Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Objectives
9.1
Introduction
9.2
Growth of Production
9.2.1
9.2.2
9.2.3
9.2.4
9.2.5
9.2.6
9.3
Crop Patterns
9.3.1
9.3.2
9.3.3
9.4
Let Us Sum Up
9.5
Exercises
9.6
9.7
9.0
OBJECTIVES
9.1
INTRODUCTION
Sectoral Performanc-I
the green revolution was confined to irrigated areas largely in wheat growing
regions. It was only during the 1980s that the green revolution spread to other
regions and crops. Over 1970s and 1980s, there was a significant rise in
yields per hectare resulting also in the productivity of all inputs or Total
Factor Productivity. As a result of rise in per capita incomes, there was a
discernible diversification in the demand of the consumers to other food
production like milk, poultry meat, fish, vegetables and fruits. This has
created an environment for diversification of agriculture.
Agricultural Growth,
Productivity Trends
and Crop Patterns
The third phase coincides with the period following the implementation of
new economic policy of the year 1991 and thereafter. In this phase, greater
incentives were provided to private investment in agriculture. Even though
such investment did increase to an extent, there was a steady decline in public
investment in agriculture. This has adversely affected the rural infrastructure,
particularly irrigation, agricultural research and extension. The acceleration
experienced in the yield per hectare during the second phase got arrested.
There has been a noticeable slowdown in agricultural growth on account of
declining input use, factor productivity and profitability during this phase.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: i) Space is given below each question for your answer.
ii) Check your answer(s) with those given at the end of the unit.
1) State in about 4 lines the importance of agriculture in the Indian economy.
..
..
..
..
..
2) Identify three distinct phases in the growth of agricultural production since
independence?
..
..
..
..
..
..
3) Why was there a need for new agricultural strategy?
..
..
..
..
..
..
7
Sectoral Performanc-I
1964-65
Area
Yield
Production
55
89
1.4
1.4
2.9
a)
Rice
24
39
1.3
2.1
3.5
b)
Wheat
12
2.7
1.3
4.0
c)
Coarse Cereals
d)
Pulses
Oilseeds
ii)
Sugar-cane
iii)
iv)
17
25
0.9
1.3
2.2
12
1.9
-0.2
1.4
2.5
0.9
3.5
2.7
0.2
3.1
50
122
3.3
0.9
4.3
Cotton
3.3
2.0
4.6
Potato
4.4
1.6
4.3
1.6
1.3
3.1
All Crops
* Production figures are in million tonnes except for cotton which are in million bales
of 170 kg. each.
Source: Economic Survey & Hand Book of Agricultural Statistics.
During this phase increase in agricultural production was fairly high at 3.1 per
cent per annum. This rate of increase appears to be phenomenal particularly in
comparison to the dismal rate of growth of about 0.5 per cent per annum
during the first half of the twentieth century. Even the rate of growth of
production of foodgrains was pretty high touching almost 3 per cent per
annum. However, but for some significant rise in the yield per hectare for rice
crop, most of other increase in production was attributable to the increase in
area under the crops. A growth rate of 4 per cent per annum in the production
of wheat was largely contributed by growth in area under wheat. Similar was
the case of non-foodgrain crops.
Agricultural Growth,
Productivity Trends
and Crop Patterns
Source: S.D. Sawant & C.U. Achuthan, Economic and Political Weekly, March 25,
1995.
For the entire period of what has been called phase II here, the rate of growth
in production for all crops was 2.8 per cent per annum, which is somewhat
lower than the rate of growth of 3.1 per cent per annum observed for phase I
(Refer Table 9.3). The contribution of growth in yield per hectare to this
growth was however much higher at 2.3 per cent per annum and the
contribution of growth in Area was only 0.5 per cent per annum.
A comparison between the two such periods makes it evident that even though
the annual rate of growth in area in both the periods was stable at 0.5 per cent,
the rate of growth in yield per hectare was significantly higher during the
decade of 1980s (1981-82 to 1991-92 sub-period 2) as compared the decade
of 1970s (1968-69 to 1981-82 sub-period). It was 2.9 per cent for all crops
in the sub-period 2 as compared to 1.7 in sub-period 1.
Sectoral Performanc-I
For foodgrains as a whole as well as the two major foodgrain crops viz. Rice
and Wheat, the rates of growth in yield per hectare contributed much more to
the increase in the production during the 1980s as compared to the 1970s. It
is also instructive to note from the table that the rate of growth in area under
non-foodgrains has been increasing far more rapidly than the area under
foodgrains. It is the rapid growth in area coupled with the growth in
productivity, which has raised the rate of growth of non-foodgrains production
to a level higher than that of the foodgrains production.
