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TheSlowIntegrationofInstrumentsintoChristianWorship
ThemusicoftheChristianChurchhasundergonemuchchangesinceitsbiblically
recordedbeginnings.Perhapsoneofthemorecontroversialmusicalchangesinthechurch,both
beforeandshortlyaftertheReformation,centeredontheproprietyofintermixingthesacred
liturgyandmusicalinstruments.Thechurchsstanceontheuseofinstrumentsinsacredmusic
shiftedthroughinfluencesofchurchleaders,secularculture,andinnovativecomposers.To
speakofashiftnecessitatesaclearunderstandingofthestartingpointunaccompaniedvocal
onlyliturgyandoftheendpointinstrumentsservingbothaliturgicalfunctionandas
accompaniment.Whilethechurchsviewonworshipcontinuestoshifteveninthepresentday,
thispaperwillfocusprimarilyfromthebeginningoftheChristianchurchthroughthedeathof
JohannSebastianBachin1750.
AsrecordedintheOldTestament,Jewishworshipincludedinstrumentsassigned
accordingtoonesancestraltribeandpurpose.Forexample,shofars(horns)andtrumpets
remainedreservedasinstrumentsforthepriestlytribewhileharpsandlyresseemedtobe
1
designatedtotheLevitesasaccompanimentforliturgicalsinging.
Othersourcesalsoverifythe
highlyinclusivemusicalnatureofthetempleserviceswithregardtoinstruments.AuthorJohn
PriceconnectstheearlymusicalpracticesofthechurchtotheJewishsynagogues.Accordingto
Price,thereseemstobenorecordofinstrumentalworshipinJewishworshiponcethetemplein
JerusalemwasdestroyedinAD70.Afterthat,Jewsworshipedexclusivelyinlocalsynagogues
thatpracticedunaccompaniedvocalsinging.Stylistically,localsynagoguesmovedawayfrom
JosephGelineau,
VoicesandInstrumentsinChristianWorship:Principles,Laws,Applications
(Collegeville,MN:LiturgicalPress,1964),149.
1
thesacrificialandceremonialtraditionstowardasimplisticandspiritualcongregationalfeel.
It
isoutofthatexperiencethattheearlychurchmodeleditsworship.Whilethereisevidencethat
thetempleworshipincludedinstruments,earlychurchleadersoverallrejectedthatinclusion.The
secondcenturytheologian,ClementofAlexandria,stated,Weemploybutoneinstrument,the
peacefulWordalone,neithertheoldpsaltery,northetuba,notdrumorflute,loveofthosewho
3
armforthefray.
Theearlychurchfathersdevelopedaratherrobustargumentagainsttheinclusionof
instrumentsinliturgicalworship.JamesMcKinnon,arespectedresearcheronthistopic,said,
TheantagonismwhichtheFathersoftheearlyChurchdisplayedtowardinstrumentshastwo
4
outstandingcharacteristics:vehemenceanduniformity.
Thisharshattitudeisrootedin
considerationsofpracticalityanddoctrine.Whentheearlychurchfacedpersecution,the
undergroundnatureofitsmeetingsmandatedasecrecyandhushedtonenotsuitedfor
5
instrumentalpracticesinworship.
However,thatthemostcrucialoppositiongrewoutof
doctrinalconcernsandthetopicwasfrequentlydiscussed.EdmundBowles,inhis
Musical
Quarterly
articleonInstrumentalLiturgyintheMiddleAges,notesthatthebanon
instrumentsbeganasamatterofconscienceandevolvedintoconcretechurchpolicybytheend
6
oftheMiddleAges.
DespiteBiblicalevidenceofinstrumentsintheOldTestament,these
churchfathersbannedinstrumentsonthegroundsofthreearguments.First,thatOldTestament
John
Price,
OldLightonNewWorship:MusicalInstrumentsandtheWorshipofGod,a
Theological,HistoricalandPsychologicalStudy
(Avinger,TX:SimpsonPub,2005),6567.
3
KarlWeinmann,
HistoryofChurchMusic
(Westport,Connecticut:GreenwoodPress,1910),
182183.
4
Price,
OldLightonNewWorship,
68.
5
EdmundA.Bowles,WereMusicalInstrumentsUsedintheLiturgicalServiceduringthe
MiddleAges?
