed through the stream of air in chamber. This triatomic
oxygen is known as ozone (O 3 ).the ozone easily breaks into oxygen ( O2 ) and nascent atom ( O ). This
third atom is very powerful in killing bacteria. The dose of ozone varies from2-5 ppm and contact period
varies from 5-10 mins. If after treatment some residual ozone is present in water, it is automatically
removed. Since ozone is unstable in nature, there is no possibility any danger to the consumers. It is costly
method.
Disinfection by potassium permanganate: potassium permanganate is a powerful oxidizing agent. It
oxidizes the organic matter present in water and hence the bacteria get killed. this mostly used for
disinfecting water of wells in village, swimming pools, ponds etc. not suitable for large scale. Dose of
chemical is about2-3 ppm and contact period is 2-3 hrs.
Disinfection by chlorine: Chlorine has got the wonderful power of destroying bacteria. It is best among all
the other disinfectants used for the disinfection of water. It kills bacteria very fast and its effect effect lasts
for such a long time that it even acts in the distribution systems. It is cheap and reliable. If some residual
chlorine exists in water it does not cause any harm to the consumers.

8) STANDARDS OF PURIFIED WATER

The physical, chemical, bacteriological standards for water quality as suggested by the following agencies:
1) Indian Council of Medical Research (I.C.M.R) committee
2) World Health Organization (W.H.O)
3) United States Public Health Society (U.S.P.H.S)
4) American Water Works Association (A.W.W.A)
The manual on water supply and treatment prepared by the central public health and environmental
engineering Organization, under the Ministry of Urban Development (MUD) India lays down the following
standards of water.

49

S.N

CHARECTERISTICS

ACCEPTIBLE

CAUSE OF REJECTION

Turbidity ( J.T.U scale)

2.5

10

Colour (platinum cobalt scale)

5.0

2.5

Taste and Odour

unobjectionable

Unobjectionable

Total Dissolved Solids(mg/l)

500

1500

Hardness ( as CaCO3) (mg/l)

200

600

Chlorides ( as Cl) (mg/l)

200

1000

Fluorides ( as F) (mg/l)

1.0

1.5

Sulphates ( as SO4) (mg/l)

200

400

Nitrates ( as NO3) (mg/l)

45

45

10

Calcium ( as Ca) (mg/l)

75

200

11

Magnesium ( as Mg) (mg/l)

30

150

12

Iron ( as Fe) (mg/l)

0.1

1.0

13

Manganese ( as Mn) (mg/l)

0.05

0.5

14

Copper (as Cu) (mg/l)

0.05

1.5

15

Zinc (as Zn) (mg/l)

5.0

15.0

Toxic materials
16

Arsenic ( as As) (mg/l)

0.05

0.05

17

Cadmium (as Cd) (mg/l)

0.01

0.01

18

Chromium (as Hexavalent Cr) (mg/l)

0.05

0.05

19

Cynides ( as Cn) (mg/l)

0.05

0.05

20

Lead (as Pb) (mg/l)

0.1

0.01

21

Mercury (total Hg) (mg/l)

0.001

0.001

Radio Activity
22

Gross Alpha Activity

3 pci/l

3 pci/l

23

Gross Beta Activity

30 pci/l

30 pci/l

24

Pci= pico curie

The figures indicated under acceptable column are the limits up to which the water is generally acceptable
for consumers. Cause of rejection column shows the limit of tolerance if the supply contains the impurities
exceeds the limit the water is not safe for drinking and must be rejected.

WASTE MANAGEMENT
(Collection & disposal methods of liquid, solid and gaseous wastes)
SANITARY ENGINEERING
It is the branch of public health engineering which deals with the preservation and maintenance of health of
the individual and the community, by preventing communicable diseases. It consists of scientific and
methodical collection, conveyance, treatment and disposal of waste matter so that public health can be
protected from the offensive and injurious substances. Sanitation is the prevention of sporadic outbreak of
disease, and can be achieved by either controlling or eliminating such environmental factors that
contributes into the some form or the other to the transmission of diseases.
If the waste water created and given out by the human and animal life, and also by industries etc, is
allowed to accumulate, it will get decompose and will contaminate or pollute air, water and food. Hence
sanitary disposal of waste, either in solid form or in liquid form, is most essential. The sanitary sewage
includes excreta (i.e. waste matter eliminated from the boy), domestic sewage (i.e. used water form the
home community which includes toilet, bath, laundry, and Lavatory and kitchen-sink wastes) and industrial
waste. The improper disposal of human excreta and sewage is the major factor threatening the health and
comfort of individuals where satisfactory sewage system is not available.
50

IMPORTANT TERMS AND DEFINATIONS:

1) Refuse: is a general term used to indicate what is rejected or let out as worthless. It may be liquid,
semisolid or solid form and may be divided into six catagories: a) garbage b) rubbish c) sullage d) sewage
e) subsoil water f) storm water.
2) Garbage: Dry refuse such as papers, decayed fruits, vegetables, grass and leaves, and sweeping from
streets, markets and other public places. Thus garbage contains large amount of organic and putrefying
matter.
3) sullage: sullage is a term used to indicate waste water from bathrooms kitchens, washing places and
wash basins etc. It does not create any bad smell because the organic matter in it is either absent or in very
negligible amount.
5) Sewage: sewage indicates the liquid waste from community. It includes sullage , discharge from latrines,
urinals, stables, industrial waste and also ground surface and storm water. It is extremely putrescible: its
decomposition produces large quantities of malodorous gases and it may contain numerous pathogenic or
disease producing bacteria.
6) Sub-soil water: it is the ground water that finds its entry into sewers through leaks.
7) Storm water: it indicates the rain water of the locality
8) Sanitary sewage: sanitary sewage or the domestic sewage indicates sewage mainly derived from the
residential building and industrial establishments. It is extremely foul in nature. Sanitary sewage may be
classified as a) domestic sewage and b) industrial sewage.
9) Domestic sewage: it is the sewage obtained from the lavatory basins, urinal and water closets of
residential buildings office buildings, theaters and other institutions. Since it contains human excreta and
urine, it is extremely foul in nature.
10) Industrial sewage: It s wastewater obtained from the industrial and commercial establishments. Is may
contain objectionable organic compounds that may not be amenable to conventional treatment processes.
11) Night soil: It is a term used to indicate the human excreta.
12) Sewer: it is an underground conduit or drain through which sewage is carried to a point of discharge or
disposal.

Sources of Wastes:

Solid waste- vegetable waste, kitchen waste, household waste etc.