Thus, in the phase II of agricultural production there was acceleration in
aggregate production and productivity growth. A few interesting conclusions
of the analysis are as follows:
First, the growth in productivity does not necessarily induce growth in area
under a crop. There may, however, be some cases where the higher
productivity potential in the water-seed-fertiliser technology might have
induced increase in area under a crop. Second, the emphasis on foodgrains has
been clearly on the decline. It is very significantly discernible in the decade of
1980s. On the whole, allocation of area under commercial crops is on the
rise. Thirdly, it may be added that some diversification in agricultural
production has been observed in recent decades; fruits and vegetable crops
have been steadily gaining ground at the cost of coarse cereals and pulses.
However, it is important to note that at the beginning of the decade of 1990s
almost 83 per cent of the small and marginal farmers and 68 per cent of the
large farmers were engaged in he production of foodgrains. The proportion of
farmers involved in the production of commercial crops is, thus, very small.
Crop Group/Crop
Foodgrains of Which
Rice
Wheat
Yield
Production
1.34
1.66
0.63
1.16
1.79
1.21
1.81
3.04
Coarse Cereals
-1.84
1.65
0.06
Pulses
-1.02
0.27
-0.58
0.84
0.59
1.86
Oilseeds
0.44
0.61
0.66
Sugar-cane
1.72
0.89
2.62
2.2
-1.26
0.92
0.08
1.02
1.73
Cotton
All Crops
10
Area
-0.20
The rate of growth in yield per hectare for all crops was barely over 1 per cent
per annum as compared to around 3 per cent per annum for the preceding
decade. The rate of growth in yield as well as production was lower than that
in the pre-green revolution period i.e. independence to mid 1960s. Even the
rate of growth of food production was around 1.7 per cent per annum which is
less than the estimated rate of growth of population.
Agricultural Growth,
Productivity Trends
and Crop Patterns
But for wheat where the rate of growth of production remained at the level of
about 3 per cent per annum, the rate of growth of production of other
foodgrain crops was much lower than that in the earlier decade. The major
concern was that the rate of growth of productivity declined for nearly all
foodgrain and non-foodgrain crops. The rate of growth in area for wheat,
cotton and sugar cane crop, however, picked up possibly at the cost of area
under coarse cereals and pulses.
In the period beyond 2001, the situation in respect of growth in agricultural
production and productivity has remained more or less similar. The index
number of agricultural production showed violent fluctuations but little
growth. It declined from 177 to 166 between 1999-2000 and 2000-01, rose to
178 in 2001-02 and declined again to 151 in 2002-03. In the year 2003-04, it
stood at 179.5. The average rate of growth of production for this period has
also been around 1 per cent for all crops with a negative growth in the area
and only 1 per cent growth rate in the yield of all crops. The situation in
respect of foodgrains is no better with the average rate of growth for
foodgrains production remaining around 1 per cent again. In fact, the index of
production of both rice and wheat is lower in 2003-04 as compared to 19992000. The rate of growth in production and productivity in respect of nonfoodgrain crops is only slightly better than that for foodgrains, largely due to
the increase in productivity of oilseeds and cotton. In the case of sugar-cane,
falling trend in the rate of growth of productivity has persisted.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: i)
ii) Check your answer(s) with those given at the end of the unit.
1)
2)
State the factors which contributed to the growth of production of nonfoodgrain during phase I.
.
.
.
.
.
11
Sectoral Performanc-I
3)
4)
What were the main features of growth in the production of nonfoodgrain crops during phase II?
.
.
.
.
5)
Agricultural Growth,
Productivity Trends
and Crop Patterns
9.2.5
Paddy
Wheat
Maize
India
3000.3
2617.1
2114.3
937.5
62859.2
China
6074.1
3906.5
4854.4
2623.7
69555.7
10289.5
1999.0
5266.7
1681.8
85134.8
2250.0
7819.3
USA
7448.2
2973.8
8923.6
3540.4
77515.1
Indonesia
4537.5
3252.2
2016.3
73142.9
Thailand
2454.5
615.4
3913.0
1517.2
66399.7
Pakistan
3054.8
2380.2
1457.1
1060.0
47933.5
Brazil
3238.1
2371.2
2082
72289.5
South Africa
2285.7
1777.8
2899.8
1041
63388.6
Japan
5849.8
4030.2
2308.5
60869.6
World Average
3837.4
2665.0
4471.7
1347.5
65292.6
Australia
Canada
Groundnut
Sugar-cane
13
Sectoral Performanc-I
It is evident from this table that agricultural productivity in India even in the
year 2003 (even after the impact of a rise in productivity over the years) is far
below the productivity levels realised in some of the other countries. In
respect of rice, for instance, the productivity per hectare in India is less than
even one-third of that in Australia. It is less than half that in China and USA
and almost half of the per hectare yield in Japan. In the case of wheat, the
productivity level in India is close to the world average but is far below that of
China and Japan or even USA. Maize, which is included among the coarse
cereals, shows a productivity level which is less than half that of world
average and also less than one-fourth of the productivity level in USA. In
China, the productivity of land under maize is more than double of that in
India. Equally dismal is the productivity profile in respect of groundnut in
India. However, the productivity situation for sugar-cane crop in India
compares favourly with several other countries, although there is still a
substantial difference between the productivity of sugar-cane in India and that
in Brazil, Australia, USA and China.