TheGalpinSociety
10(1957):47
6
Ibid,70.
2
practiceswerenolongerneedinthepostChristsreturnmaturityofthechurch.Second,many
7
feltthatreferencestoinstrumentswerebestinterpretedfiguratively.
IgnatiusofAntiochfirst
putforththisviewbyallegorizingtheharmonybetweenChristandthebishopswiththe
8
welltunedstringsofaharp.
Third,andmostconvincingly,musicalinstrumentswereconsidered
tobecloselyalignedwithpaganandimmoralcultpractices.Regardlessofreasoning,theearly
churchfatherswereunanimousintheirdismissalofinstrumentsinworship.InAD367,The
9
CouncilonLaodiceaformallyforbadetheuseofmusicalinstrumentsinchurch.
Thetotalitarianstanceonmusicalinstrumentsinsacredworshipbegantoloosenasthe
organincreasedinuseandpopularity.Theorganhasanimpressivehistory,withdocumentations
showingthatsomeearlyformsoforganswereavailableinEgypt,RomeandGreecewellbefore
thebirthofChrist.Theseorganswereratherprimitive,usingasystemofhydraulicsthat
10
involvedawaterdeviceproducingairpressure.
Around670,PopeVitalianusintroduceda
RomanCatholicChurchinRometoanorgan,resultinginwhatmanyconsidertobeoneofthe
firstrecordedexampleofinstrumentsinChristianworship.KingPepinofFrancereceivedan
11
organasagiftfromByzantineEmperorConstantineVintheeightcentury.
(Asaninteresting
aside,musicologistWilliApelarguesthatwesternpolyphony,whichofcoursedominatedmuch
oftheearlychurchvocalmusic,wasinfactmodeledfromearlyByzantineorganworks.This
Price,
OldLightonNewWorship,
68.
Ibid,68.
9
Ibid
,
76.
10
ErwinEsserNemmers.
TwentyCenturiesofCatholicChurchMusic
(Westport,Connecticut:
GreenwoodPress,1949),149.
11
Price,
OldLightonNewWorship,
79.
7
8
12
alsoexplainstheoriginoftheterm
organum
.)
WhilePepininstalledthatorganinhiscourt,his
13
son,Charlemagne,hadareplicabuiltforthetheCathedralofAixlaChapelle.
Organsbegantofindamoreregularplaceinchurchesbythetwelfthcentury.Numerous
sourcesverifyanorganinthecathedralofWinchesterwhichrequiredseventymentooperateit
14
andthatproducedasoundsogreatthatalistenerwouldcoverhisearswithhishands.
From
thispointonward,thereisregulardocumentationthatprovestheuseoforganforsacred
purposes.PresbyterianpastorandColumbiaTheologicalSeminary(SC)ProfessorJohnL
Girardeauwrites,Inspiteofopposition,theorgan,duringthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies,
15
steadilymadeitswaytowarduniversaltriumphintheRomishchurch.
Whileorganmusicset
aprecedentwhichwilllaterallowfortheentryofotherinstrumentsintothesanctuary,ittook
quiteawhiletodoso.GirardeaustatesoftheRomanCatholicChurch,Whentheorganwas
introducedintoitsworshipitencounteredstrongopposition,andmadeitswaybutslowlyto
16
generalacceptance.
OrganmusicbecameastandardelementofCatholicliturgybytheendof
thefifteenthcentury,withoneinstalledinnearlyallprominentEuropeanchurch.Withtheorgan
securelyaccepted,thechurchsmindwasopenforthesacreduseofotherinstrumentssuchas
17
harpandviolin,thoughthesewouldnotcomeuntilmuchlater.
Throughthisintroductionoforgan,churchleaderscertainlydidnotremainsilent.Even
upuntilthelatethirteenthcentury,theologianssuchasThomasAquinasspokeratherfranklyon
WilliApel,EarlyHistoryoftheOrgan,
Speculum
23(1948):212.
Weinmann,
HistoryofChurchMusic
,195.
14
Gotsch,TheMusicofInstruments,175.
15
Price,
OldLightonNewWorship,
82.
16
JohnL.Girardeau,
InstrumentalMusicinthePublicWorshipoftheChurch
(Richmond,
Virgina:Whittet&Shepperson,1888),88.