E-waste- discarded electronic devices like computer, TV, music systems etc.
Liquid waste- water used for different industries e.g. tanneries, distilleries, thermal power plants
Gaseous waste:
Plastic waste- plastic bags, bottles, bucket etc.
Metal waste- unused metal sheet, metal scraps etc.
Nuclear waste- unused materials from nuclear power plants

For the disposal of waste products of a town two works are required:
1) Collection works
2) Disposal works
The disposal works mainly consists of treatment works which are essential to neither treat the waste water
and dispose it off on such a way that it may not cause any harm to the health of public nor pollute the
nearby water sources and environment. The collection works are the works which are done to collect the
waste products. In olden days it was done by the conservancy method, but in modern cities it is done by
water carriage method. The water carriage system has so many systems as separate, combined or partially
separate in which the sewage or storm water can be collected.
METHODS OF COLLECTION
The sanitation of a town or city is done by two methods which are:
1) Conservancy system
2) Water carriage System.
CONSERVANCY SYSTEM
This is an old system in which various types of wastes, such as night soil, garbage etc. are collected
separately in vessels or deposited in pools or pits and then removed periodically at least once in 24hrs. On
account of this method of handling independently the different type of refuse from place the term

51

conservancy system has been derived. The system is also known as the dry system. The following are the
methods of collection of various types of waste in the system.
1) Night soil: night soils or human excreta in latrines, privies or cesspools etc . is collected
separately in pans or pails and carried on heads of sweepers to a central place from where it is transported
in bullock carts or motor vans to a place away from the town for final disposal. Normally it is buried into
ground, in trenches, to give excellent manure in one or two years.
2) Garbage: garbage is collected separately, in dust bins and conveyed on head, carts or motor vans
once or twice a day. It may consist of waste matter of both non combustible as well as combustible type the
two are therefore sorted out. Garbage disposal method includes the open ump, hog fiddling, and
incineration, dumping into sanitary field, fermentation or biological digestion.
Incineration, if properly controlled, is satisfactory for burning combustible diffuse.
3) Refuse: sullage and storm water. Sullage and storm water are collected and conveyed separately
in closed or open gutters. The liquid and semi liquid mass of filth which frequently overflow the
receptacles in privies is swept away by the sweepers to drain from the privies, which carry it to drains
carrying sullage and storm water , along the public lanes or streets.
In India, the conservancy system is still on vogue in all the villages and small towns. Only a few
cities have the water carriage systems.
Disadvantages of conservancy system:
1) Hygiene and sanitary aspect: the conservancy system is highly unhygienic and cause
insanitary conditions since the excreta start decomposing within few hrs of its production. Even if it is
assumed that cleaning will take place twice in a day, the excreta remaining in the privies will emit bad
smell and will give rise to fly nuscence.
2) Transportation aspect: transportation of night soil takes place in open carts through streets and
other crowded localities this is highly undesirable.
3) Labor aspect: the working of the system depends entirely on the mercy of labors (sweepers). If
they go on strike even for one day for any reason what so ever, the privies can not be used because of foul
smell. Te whole locality will smell very badly.
4) Building design aspect: The lavatories or privies are to be located outside the house and slightly
away from the main building the compact design is therefore is not possible.
5) Conditions of drains: insanitation may be there due to carriage of sullage through open drains
laid in the streets.
6) Human aspects: in the present day world, when man has progressed much, it is highly
humiliating to ask human beings to transport night soil in pails on their heads.
7) Risk of epidemic: due to improper or careless disposal of night soil, there are more chances of
outbreak of epidemic.
8) Pollution problems: Liquid waste from lavatories etc., during their washing may soak in the
ground, thus contaminating the soil. If the ground water is a t a shallow depth, it may also be polluted due
to percolation of waste water.
9) Cost consideration: though t system is quit cheap in the beginning its maintenance and
establishment cost are very high.
10) Disposal land requirements: the system requires considerable land for the disposal of sewage.
WATER CARRIAGE SYSTEM
In this system, the collection, conveyance and disposal of various types of waste are carried out
with the help of water. Thus water is used as medium to convey the waste from its point of production to
the pint of its treatment or a final disposal. Sufficient quantity of water is required to be mix with the waste
so that dilution ratio is so great that the mixture may flow just like water.
In this system, specially designed latrines called water closet (w.c) are used which are flushed with
5-10 liters of water after its used by every person the human excreta is thus flushed away and lead to
suitable design and maintain sewer. The waste from kitchens, baths, wash basins etc. re also laid to the
sewers the sewers are the underground closed pipes which are laid on suitable longitudinal gradient slow
that flow takes under gravity and proper flow velocity is maintained to keep the sewer clean. The sewers
laid the sewerage so collected to suitable site where it is treated suitably and then is disposed off by
irrigation or by dilution.
It should be noted that the garbage is collected separately and conveyed in same manner as in case if
conservancy system. If garbage is permitted in the sewers, they may be clogged.
This system requires large initial cost of installation and it requires large quantity of water also to
create efficient flow conditions. If the financial conditions of people are poor, it may be difficult to adopt
52

this system. However this is the most efficient and hygienic system of sewerage disposal, and may be
adopted in stages if sufficient funds are not available in the beginning.
ADVANTAGES OF WATER CARRIGE SYSTEM
This is the most modern system of drainage with the following advantages.
1) Huygens and sanitary aspect: the system is very hygienic since the night soil and other waste
water is conveyed through closed conduits which are not directly exposed to the atmosphere. There is no
bad smell because of continuous flow.
2) Epidemic aspect: there are no chances of outbreak of epidemic because flies and other insects do
not have direct access to the sewage.
3) Pollution aspect: the liquid waste etc. is directly conveyed through the sewers, and therefore
there are no changes of the waste Water being soaked in the ground thus contaminating the soil. The waste
water dies not percolate down to join the ground water. There are no chances of pollution of water of well
in individual houses if any.
4) Compactness in design: since the latrines are flushed after every use, excreta do not remain and
there are no foul smells. The latrines can therefore be attached to the bedrooms and living. This permits a
compact design. The lavatories can be accommodated in any part of the house.
5) Labour aspect: the labour required for the operation and maintenance is extremely small. In fact,
the functioning of the system is practically automatic; except for the operation of certain pumps etc. there is
no labour problem. In the individual houses, the latrines/lavatories can be conveniently cleaned by
occupants themselves.
6) Treatment aspect: the system permits the use of modern methods of treatment of the sewage
collected through the sewers. The treated waste water and sewage can be safely disposed of without any
risk.
7) Land disposal requirements: because of treatment facilities the land required for the disposal of
the treated waste water is very much smaller than that required for the conservancy system.
8) Cost consideration: though the initial cost of installation of the system are very high, the running
costs are very small manual labour is very much reduced.

Management of Solid Waste

For waste management we stress on three Rs-Reduce, reuse and recycle before destruction and safe
storage of wastes.
(i)

(ii)

(iii)

Reduction in use of raw materials: Reduction in the use of raw materials correspondingly
decreases the production of waste. Reduced demand for any metallic product decreases its
mining, hence less production of waste.
Reuse of waste materials: The refillable containers and plastic bags which are discarded after
use should be reused. In Villages casseroles and silos are made from waste paper and rubber
rings from discarded cycle tubes. Such practices reduce waste generation
Recycling of materials: Recycling is the reprocessing of discarded materials into new useful
products.
Formation of some old type products e.g., old aluminum cans and glass bottles are melted and recast
into new cans and bottles.
Formation of new products: Preparation of cellulose insulation from paper, preparation of fuel
pellets from kitchen waste. Preparation of automobiles and construction materials from steel cans.
The process of reducing, reusing and recycling saves money, energy, raw materials, land space and
also reduces pollution. Recycling of paper will reduce cutting of trees for making fresh paper. Reuse
of metals will reduce mining and melting of ores for recovery of metals from ores and prevent
pollution.