This comparison indicates that there is a tremendous scope for further
improvement in agricultural productivity in India. The rise in productivity in
the post-green revolution period, particularly in the decade of 1980s, is only a
step in the direction of realising the potentials of growth in productivity. This
need not be a wishful dream particularly when we note that India is well
endowed with a fairly advanced agricultural research system among the
developing countries in terms of scientific skills. The country has to exploit
the frontier technologies like biotechnology. It may also have to re-organise
and restructure its research organisation to ensure that benefits of research are
smoothly transferred from the laboratories to the land.
Check Your Progress 3
Note: i) Space is given below each question for your answer.
ii) Check your answer(s) with those given at the end of the unit.
1) Compare the rates of yield per hectare in some of the major crops between
India and China.
2) Do you think that there is a potential for further growth in yield per
hectare? State any two reasons.
14
Agricultural Growth,
Productivity Trends
and Crop Patterns
India
Next to
Rank
Land Area
2.3
Seventh
Russian Federation,
Canada, China, US,
Arable Land
11.8
Second
Brazil, Australia
Irrigated Area
21.5
First
US
Wheat
12.8
Second
China
Rice (Paddy)
22.4
Second
China
Total Pulses
23.6
First
17.1
Second
China
9.2
Second
China
Onion (Dry)
10.4
Second
China
Sugar-cane
24.6
Second
Brazil
Tea
25.1
First
43.3
Second
Bangladesh
Tobacco Leaves
10.0
Second
China
Cattle
16.2
First
Buffaloes
57.0
First
Eggs total
n.a.
Fifth
Total Meat
n.a
Seventh
1
Area
Crop Production
Oilseeds
Groundnut
Fruits & Vegetables
Commercial Crops
Livestock
Animal Products
15
Sectoral Performanc-I
continues to be low (94 per 100 square kilometres of arable land) as compared
to some other Asian Countries (Malaysia 39 and Thailand 147). The use of
chemical fertilisers has increased rapidly but its application is far below the
standards in other countries. Per hectare consumption of fertilisers
(nitrogenous, phosphoric and potassic = NPK) has increased from 69 kgs. per
hectare in 1990-91 to 90 kgs. in 2003-04.
The arrested growth in the overall production and productivity in the decade
of 1990s and beyond needs to be examined. The crop yields have shown an
unstable trend in recent years. Although yield of foodgrains showed an
increase from 719 kg./hectare in 1960-61 to 1704 kg./hectare in 1999-2000,
the yield per hectare stands only at 1707 kg./hectare in 2003-04. For rice and
wheat, the situation is very similar. The productivity in case of oilseeds
improved significantly during the 1980s and 1990s but has fluctuated in
recent years. Sugar-cane yields have also been declining after steadily rising
for nearly four decades. The yield per hectare of cotton which more than
doubled from 125 kg./hectare in 1960-61 to 265 kg./hectare in 1996-97 has
been declining thereafter.
Decline in the rates of growth of yield per hectare and production has resulted
in a decline in the per capita net availability of foodgrains; it has declined
from 510 grams per day in 1991 to 436 grams per day in 2003. It has been
argued that the consumption pattern of people is changing due to increase in
per capita income, urbanisation, change in the food habits and greater
availability of horticulture and livestock products. Food security, therefore,
need not be confined to the availability of foodgrains and it should be
extended to the overall availability of the edibles including fruits, vegetables,
dairy products, eggs, meet and fish. Based on this argument, the focus of the
Government policy on agriculture has been gradually shifting to
diversification of agriculture, comprising high-value horticulture and livestock
products and non-food commercial crops, which cater to the requirements of
the fast growing middle and upper middle class households. Such a policy
would doubtless bring about a diversification of farm sector and will generate
productive and remunerative employment in the farm sector and rural nonfarm sector such as agro-processing and marketing. However, in the absence
of an adequate marketing infrastructure and institutional support, the farmers
growing such products will be exposed to the vagaries of violent price
fluctuations. As the products of horticulture, poultry, dairy are highly
perishable in nature, the farmers cannot hold on to the stocks of these products
even when their prices are unremunerative. As a result, the farmers suffer and
may, therefore, not involve themselves with diversification of their
production.