17
Price,
OldLightonNewWorship,
81.
12
13
thedangersofanyinstrumentaluseinthechurch.Aquinasfearedthatinstrumentswould
hearkenthechurchbacktoJudaismandthatOldTestamentusagereflectedthecoarsenessand
18
carnalityoftheIsraelites.
TheCouncilofTrent(15451563)addressedanarrayofissueson
churchmusic,particularlysinging,butmentionsonlyorganontheinstrumentalsidenoting
thatitshouldbepermittedonlywhenplayedfreefrom
lascivumautimpurum
(lasciviousor
19
impure)elements.
Thislackofrecordeddiscussionmostlikelyindicatesthatnoother
instrumentshadbeenintroduced.
TheCouncilofTrentcamefromanewerainreligion,theprotestantreformationand
subsequentCatholicresponse.ThisreformationlaunchedwithMartinLutherandhistheses
postedinWittenberg.Lutheriscrucial,notjustasatheologicalleader,butalsoasthecenterofa
newmusicalmovementinthechurch.Ithasbeensaidthathelivedwithmusicringinginhis
20
ears.
Hiscommitmenttoartgroundedinbiblicaltruthshapedthechurchesinthenew,
reformedmovementandintheCatholicresponsetheCounterReformation.However,Luther
wasnotthefirst,norwashetheonlytospeakupforreforminthechurch.Thefirstwhisperof
reformationscamefromOxfordscholarandtheologianJohnWycliffewhovocalizedhis
condemnationoftheCatholicchurchspracticesofindulgencesamongothertheological
concerns.InregardtoWycliffesmusicalideas,hefeltthattheincreasinghighartcultureinthe
churchwashinderingthewordsfrombeingheard,diminishingthepresentationoftheGospel.
AfterWycliffesdeathin1384,thechurchmanagedtosquashanypotentialuprisingbyquickly
Ibid
,
8182.
Gelineau,
VoicesandInstrumentsinChristianWorship,
153.
20
CarlSchalk,
LutheronMusic:ParadigmsofPraise
(St.Louis:ConcordiaPublishingHouse,
1988),9.
18
19
21
silencingdissenters.
OnOctober31,1517,MartinLutherpostedninetyfivethesesoutlininghis
theologicalgrievanceswiththeCatholicchurchanditsdoctrine.Thisledtohis
excommunicationandthefoundingoftheProtestantchurchtraditionwhichwouldseparateinto
followersofLuther,Calvin,andothers.
Ofthenewprotestantdenominations,theLutheranchurchhadtherichestmusical
culture.Asamusician,MartinLutherheldmusictobeofupmostimportance,evenwriting,
nexttotheWordofGod,thenobleartofmusicisthegreatesttreasureinthisworld.Itcontrols
22
ourthoughts,minds,hearts,andspirits.
PerhapsLuthersmostdirectmusicalinfluencecanbe
seenintheGermanhymn.WhiletherewasastronghymntraditioninGermanpriortoLuther,it
hadalwaysbeenkeptseparatefromtheliturgy.Fromthereformationonward,congregational
hymnssunginvernacularbecomethestapleofLutheranchurches,replacingthechoirsung,
23
Latinbasedliturgicalmass.
Itisinaccompanyingthisendeavorthatorgans(andeventually
otherinstruments)findasecureplaceinLutheranProtestantism.
Unlikemanyoftheotherreformationmovements,Luthersprimaryconcernswere
mattersofdoctrineandnotofworshippractices.Manyreformers,butnotLuther,developedthe
24
regulativeprincipleofworship.
ThisprinciplestatesthatonlywhatScripturecommandsis
25
acceptableinworshipandanythingoutsideofthosecommandsisforbidden.
Lutherinsteadfelt
thatanythingnotexplicitlyforbiddeninScriptureshouldbeamatterofChristianlibertyand
AndrewWilsonDickson,
TheStoryofChristianMusic.
(Minneapolis:FortressPress,1996),
5556.
22
WalterE.Buszin,(
LutheronMusic.
SaintPaul,MN:NorthCentralPublishing,1958),5.
23
Weinmann,
HistoryofChurchMusic
,5961.
24
Price,
OldLightonNewWorship,
87.
25
Ibid,16.
21
26
thereforeallowable.