(iv)

Waste disposal: For discarding wastes the following disposal methods can be adopted:

Sanitary landfill: In a sanitary landfill, garbage is spread out in thin layers, compacted and covered with
clay or plastic foam. In the modern landfills the bottom is covered with an impermeable liner, usually
53

several layers of clay, thick plastic and sand. The liner protects the ground water from being contaminated
due to percolation of leach ate. Leach ate from bottom is pumped and sent for treatment. When landfill is
full it is covered with clay, sand, gravel and top soil to prevent seepage of water. Several wells are drilled
near the landfill site to monitor if any leakage is contaminating ground water. Methane produced by
anaerobic decomposition is collected and burnt to produce electricity or heat.
Composting: Due to shortage of space for landfill in bigger cities, the biodegradable yard waste (kept
separate from the municipal waste) is allowed to degrade or decompose in an oxygen rich medium. A good
quality nutrient rich and environmental friendly manure is formed which improves the soil conditions and
fertility. Wormy technology, using earthworms can further help in converting solid organic waste into good
quality compost.
Incineration: Solid wastes can be brunt in large amounts at high temperature (around 1800C) in
incinerator. Incinerator is a high temperature furnace used for burning solid wastes. Earlier incinerators
used to be made of simple brick lining, but the modern ones are rotary. Kiln incinerators having a long
inclined passage through which the waste is constantly moved. There is about 75% reduction in waste mass
and 90% reduction in volume. The incinerators in which the waste to be burnt is not segregated are known
as mass burn incinerators. There are special incinerators where potentially harmful or hazardous.

Water Resources Engineering

Introduction to Hydraulic structures of storage
A hydraulic structure is a structure submerged or partially submerged in any body of water, which
disrupts the natural flow of water. They can be used to divert, disrupt or completely stop the flow. An
example of a hydraulic structure would be a dam, which slows the normal flow rate of river in order to
power turbines. A hydraulic structure can be built in rivers, a sea, or any body of water where there is a
need for a change in the natural flow of water
1)Dam is a solid barrier constructed at a suitable location across a river valley
Storage of water is utilized for following objectives:
to store flowing water. Drought and flood
Water for domestic consumption
Irrigation
Hydropower Other additional utilization is to develop
For navigational facilities
Control fisheries
BASED ON PURPOSE
1. STORAGE DAM OR IMPOUNDING DAM
2. DETENTION DAM
3. DIVERSION DAM
4. COFFER DAM
5. DEBRIS DAM
1. STORAGE DAM OR IMPOUNDING DAM:- It is constructed to create a reservoir to store water
during periods when there is huge flow in the river (in excess of demand) for utilisation later during periods
of low flow (demand exceeds flow in the river). Water stored in the reservoir is used for irrigation, power
generation, water supply etc. By suitable operation, it can also serve as a detention dam.
2. DETENTION DAM: - It is primarily constructed to temporarily detain all or part of the flood water in a
river and to gradually release the stored water later at controlled rates so that the entire region on the
downstream side of the dam is protected from possible damage due to floods. It may also be used as a
storage dam.
3. DIVERSION DAM: - It is constructed to divert part of or all the water from a river into a conduit or a
channel. For diverting water from a river into an irrigation canal, mostly a diversion weir is constructed
across the river.
54

4. COFFER DAM: - It is a temporary dam constructed to exclude water from a specific area. It is
constructed on the u/s side of the site where a dam is to be constructed so that the site is dry. In this case, it
behaves like a diversion dam.
5. DEBRIS DAM:-It is constructed to catch and retain debris flowing in a river.

Figure: Dam Construction

BASED ON HYDRAULIC DESIGN
1. OVERFLOW DAM OR OVERFALL DAM
It is constructed with a crest to permit overflow of surplus water that cannot be retained in the reservoir.
Generally dams are not designed as overflow dams for its entire length. Diversion weirs of small height
may be designed to permit overflow over its entire length.
2. NON-OVERFLOW DAM
It is constructed such that water is not allowed to overflow over its crest.
In most cases, dams are so designed that part of its length is designed as an overflow dam (this part is
called the spillway) while the rest of its length is designed as a non-overflow dam. In some cases, these two
sections are not combined.
BASED ON MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION
1. RIGID DAM
It is constructed with rigid material such as stone, masonry, concrete, steel, or timber. Steel dams (steel
plates supported on inclined struts) and timber dams (wooden planks supported on a wooden framework)
are constructed only for small heights (rarely).
2. NON-RIGID DAM (EMBANKMENT DAMS)
It is constructed with non-rigid material such as earth, tailings, rock fill etc.
Earthen dam gravel, sand, silt, clay etc
Tailings dam waste or refuse obtained from mines
Rock fill dam rock material supporting a water tight material on the u/s face
Rock fill composite dam Rockfill on the d/s side and earth fill on the u/s side
Earthen dams are provided with a stone masonry or concrete overflow (spillway) section. Such dams are
called composite dams.
In some cases, part of the length of the dam is constructed as earth dam and the rest (excluding the spillway)
as a masonry dam. Such dams are called masonry cum earthen dams.
BASED ON STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR
1.
2.
3.
4.

GRAVITY DAM
ARCH DAM
BUTTRESS DAM
EMBANKMENT DAM
55

GRAVITY DAM
It is a masonry or concrete dam which resists the forces acting on it by its own weight. Its c/s is
approximately triangular in shape.
Straight gravity dam A gravity dam that is straight in plan.
Curved gravity plan A gravity dam that is curved in plan.
Curved gravity dam (Arch gravity dam) It resists the forces acting on it by combined gravity action (its
own weight) and arch action.
Solid gravity dam Its body consists of a solid mass of masonry or concrete
Hollow gravity dam It has hollow spaces within its body.
Most gravity dams are straight solid gravity dams
Concrete Gravity Dams
Weight holds dam in place
Lots of concrete (expensive)
These dams are heavy and massive wall-like structures of concrete in which the whole weight acts
vertically downwards

As the entire load is transmitted on the small area of foundation, such dams are constructed where rocks are
competent and stable.
Bhakra Dam is the highest Concrete Gravity dam in Asia and the second highest in the world.
Bhakra Dam is across river Sutlej in Himachal Pradesh
The construction of this project was started in the year 1948 and was completed in 1963 .
It is 740 ft. high above the deepest foundation as straight concrete dam being more than three times
the height of Qutab Minar.
o Length at top 518.16m (1700 feet); width at base 190.5m (625 feet), and at the top is 9.14m (30
feet)
o Bhakra Dam is the highest Concrete Gravity dam in Asia and Second Highest in the world.
o
o
o
o

2. ARCH DAM
It is a curved masonry or concrete dam, convex upstream, which resists the forces acting on it by arch
action.
The only arch dam in India Idukki dam (double curvature in plan) concrete arch dam
Arch Dams
o
o
o
o

Arch shape gives strength

Less material (cheaper)
Narrow sites
Need strong abutments

3. BUTTRESS DAM
It consists of water retaining sloping membrane or deck on the u/s which is supported by a series of
buttresses. These buttresses are in the form of equally spaced triangular masonry or reinforced concrete
walls or counterforts. The sloping membrane is usually a reinforced concrete slab. In some cases, the u/s
slab is replaced by multiple arches supported on buttresses (multiple arch buttress dam) or by flaring the u/s
56

edge of the buttresses to span the distance between the buttresses (bulkhead buttress dam or massive head
buttress dam). In general, the structural behaviour of a buttress dam is similar to that of a gravity dam.
Buttress Dams

Face is held up by a series of supports

Flat or curved face
Buttress Dam Is a gravity dam reinforced by structural supports
Buttress a support that transmits a force from a roof or wall to another supporting structure
This type of structure can be considered even if the foundation rocks are little weaker.

4. EMBANKMENT DAM
It is a non-rigid dam which resists the forces acting on it by its shear strength and to some extent also by its
own weight (gravity). Its structural behaviour is in many ways different from that of a gravity dam.

Earth or rock
Weight resists flow of water

Earth Dams

They are trapezoidal in shape.

Earth dams are constructed where the foundation or the underlying material or rocks are weak to
support the masonry dam or where the suitable competent rocks are at greater depth.
Earthen dams are relatively smaller in height and broad at the base.
They are mainly built with clay, sand and gravel, hence they are also known as Earth fill dam or Rock
fill dam.

Water conveyance system:In some countries, water is routinely transported from regions where it is plentiful to regions where it is
scarce. Several water conveyance and distribution techniques are available, and are actively used in many
countries.
Among the most common water conveyance methods are tanker trucks, rural aqueducts, and pipelines. In
some cases, this involves the transfer of water from one portion of a river basin to another, or between river
basins. Each of these methods is described below
57

1)Tanker Trucks: Tanker trucks are fitted with a cistern or storage tank to transport and distribute water
from a point of supply to the point of use, particularly to suburban and rural areas not served by a piped
supply. If water is not supplied from a central treatment facility, it is usually extracted from the closest
natural source (rivers, canals, reservoirs, or groundwater sources) and transported by the trucks to the point
of use. Water thus transported may be pumped into a storage cistern, dispensed directly into household or
other containers, or discharged into a small-scale treatment facility for centralized distribution. The tanks
on the trucks are usually manufactured locally, and some trucks are equipped to carry portable pumps to
extract the water from its source.
2) Pipelines: Water may conveyed through pipelines by gravity flow or by pumping. The latter system will
be significantly more expensive to construct, operate and maintain than similar gravity-flow systems.
Large-diameter pipelines can be used to convey water over large distances, while smaller-diameter
pipelines can be used to provide bulk or individual supplies at the point of use.
3) Aqueducts: Aqueducts are canals used to bring water from a river or reservoir to a water distribution
center. The main factors to be considered in the design of an aqueduct are the demand to be met, the source
of the water, the topography in the area in which the aqueduct is to be built, the size and nature of the
storage facilities, and the size and location of the distribution network. Aqueducts are best suited to meeting
large-scale demands in areas with a fairly flat or gently sloping landscape suitable for conveying water to
the point of use by gravity.
4) Open canals: An open canal, channel, or ditch, is an open waterway whose purpose is to carry water
from one place to another. Channels and canals refer to main waterways supplying water to one or more
farms. Field ditches have smaller dimensions and convey water from the farm entrance to the irrigated
fields.
According to the shape of their cross-section, canals are called rectangular (a), triangular (b), trapezoidal
(c), circular (d), parabolic (e), and irregular or natural (f)
A trapezoidal canal cross-section

A side slope of 1:2 (one to two)

The freeboard of the canal is the height of the bank above the highest water level anticipated. It is required
to guard against overtopping by waves or unexpected rises in the water level.
The side slope of the canal is expressed as ratio, namely the vertical distance or height to the horizontal
distance or width. For example, if the side slope of the canal has a ratio of 1:2 (one to two), this means that
the horizontal distance (w) is two times the vertical distance (h)

58

The bottom slope of the canal does not appear on the drawing of the cross-section but on the longitudinal
section (see Fig. 76). It is commonly expressed in percent or per mil.

An example of the calculation of the bottom slope of a canal is given below (see also Fig. 76):

or

Watershed management
Watershed management is a process for protecting the lakes, streams, and wetlands in our
watersheds from point and nonpoint source pollution. It is accomplished by developing an understanding of
key factors that affect the water quality of lakes, streams and wetlands and by following a plan of action to
prevent, reduce, or minimize those activities within a watershed that may negatively impact water quality.
Watershed management consists of many diverse activities including controlling point and nonpoint source
59

pollution, monitoring water quality, adopting ordinances and policies, educating stakeholders, and
controlling growth and development in a watershed.
Watershed management is the planned manipulation of one or more factors of the natural or disturbed
drainage to maintain a desired condition of the water resource.
Why is watershed management important?
In the most general term watershed management is important for the improvement and maintenance of
good water quality in our watershed. In the recent years the water quality standards have come under stress
due to increasing population, depleting water resources, bad management practices. Addressing all the
issues that concerns the water resources of our watershed in any way come under the watershed
management strategy.
What are some of the solutions to address watershed problems?
There are three main activities that are recommended for a good watershed management practice:
Rehabilitating lands that are source of sediment loss and chemical export
Protecting the sensitive areas in the watershed so that resources can be conserved that may be spent
in rehabilitation of the same, otherwise
Improving the characteristics of water resources that affect the quality of water
Objectives of Watershed Development Programmes (WDPs)

Watershed development aims to balance the conservation, regeneration and use by humans of land and water
resources within a watershed. Common benefits from successful watershed development projects include
improved agricultural yields and increased access to drinking water. The overall attributes of the watershed
development approach, by and large, are three fold, viz. promoting economic development of the rural area,
employment generation, and restoring ecological balance

RAINWATER HARVESTING is a process involving collection and storage of rain water (with the help
of artificially designed system) that runs off natural or man-made catchment areas e.g. roof top,
compounds, rock surface or hill slopes or artificially repaired impervious/semi-pervious land surface.
Undoubtedly a number of factors contribute to the amount of water harvested e.g. the frequency and the
quantity of rainfall, catchments characteristics, water demands and the quantum of runoff, and above all
speed and ease with which the rainwater percolates through the subsoil to recharge the ground water.
There are two main techniques of rain water harvestings.
1. Storage of rainwater on surface for future use.
2. Recharge to ground water
A rooftop rainwater harvesting system consists the following elements:
Collection area,
Conveyance system,
Filtration /treatment
Storage
Usage/ Recharge
The collection area in most cases is the roof of a house or a building. The effective roof area and the
material used in constructing the roof influence the efficiency of collection and the water quality.
A conveyance system usually consists of gutters or pipes that deliver rainwater falling on the rooftop to
cisterns or other storage vessels. Both drainpipes and roof surfaces should be constructed of chemically
inert materials such as wood, plastic, aluminum, or fiberglass, in order to avoid adverse effects on water
quality. The water ultimately is stored in a storage tank or cistern, which should also be constructed of an
inert material. Reinforced concrete, fiberglass, or stainless steel is suitable materials. Storage tanks may be
constructed as part of the building, or may be built as a separate unit located some distance away from the
building.