HealsoheldaveryhighviewofCatholicmusicandwasnotafraidto
adjustpreexistingRomanCatholicmusicforacceptableusewithintheprotestantchurch.Stated
inthe
Formulamissae
of1513,hispolicywas,Inthemeantimeweshalltryallthings,whatis
27
goodweshallretain.
Assuch,Lutherhadnohesitationtoincludeinstrumentsinthechurch
service.
ManyofMartinLuthersfellowreformersheldstrongconvictionsagainstsuchrelaxed
andinclusiveviews.AndreasBodensteinofCarlstadt,UlrichZwingli,andJohnCalvinall
developedworshippracticesstrictlyvoidofanyinstruments.Bodenstein(commonlyknownas
Carlstadt)blamedthefalloftheMedievalchurchonincreasingprevalenceofmusic,particularly
musicthatdemonstratedanylevelofsignificanttechnicalskilloratheatricalflair.He
unsuccessfullyattemptedtoapplyhisviewstoLutherschurchwhileLutherwasawayfora
28
lengthoftime.
CarlstadtswritingsgreatlyinfluencedUlrichZwingli,aleaderintheSwiss
Reformation.DevelopingonCarlstadtshistoricalandpsychologicalobjections,Zwingliwasthe
firstofthereformerstodrawobjectionsfromtheWordofGod,resultingintheabovementioned
regulativeprincipleofworship.Thislineofthoughtrestrictsinstrumentsfromthesacredservice
becausethereisnocommandtouseinstrumentsfoundintheNewTestament.Zwinglisuccinctly
stateshisviewsinthis,EverythingwhichisaddedtothetrueinstitutionsofChristisanabuse.
29
Hissectofthereformationerachurch,theGreatMinisterChurch,stoppedusingtheorganin
30
1524. Infact,ZwinglioversawtheliteraldestructionofthecathedralorgansthroughoutZurich,
Ibid,87.
Buszin,
LutheronMusic,
12.
28
Price,
OldLightonNewWorship,
89.
29
Ibid,90.
30
Ibid,91.
26
27
Switzerland.Interestingly,thereissomerecordthatZwingliwasatalentedinstrumentalistbut
unlikeLutherhedidnotallowhispersonalpassionformusictoinformhisviewsonproper
31
worship.
Perhapsthemostimposingfigureofreform,JohnCalvinalsokeptatightgripon
32
musicalworshippractices.
HecompletelycounteredLutherbystatingChristianprioritytobe,
first,ofthemodeinwhichGodisdulyworshipedand,secondly,ofthesourcefromwhich
33
salvationistobeattained.
HisferventrejectionofinstrumentsinChristianworshipwasbased
onhisinterpretationthattheOldTestamentuseofinstrumentintempleservicesheldnosway
34
onceChristabolishedtheoldcovenant.
Vergingonoffensive,hearguedthatmusical
35
instrumentswerechildishelementsthatburiedthelightoftheGospel.
AswithZwingli,
36
Calvindidnotrejectmusicinprivateforpersonalpleasure,barringfrivolityandsensuality.
But
churchmusichadspecialregulationstoavoidcomparisonwiththeRomanCatholicmusic,
whichallegedlycouldputonessoulatrisk,andassociationwithdancemusic,whichputones
37
moralsatrisk.
Anydiscussionofpostreformationchurchmusicwouldbeincompletewithoutan
examinationoftheresultingCatholiccounterreformation.Perhapsthemostconcretecollection
ofcounterreformationviewscomesoutoftheaforementionedCouncilofTrent,whichmet
intermittentlyfrom1545to1563,overtwentyfiveyearsafterthebeginningoftheProtestant
WilsonDickson,
TheStoryofChristianMusic,
64.
Ibid,65
33
Price,
OldLightonNewWorship,
93.
34
Ibid,93.
35
Price,
OldLightonNewWorship,
96.
36
Ibid,99.
37
WilsonDickson,
TheStoryofChristianMusic,
65.
31
32
38
Reformation.
Thecouncilsoriginalpurposewastoseekreconciliationwiththereformers,but
anychanceofthathadlongpassedby1545.Instead,thecouncilpreparedtorecommenda
39
numberofadjustmentstoCatholicdoctrineandpractice.