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UNIT IV

INSTRUMENTATION IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

STRUCTURES
(I) FOLLOWING ARE THE INSTRUMENTS COMMONLY USED IN BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION WORK:1. Following tools are commonly used in the stone masonry and stone dressing :a) Spade, b) Pick axe, c) Spall hammer, d) Kassi or Phawrah, e) Iron Pan, f) Rammer, g) Punch,
i) Square, j) Scrabbling hammer.
Fig. 1) and Fig 2) shows tools for stone masonry and stone dressing.

h) Gad,

Fig. (1) Tools and plants used in stone masonry.

Fig. (2) Tools and plants used in stone masonry.

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2. Various tools for excavation: - Fig a) shows tools of excavation.

3. Hoisting equipments like various types of cranes.
4. Derricks, Guy Derrick, Scotch derrick.
5. Dumpers.
6. Tractors.
7. Bulldozers.
8. Drag lines.
9. JCB.
10. Drag lines.
11. Various rollers for compaction.
12. Graders.
13. Tilting mixers.
14. Vibrators.
Some of the instruments are explained in following sections.
1) CRANES:Normally cranes are used in building construction for lifting and erecting pre-fabricated units and
for other purposes. Depending upon the nature of work and load to be lifted different cranes are used.
Tower cranes are the non-swinging type cranes mounted on high steel tower. These cranes are suitable for
tall structures, high rise building construction of buildings in congested areas in assembling of high
industrial plants. With tower cranes loading and unloading of heavy structural pieces is done quite easily.
The tower on which crane is mounted has a truss structure welded with bars and angles and channels
generally jib is attached to last tower. The tower cranes are available in different forms with a horizontal jib
carrying a saddle or trolley or alternatively with a lifting or derricking jib with lifting hook at extreme end.
The horizontal jibs can bring the load closer to tower while luffing jibs are used to clear obstruction.
The tower crane are of following types :1. Self supporting static tower crane.
2. Supported static tower crane.
3. Travelling tower crane.
4. Climbing crane.
1. Self Supporting Static Tower Crane :The self supporting cranes have a static tower with rotating or slewing tower. The maximum
height of tower is 27.4 m and the maximum height to which load is attached is 26.2m. The hoisting
radius will be 1.1 rpm. The crane is operated either from ground level as well as the operator cabin
provided above the tower.
2. Supported static tower crane :A stationary (static or fixed) crane, either freestanding or supported by the building, can be erected on a
suitable concrete base or other substantial mount. Increases in the height of the crane are made possible
through the use of the telescoping mechanism of the crane, permitting the addition of sections.

Fig. (3) Self supporting static tower crane.

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Fig. (4) Supported Static tower crane.

1. Travelling tower crane :The addition of a rail-mounted undercarriage to the stationary crane allows free traveling under load
on either straight or curved tracks. This is particularly useful when the application requires a larger area
than the working radius the crane permits. There is also a truck-mounted tower crane, and attachments
that convert conventional crawler or truck cranes to tower cranes (Figure 6).

Fig. (5) Travelling tower crane.

3. Climbing crane :With their working radiuses varying from 30m to 70m, cranes are famous for their large operating
ranges, varied working methods and wide uses. This series of tower cranes has a horizontal jib frame, a
jib-trolley radius-changing mechanism and a hydraulic self-raising mechanism. It is original in design,
reliable in operation and satisfactory in shape. Equipped with all necessary safety devices, these cranes
show a good speed-control capacity, satisfactory operating stability and high work efficiency. They can
be widely used for the construction of high-rise hotels, residential buildings, high-rise industrial
buildings, large-span factory buildings and tower-like buildings like tall chimneys.

Fig. (6) Climbing crane.

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2) DERRICKS:These are mounted on triangulate frame and their load carrying capacity is 5-10 MT and its jib
length is 30 m. It is mainly used for factory columns, trusses, frames, etc. The derricks are classified as: (a) The Guy derrick, (b) Scotch derrick.
1. The Guy Derrick :In this type of crane vertical post is longer than jib and is mounted on the basement and held by five or
more anchored guy ropes. These are simple type of static crane powers by diesel engine. The shorter lib has
advantage that at minimum radius it can rotate through full 3600 clearing the guys by passing underneath
them

Fig. (7) The Guy Derrick.

1. The Scotch Derrick :It has short vertical centre post and a jib is usually two times as long as centre post. These
are capable of slewing 2700 only as they are restricted in further rotational movement by sloping
lattice guy. The centre post carried the hoisting slewing and luffing gears together with the operator
and his cab. Most of the scotch derricks are stationary and requires firm anchorage and heavy
ballasting to hold down the feet of stays and the base of the centre post. The weight on foot of each
stay, should be such that it should be four times the rate of maximum lifting capacity foot derricks.
The capacity of scotch derricks are upto 200 tonne.

Fig. (8) The Scotch Derrick.

3) BULLDOZERS:Bulldozers are the cheapest and first choice for excavating and moving earth upto 100 m. These are
either crawler or wheel type. Amongst this crawler type is mostly used. In bulldozer cutting blade is
mounted at the direction perpendicular to the direction of travel. And when cutting blade is set at the angle
with the direction of travel it is called as angle dozer and these angle dozers are used inside hill works
where the material is to be pushed down the slope. The bulldozer pushes earth forward while angle dozer
64

pushes it forward and to one side. When V shaped blade is attached in front side and purpose of providing
V shape blade is to cut the trees and to drive out roots it is called as tree dozer and if blade attached can be
tilted to rise from one end by 20 to 25 cm it is called tilt dozer.

Fig. (9) Bulldozer.

4) WHEEL LOADER (JCB):Excavation machine made up of a wheel tractor, a backhoe and a front hand loader. This type of
excavator is manufactured by JCB sales limited that are why the name is JCB. It is typical type of multipurpose excavator machine which is based upon a tractor power unit and very popular in the construction
industry and commonly used by building contractors due to its versatility of multi-purpose working. JCB as
an excavators are available with small to medium size. The tractor is normally a diesel-powered wheeled
vehicle in which a hydraulically controlled loading shovel is fitted at the front and a hydraulically
controlled back acting bucket or hoe at the rear of the vehicle.

Fig. (10) A typical section of JCB.

5) DRAGLINE (EXCAVATOR MACHINE):It is the most flexible excavating tool. However they are more suitable where swampy condition
prevent other equipments from being used. It has more reach than a shovel both for excavating as well as
disposal. It can dig far below its base almost in any location. These are classified on the basis of mounting
whether truck mounted, crawler tractor mounted or wheel mounted. The operating cycle of the dragline
consists of five basic steps:
1. The empty bucket is positioned, ready to be filled.
2. The bucket is dragged toward the dragline to fill it.
3. The filled bucket is simultaneously hoisted and swung over to the spoil pile. If the swing motion must be
slowed to permit hoisting, the dragline is said to be hoist critical. When hoisting to the dump position is
completed before the boom is in position to dump, the dragline is said to be swing critical.
4. The material is dumped on the spoil.
5. The bucket is swung back to the cut while simultaneously being lowered and retrieved to the digging
position.

65

Fig. (11) A typical section of Dragline (Excavator machine).

(II) FOLLOWING ARE THE INSTRUMENTS COMMONLY USED IN COMPACTION
WORK:To increase the bearing capacity, strength of earth structure the soil stabilization and compaction is
necessary. Compaction is achieved by applying proper methods and by using many types of rollers
depending upon the requirement of degree of compaction. Many types of compacting equipments are
available like steel rollers, vibration rollers, tamping rollers, pneumatic rollers all these are manually
propelled or mechanically operated.
1) PLAIN ROLLERS:The plain steel rollers weighing from 5m to 15m are used for ordinary rolling work where deep
compaction is not required. It consists of two axle and three wheels of which front one is used for steering
while rear two wheels are used as driving units. A three wheel tandom rollers differs from two wheels in
that it has three drums and three axle and are designed in terms of MT that means if it is indicated as 10/12
MT means the minimum weight of machine is 10 tonnes.

Fig. (12) Plain Roller

2) SHEEP FOOTED ROLLERS:Whenever the compaction is to be done to a great depth the place like in embankment or canal
sheep foot rollers are used. The sheep foot rollers consist of a hollow steel drum around its periphery of
which welded projections or feet just like that of sheep are used. These are varies from 15-20 cm long. In
the working of these rollers soil is supposed to be compacted and consolidated. When the compression by
projecting teeth is not more than 12mm deep and then top layer is finished with smooth wheel roller. These
rollers are called as temping rollers. The pressure variation below its feet is 4 to 7 kg/cm and 25 to 70
km/cm for light heavy rollers respectively.

Fig. (13) Sheep footed Roller

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3) PNEUMATIC ROLLERS:The pneumatic-tired rollers are widely used for compaction of subgrades, bases, bituminous
mixes, and many types of material. They have rubber tires instead of steel tires or drums and generally
feature two tandem axles, with three or four tires on the front axle and four or five tires on the rear. They
are aligned so the rear tires cover the spaces left between the tracks of the front tires. The tires are mounted
in pairs that can oscillate, or singly with spring action, so tires can move down into soft spots that would be
bridged by steel drum. The rubber tires add to their downward pressure a kneading effect, as material is
pressed toward spaces between the tires. Pneumatic-tired rollers can be ballasted to adjust the weight.
Depending on size and type, the weight may vary from 10 to 35 tons. However, more important than gross
weight is the weight per wheel for the material being compacted. Pneumatic rollers ballast with
water are top-heavy and are very unstable when operating on uneven terrain.

Fig. (14) Pneumatic Roller

4) VIBRATORY ROLLERS:Vibratory rollers are the recent development of compacting dry and lean concrete. A heavy roller
which vibrates while vibrates while rolling is used for the compaction of dry lean concrete. Mainly for
construction of dams and pavements.

Fig. (15) Vibratory Roller

5) TILTING TYPE MIXERS:In tilting type mixers the drum can be tilted at one side after proper mixing is done and effective
mixing of concrete can be carried out simultaneously. These are having capacity in between 0.1 m3 to 0.2
m3. In tilting type drum mixers drum is made up of cast iron and steel plate body rotates across its axis
inside the drum. For continuous agitation blades are fixed. While charging drum all ingredients in required
specification are poured into the hopper and then with the help of winding and unwinding of wire rope the
material is charged into drum through the hopper. Hopper is also made up of steel plate. The clutch and
brake control the movement of hopper. The water is added as per requirement and then drum is rotated at
specific required rpm and then it is tilted on other side and the mixed concrete is spilled out through the
drum and then utilized for site work. Due to their portability and easy operations these are preferred on site.
These can handle aggregate size of 15 cm to 20cm.

67

Fig. (16) Tilting type mixers.

6) NON-TILTING TYPE MIXERS:A Non tilting type of mixers consist of a drum rotating about horizontal axis and it has opening on
both sides one for charging and other for discharging for charging and discharing loading skips and chute
are used. In non tilting mixers, the mixing should be done with proper care. First of all the mixtures are
charged with water and when all ingredients are charged in loading skip it is then lifted and poured into
rotary drum and then uniform and whole mixing of concrete is done and then by giving some revolving
velocity the other gate is opened and the uniform mix is allowed to fall from which it can be transported to
the required position. Care should be taken while charging is that mixer should not be charged more than its
capacity.

Fig. (17)Non-Tilting type mixers.

7) PAVEMENT MIXERS:These are mainly used for mixing and placing of concrete for pavements of highways and streets,
airways etc. These are mounted on crawler tracks so that they can move along with the placing of concrete.
8) TRANSIT MIXERS:It is one of the popular equipment or machine used for transporting concrete over a long distance.
These are truck mounted. Mixing of concretes done in mixer attached to a truck which rotates at 2-6
revolutions per minute the capacity of transit mixers are 4m3 to 7m3.
9) CONCRETE VIBRATOR:Compaction is important to expell entrapped air from the concrete. If air is not removed fully
concrete looses its strength. It is observed that 5 % voids present in concrete reduces the strength of
concrete by about 30 % and 10 % voids reduces strength by 50 % and hence it is necessary to remove the
air entrapped during the concreting operations. The various methods of compaction are :a) Hand compaction.
b) Compaction by vibrators.
c) Compaction by spinning.
d) Compaction by pressure and joiting.
a) Hand Compaction: - is classified as :- i) Rodding, ii) Ramming, iii) Tamping.
b) Compaction by vibrators: - Compaction of concrete by vibrators are classified as :i) Needle vibrator (Internal vibrator) :- A Needle vibrator, also known as Concrete vibrator, is a tool
used at construction sites. In needle vibrator, a motor is fixed on a swivel base that drives a flexible shaft,
which in return, vibrates the needle in around 10,000 vibrations per minute. The dimensions of Needle
Vibrator offered by us are 25 mm diameter x 350 mm long needle with 1 meter long flexible shaft.
Functions of Needle Vibrator: Used for proper mixing of concrete.
Used to ensure that concrete pour is free of air bubbles
68

Used to ensure that the concrete pour is even with a smooth finish.