AstheRenaissancehaddefinedan
independencebetweenvocalandinstrumentalmusic,thechurchfeltincreasingpressuretooffer
clarityintoitsviewsoninstrumentsinworship,asthereformershad.TheCouncilmadea
provisionfororgan,asdescribedabove.Asthesymphonicwaveofthebaroqueerainfluenced
40
thechurch,PopeBenedictXIVrevisitedthechurchsliturgicalpolicies.
Inhis
Annusqui
(1749),thepopetakesabalancedapproach,acknowledgingboththetraditionalexclusionof
instrumentsandpresentingtheincreasinglyprevalentargumentsforinclusion.Heconcludesthat
onlytheabusesshouldbereprovedwhichconsistedofanytheatricalorprofanemusical
41
genres.
Morespecifically,heonlypermitsorgan,stringedinstrumentsandtheflutedueto
theirabilitytosupportthenatural,humanvoice.Thisway,moretheatrical(andthusbanned)
instrumentscannothindertheworshipersabilitytobepenetratedbythemeaningofthe
42
words.
Instudyingthehistoryofinstrumentsinthechurch,FrenchJesuitpriest(andcomposer)
JosephGelineaudrawsthreebasicprinciplesforthepostreformationCatholicchurchesuseof
instrumentsinworship.First,vocalpraisealoneisessentialtoChristianworship.Instruments
43
areonlyaccessory.
Whenusedasaccompaniment,instrumentsshouldservetosupportthe
text.(Ofcourse,thenotionthatmusicinitsproperplaceissubservienttothetextparallelsan
Ibid,73.
Ibid,74.
40
Gelineau,
VoicesandInstrumentsinChristianWorship,
154.
41
Ibid,154.
42
Ibid,154.
43
Ibid,155.
38
39
10
increasingtrendinsecularmusicandinoperasofthebaroqueera.)Whenliturgycallsforneither
singingnorsilence,purelyinstrumentalmusicneedstocontributetotheservicebycarryinga
44
message,notofsensualpleasure,butpointingtotruthasdrawnfromtheWord.
Second,That
itmayinnowaydamagetheholinessofChristianworship,theplayingofinstrumentshastobe
45
freefromallconnectionwithidolatrous,profane,orworldlypractices.
Thethirdprinciple,as
championedbyPopePiusXIIparticularly,concernsthetechnicalstandardrequiredinthe
playingofinstrumentsiftheyareworthilytoservethesacredchantoraction.ItwasPiusXIIs
opinionthatthetraditionalchurchchants
powerandsplendorwereincreasedwhenthesounds
46
oftheorganandothermusicalinstrumentswerejoinedwiththevoicesofthesingers.
While
PiusXIIspapacy(19391958)liesoutsidethesettimerangeofthispaper,hisstatementsserve
welltoemphasizethatthechurchsacceptanceofinstrumentshascontinuedtoprogress:
Amongthemusicalinstrumentsthathaveaplaceinchurchtheorganrightlyholdsthe
principalposition,sinceitisespeciallyfittedforthesacredchantsandsacredrites.It
addsawonderfulsplendorandaspecialmagnificencetotheceremoniesoftheChurch.It
movesthesoulsofthefaithfulbythegrandeurandsweetnessofitstones.Itgivesminds
analmostheavenlyjoyanditliftsthemuppowerfullytoGodandtohigherthings.
Besidestheorgan,otherinstrumentscanbecalledupontogivegreathelpinattainingthe
loftypurposeofsacredmusic,solongastheyplaynothingprofanenothingclamorousor
stridentandnothingatvariancewiththesacredservicesorthedignityoftheplace.
Amongthesetheviolinandothermusicalinstrumentsthatusethebowareoutstanding
because,whentheyareplayedbythemselvesorwithotherstringedinstrumentsorwith
theorgan,theyexpressthejoyousandsadsentimentsofthesoulwithanindescribable
47
power.
Withoutcomposers,thechurchlacksanymusic,instrumentalorotherwise.As
composingforinstrumentsbecamemoreandmorepopular,instrumentsseemedtoalwaysfind
Ibdi,156.
Gelineau,
VoicesandInstrumentsinChristianWorship,
157.
46
PiusXII.
MusicaeSacrae.
PapalEncyclicalsOnline.December25,1955.AccessedSeptember
28,2015.http://www.papalencyclicals.net/Pius12/P12MUSIC.HTM
47
Ibid.
44
45
11
theirwayintothechurch.Inturn,thisopportunityleadstoanincreaseofcomposers.Oneofthe
churchsearliestrecordedorganists,risingtofameworthacknowledginginthelatefourteenth
century,wasablindmannamedFrancescoLandini,thoughhewascalledCiecoonaccountof
48
hisblindness.
Somewouldconsiderthetruestartofnotableorgancompositionstobeginwith
theuncle/nephewpairofAndrea(15561586)andGiovanniGabrielli(15851612).The
developmentofsecularsonganddancetunesinthelatefifteenthcenturygreatlyinfluencedthe
organstyle.Acombinationofthesemelodiesandpolyphonyledtoanewunderstandingof
49
chordsandharmonicmovement.
Ofcourse,thisinfluenceonlyaddedfueltothearsenalofany
churchleaderwhofeltthatinstrumentsofthemselvesweretooworldlyforuseinchurch
services.Asthemostprolificseventeenthcenturyorganist,GirolamoFrescobaldi(15831644)
greatlyassistedinthedevelopmentofthefugue.Histechnicalabilitiesandeducationalwork
50
influencedthenextgenerationsoforganists.
Thenextgreatmasteroforgan,Dietrich
Buxtehude(16371707)camefromGermany.Hisexpansivebodyofworksdemonstrateda
51
maturingoforgancompositionpedalindependence,variedregisters,andengagingeffects.
PerhapsBuxtehudesgreatestgifttotheorganwashisprofoundinfluenceonJohannSebastian
Bach.BachstandsastheTitanamongtheMastersoftheorgan,whoincorporatesinhimselfthe
52
musicalpowerandfeelingofawholegeneration.
Hiscompositionsfromhispostingsat
Weimar,Cthen,andLeipzigsolidifiedorgansplaceinthechurchandhissettingsofchurch
53
liturgydemonstratesandadeptnessofotherinstrumentsforsuchpurposes.
Bachs
Weinmann,
HistoryofChurchMusic
,197.
Nemmers.
TwentyCenturiesofCatholicChurchMusic,
151.
50
Weinmann,
HistoryofChurchMusic
,199.
51
Nemmers.
TwentyCenturiesofCatholicChurchMusic,
154.
52
Weinmann,
HistoryofChurchMusic
,202.
53
Weinmann,
HistoryofChurchMusic
,201.
48
49
12
compositionsestablishedtheliturgicaltestforallorganmusicbyremainingappropriateinlength
andbymaintainingthespiritoftheliturgicaltexts.Theseorganworksbecamestaplesofliturgy,
54
particularlyasprocessionalsandrecessionals.
Itseemsthatanymeasurableprogressalwaysresultsindisagreement.Changehasnever
beenpopular,despiteitsinevitablenature.Amongthedesperatecriesfromdecadesofstalwart
churchfathers,anewgenerationofchurchleadersbegantohaveopenmindsaboutnew
expressionsofworship,namelyworshipthroughtheplayingofinstruments.Perhapsnoteven
intentionally,figuressuchasPopeVitalianus,ConstantineV,Luther,andPopeBenedictXIV
eachuniquelyledthechurchtowardmusicalinclusion.Manyotherleadersdisagreedandsome
traditionsreturnedtoacultureofinstrumentexclusion,butchangerefusestobeisolated.No
institutioncanremainimmunetotheinfluenceofsecularculture.Asstylesandtastesshifted,the
churchfeltpressuretoadjustaccordinglywhilestillmaintainingsomesemblanceoforthodoxy,
withtheorganservingasasymbolicinstrumentofmusicalbeautyandpiety.Thegreat
composerssuchasGabrieli,Frescobaldi,Buxtehude,andfinallyBachpushedtheboundariesby
inspiringallwithbeautifulcompositionsandtechnicalfinesse.Changealwaysbeginsandends
withpeopleandpeoplearealwaysmoldedbytheculturearoundthem.Throughtheinfluenceof
churchleadersandcomposers,themselvesmovedbyculturalandreligiousbeauty,thechurchs
stanceshiftedtoallowinstrumentsinthesacredworshipofGod.
54
Nemmers.
TwentyCenturiesofCatholicChurchMusic,
155.
13
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