Fig. (18) Needle Vibrator.

ii) Form work vibrator (External vibrator) :External Vibrator is more suitable vibrator for concreting the column, thin walls or in casting of
precast members. It gives a good finish to the concrete surface. Compaction by external vibrator or
formwork vibrator is particularly used to the area where reinforcement, lateral ties and spacers becomes
more congested and gives more interfere to the internal vibrator. External vibrator consume more power
than the internal vibrator because vibration is given to the concrete indirectly through the formwork.

Fig. (19) External Vibrator

iii) Table vibrator:Table vibrators are used to compact concrete to avoid blowholes on concrete slabs.

Fig. (20) External Vibrator.

vi) Surface vibrator (Screed vibrator):Surface vibrators are also known as screed board vibrators. These are particularly used where the
compaction is to be done for thin concreting members such as floor slab, roof slab, road surface etc. where
other type of vibrators is not suitable. These are small vibrators placed on the screed board. These screed
vibrators are not effective beyond 15 cm.
NDT
Quality control method that does not damage or destroy the material or product being tested.
Performed on a finished item instead of on a material sample, it uses infrared radiation, radiography,
ultrasound, x-rays, and other techniques to detect fatigue effects, structural flaws, and other such defects.

ULTRASONIC TESTING
The basic principle of this method of testing is that the velocity of an ultrasonic pulse through concrete is
related to its density and elastic properties. Some care is necessary when testing, but an experienced
operator may obtain a considerable amount of information about a concrete member. The advantage of this
method is that the pulse passes through the complete thickness of the concrete so that significant defects
can be detected. The method also determines the measurement of concrete deterioration which might have
occurred due to age or through the action of fire, frost or chemical attack.
The measurement of concrete uniformity
Determination of the presence or absence of voids, cracks and other imperfections
69

Measurement of layer thickness and elastic modulus

Determination and monitoring of concrete strength
Quality control and inspection of concrete structures is the primary application for the Ultrasonic Concrete
Testing System. It uses measurement of the speed of ultrasonic pulses through the concrete to correlate
concrete strength to standard strength. It will identify non-homgeneous conditions in the structure such as
honeycombs, voids, cracks, frozen concrete, etc. Use it to survey complete structures, new, old, fire
damaged or weathered. The large LCD display shows a graphic waveform and the elapsed time in 0.1
microsecond increments.
The system includes two 54 KHz transducers with connecting cables, readout unit, power cord, built-in
rechargeable batteries, carrying case and coupling grease. The system facilitates automatic calculation of:
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
Poisson's Ratio
Modulus of Elasticity

Environmental Engineering:
SPECTROPHOTOMETER
Instrument used to measure the intensity of wavelengths in a spectrum of light compared with the intensity
of light from a standard source. II Device for measuring the brightness of the various portions of spectra.
Principle:
Light Intensity Change : By Absorbance or Transmittance
Quantity : Using Absorbance
Use:
To determine the intensity of transmitted light
To Determine the absorbance or transmittance
Used in dyes industry
To determine colour impurities in water

Strain Gauges:
It is passive resistive transducer. This is a transducer which transforms mechanical elongation and
compression into resistance change. The elongation or compression per unit length of conducting wire is
called as strain. The strain gauge is an example of a passive transducer that uses the variation in electrical
resistance in wires to sense the strain produced by a force on the wires.
(2) Applications:
The strain gauges find application in following areas :
1) Experimental stress analysis 2) Load cells
3) Torque meters
4) Diaphragm type pressure gauges
5) Accelerometers
6) Flow meters
7) Temperature sensors
Electric Resistance Strain Gauges
The strain gage is one of the most widely used strain measurement sensors. It is a resistive elastic unit
whose change in resistance is a function of applied strain.

where R is the resistance, is the strain, and S is the strain sensitivity factor of the gage material (gage
factor in some books).

70

Among strain gages, an electric resistance wire strain gage has the advantages of lower cost and being an
established product. Thus it is the most commonly used type of device. Other types of strain gages are
acoustic, capacitive, inductive, mechanical, optical, piezo-resistive, and semi-conductive. A wire strain
gage is made by a resistor, usually in metal foil form, bonded on an elastic backing. Its principle is based
on fact that the resistance of a wire increases with increasing strain and decreases with decreasing strain,
as first reported by Lord Kelvin in 1856.

Management of Utilities using telemetry:

Definition of Telemetry:
A technology that allows data measurements to be made at a distance is called as telemetry. The word is
derived from Greek roote. The tele means remote and metron means measure. System which needs external
instructions and data so as to operate require the counter part of telemetry. In short, a process by which the
measured physical quantities such as temperature level, pressure, flow, displacement, velocity, acceleration,
relative humidity, speed etc. are transrmtted to a suitable and convenient remote station or to a process etc.
is called as telemetry.
Basic Telemetry System:
It consists of the following building block which transmits data to the desire destination. A measuring
instrument: It measures pressure, flow, temperature, level or any other variable. A conversion element or
transducer: It converts the measured variable into proportional electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic signals. A
transmitter: It transmits the measured variable to a receiver. A receiver: It receives the transmitted variable.
Applications and Management of utilities using telemetry
There are several applications of telemetry; some of them are briefly explained as below:
1. It is used in Meteorology by weather balloons for transmitting meteorological data.
2. Telemetry is used to transmit drilling mechanics and formation evaluation information uphole, in
real time, as a well is drilled in oil and gas industries
3. It is also used in agriculture, in which wireless weather stations play a major role in disease
prevention and precision irrigation. Telemetry stations transmit parameters necessary for decisionmaking to a base station to know the air temperature and relative humidity precipitation and leaf
wetness (for disease prediction models), solar radiation and wind speed, water deficit stress leaf
sensors and soil moisture.
4. Water resources sewer utilities can be well monitored and managed by telemetry.
5. Telemetry play a vital role in water management including water quality and stream gauging
functions. Major applications include AMR i.e. Automatic Meter Reading, ground water
monitoring, leak detection in distribution of pipelines and equipment surveillance.
6. Telemetry is used to manage the complex system such as missiles, spacecraft, oil rigs and chemical
plants since it allows the automatic monitoring, altering and recordkeeping necessary for efficient
and safe operation.
7. Telemetry is used in energy monitoring. In factories, buildings and houses, energy consumption
system is monitored at multiple locations; related parameters such as temperature etc. are sent via
wireless telemetry to a central point. The information is collected and processed, enabling the most
efficient use of energy. Telemetry system also manages predictive maintenance.

8. PROCESSING DATA FROM TELEMETRY

The meter readings from reservoirs are useful information for managing the distribution system and
helps in preventing overflow from reservoirs. However the effectiveness of Telemetry in pumping
operations is dependent on reliability of instrumentation for measuring flows, pressures, KWh meters,
etc. Standard practice is to calculate pump efficiency and water audit calculations on a monthly basis.
71

Telemetry can also be used to supervise water hammer protection system wherein the pump failures are
linked to initiate measures to prevent occurrence of water hammer.

Fig. SCADA system integrating industrial process and operator panel.

SCADA System.
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
Instead of manual review of data collected by telemetry and initiating action manually, if telemetry is
extended to include actions based on the data for remote control of pumps and other equipment then such a
system is known as SCADA. Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) is a computer aided
system which collects, stores and analyses the data on all aspects of O&M. The operating personnel can
retrieve the data and control their operations and sometimes the system itself is programmed to control the
operations on the basis of the acquired data. SCADA enhance the efficiency of the O&M personnel who
are better informed about the system and hence are in full control of the operations. Whether in a telemetry
system or a SCADA system up-to the minute real time information is gathered from remote terminal unit
located at the water treatment plant, reservoir, flow meter, pumping station etc. and transmitted to a central
control station where the information is updated, displayed and stored manually or automatically. In a
SCADA system the information is linked to a supervisory system for local display, alarm annunciation etc.
which may be linked to remote control of pumping operations or operation of valves etc.
Data collection in SCADA
SCADA systems will have probes/sensors which will sense and generate signals for the level, pressure and
flow in a given unit and transmit the signals for storage and analysis in the computer. The signals are
transmitted by radio, by Telephone, microwave satellite or fiberoptic transmission systems. The signals
transmitted are stored as data, analysed and presented as information. SCADA systems can include the
network diagrams of the distribution system of which detailed sketches of a particular area can be viewed
by the operator if necessary to observe the current operating data such as flow, pressure, level or residual
chlorine. SCADA systems in Water distribution are programmed for collection and processing of following
information.
to monitor levels in Service reservoirs, pressures and flows in a distribution system
to monitor and store data on levels in SRs, or flows/quantity of delivered into a SR or pressures of
distribution system and generate alarms for threshold values of levels, flows and pressures to initiate
operation of valves and pumps
to monitor and store data on operation of pumps such as Voltage, amperes, energy consumed, operating
times and down times of pumps
to measure and record chlorine residuals and generate alarms at thresh hold values of residual chlorine in
the distribution systems.

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Working of SCADA
The SCADA works at the application layer i.e. the layer at which the end user or operator/supervisor
interfaces to the process controller and I/O devices.
The SCADA system includes the basic blocks such as :
Input output signal hardware or instrumentation,
The process controller.
The HMI software and display.
Network communication.
Process database and
Controller interface hardware and software.

This whole system operates either in a stand alone mode or in networked mode. In the networked mode the
all possible nodes connected to the supervisory controller usually called as master is connected to all
possible and required slaves.All these slaves has unique slave address and the supervisory controller can
select the specific slave by placing the appropriate slave address, followed by the datagram, that includes
the targeted message to specific slave and the compulsory pre-amble and post-amble message frame
overheads. This software addressing for the multiple clients and controllers connected to the supervisor
reduces the wiring complexity of the system upto the considerable level.

Fig. shows the functional block diagram of SCADA system.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
It is defined in the report of the 1987 world commission on environment and development, our common
future as development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generation to meet their own needs.
Sustainable development simply means development that genuinely sustains and improves economic,
social and environmental well being with no major trade off, locally and globally, now and in the future.
Role of Engineers in Sustainable Development:
Engineers can play a significant role in ensuring sustainable solutions available, considered and
implemented.
In contrast, the applied knowledge of this engineering community has been largely absent from this
policy debate, despite this fact which engineers use science to plan, build and operate this
infrastructure which may directly contribute to solutions and sometimes problems of environmental
degradation.
Re-address engineering responsibilities by incorporating sustainable developments principles into
the codes of ethic of these engineering organisations throughout this world.
Incorporate long term environmental impacts and costs into this analysis of alternate solutions being
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considered.
Information exchange is this comer stone of sustainable development and technological innovation.
Engineers can use wenet to share ideas, conduct business and develop sustainable engineering
solutions.
The world engineering partnership for sustainable development with its partners is creating an
global communications network with engineers to provide leadership and practical content to the
concept of sustainable development wenet represents is a major step in linking engineers and
sharing technology with developed and developing nations. Hence engineer can use wenet for
sustainable development.
Near form solutions to critical global environmental issues such as fresh water and global climate change
exist, for application in both developed and developing countries and for all regions of the world.

CONCEPT OF GREEN BUILDINGS

Green building is also termed as green construction or sustainable building. Green building is that structure
which is built by using the process which is environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout
a building's life-cycle from siting to:
(i) Design
(ii) Construction
(iii) Operation
(iv) Maintenance
(v) Renovation and (vi) Demolition
To achieve the effective target of greens buildings, there should be a close co-operation of the
design team, the architects, engineers and the client at all stages of the desired project.
The green building practice expands and complements the classical building design concerns of
economy, utility, durability, eco-friendly and comfort.
Objective of green building:
The common objective of green building is to design the building in such way that it should reduces the
overall impact of the built environment on human health and the natural environment Following are the
main and common objective of the green building

Efficient utilisation of energy, water and other resources

Protecting occupant health and improving employee productivity
Reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradation
Recycling of waste material

Maximum utilisation of eco-friendly material or natural material which are available locally.
Sustainable design and green architecture.
Green Buildings Retain the Environment at the location of the Building.
Suppose we propose a multi-storied office complex to accommodate thousands of officers and staff, it
requires a vast area. Therefore selection of a site for such a building complex should consider retention of
local vegetation, wild life, natural water courses etc. Either a site with bio diversity should be avoided or
the building should be planned to reduce site disturbance.

Fig. Conceptual drawing of Green Building

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LEED CERTIFICATION
Meaning of LEED is leadership in energy and environmental design. LEED consists of a suite of rating
system for the design, construction and operation of high performance green buildings; homes and
neighborhoods. Certification is granted solely by the Green Building Certification Institute (GBCI), which
is responsible for the third party verification of project compliance with LEED requirements. LEED
certification assures that a building project is environmentally responsible; profitable and a healthy place to
work.
Ratings for LEED certification exist for the following categories
1. New construction
2. Existing buildings
3. Core and shell
4. Schools
5. Commercial buildings and its interiors
6. Homes
7. Healthcare facilities Neighborhood development
LEED certified buildings has the following salient features
1. It has lower operating costs
2. It has a higher asset value
3. It conserve both water and energy
4. It is healthier and safer for occupants
5. It reduces green house gas emissions
6. It show the owner's commitment to environmental stewardship and social responsibility
7. It qualify for tax rebates, zoning allowances and other incentives
LEED certification is obtained after submitting an application documenting compliance with the
requirements of the rating system as well as paying registration and certification fees. In order to establish a
building's points awards in each credit category, buildings applying for certification are compared with a
theoretical baseline defined by a LEED methodology

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