Stabilisation and augmentation of agricultural yield is particularly important
in view of the limited scope for increasing area under cultivation of various
crops. There has been also a decline in the size of land holding, an increase in
the cost of production and depletion of ground water. Increase in production
would, therefore, be possible mainly from improvements in productivity from
the existing cultivated area. Development of location specific high yielding
varieties of seeds, balanced fertiliser doses along with organic manures/biofertilisers, along with a sustained increase in irrigation infrastructure can all
add up to a sustained growth in agricultural productivity.
16
One of the important factors that has influenced the growth rate of yield per
hectare is the slowdown of the rate of investment in agriculture which has, in
turn, slowed down the pace and pattern of technological change. Table 9.6
below shows that investment in agriculture as per cent of GDP has declined
from nearly 2 per cent in 1990-91 to 1.3 per cent in the year 2003-04. This is
largely due to declining share of public sector investment in agriculture. This
share has declined from nearly 30 per cent in 1990-91 to less than 26 per cent
in 2003-04.
Agricultural Growth,
Productivity Trends
and Crop Patterns
Total
Public
Private
Public
Private
Investment in
Agriculture as
Per cent of GDP
1990-91
14836
4395
10441
29.6
70.4
1.92
1995-96
15690
4849
10841
30.9
69.1
1.57
1996-97
16176
4668
11508
28.9
71.1
1.51
1997-98
15942
3979
11963
25.0
75.0
1.43
1998-99
14895
3870
11025
26.0
74.0
1.26
1999-00
17304
4221
13088
24.4
75.6
1.37
2000-01
16906
3927
12980
23.2
76.8
1.28
2001-02
17219
4969
12250
28.9
71.1
1.24
2002-03
18240
4359
13881
23.9
76.1
1.27
2003-04*
20510
5249
15261
25.6
74.4
1.31
Year
1
* Quick Estimates.
Source: Economic Survey: 2004-05.
Sectoral Performanc-I
The most important area of focus must be to raise the cropping intensity
of the existing agricultural land. India is quite fortunate in having the
possibility of multiple crops practically all over the country. For this
purpose, water resources need to be harnessed. Despite large investments
in irrigation in the past, only about 40 per cent of the agricultural land is
irrigated. Unfortunately, public investment in irrigation has declined over
successive plans. There is, thus, a need for a major revival of public
investment in irrigation capacity and water management. The efficiency
of the existing irrigation infrastructure also must be improved besides
rain water harvesting and scientific watershed development.
On the whole, it must be realised that even in this regime of liberalisation, the
role of Government by way of public policies, programmes and even
investment is very important. The success of this role has so far been a mixed
18
Agricultural Growth,
Productivity Trends
and Crop Patterns
ii) Check your answer(s) with those given at the end of the unit.
1)
Bring out the place of India in world agriculture in about four sentences.
2)
3)
9.3
CROP PATTERNS
Sectoral Performanc-I
Crop/Crop Group
Area Million
Hectares
124.2
Oilseeds
23.4
Rice
42.4
Sugar-cane
4.0
Wheat
26.6
Cotton
7.6
All Cereals
99.8
Tea
0.5
Pulses
24.4
Crop/Crop Group
20
In sum, the relative importance of foodgrain crops in India is far more than
that of the non-foodgrain crops. As has been stated earlier, around 83 per cent
of small and marginal farmers and around 68 per cent of the large farmers
grow foodgrains. Consequently, only about 17 per cent of small and marginal
farmers and about 32 per cent of the large farmers are engaged in growing
commercial crops. In the case of small and marginal farmers with steadily
declining size of land holding, subsistence farming may be one major reason
for the predominance of food crops. In recent years because of the emergence
of reverse tenancy (where small and marginal farmers lease-out land to the
large farmers), the role of commercial crops among these farms may be an
explanatory factor. It must, however, be noted that preference for foodgrain
crops among large farmers may be partly explained in terms of the impact of
yield growth and the existence of Minimum Support Price System which
reduces the risk of farmers in the boom years. In the boom years, excess
production need not be accompanied by distress sales at very low prices given
the minimum support price system. It is equally important to note that in a
large number of cases the tradition of growing foodgrain crops over a long
time may be a factor contributing to its dominance.
Agricultural Growth,
Productivity Trends
and Crop Patterns
195051
196061
197071
198081
199091
200001
200102
200203
200304
a) Cereals of which
59.3
60.2
61.4
60.4
55.5
55.7
55.6
55.3
55.2
23.6
22.3
22.7
23.3
23.0
24.7
24.8
24.3
23.4
7.6
8.5
11.0
12.9
13.0
14.2
14.6
15.0
14.7
b) Pulses
15.6
15.4
13.6
13.0
13.3
11.2
12.0
12.1
13.5
Total Foodgrains
i) Rice
ii) Wheat
76.7
75.7
75.0
73.4
68.8
67.0
67.7
67.4
68.7
Oilseeds
8.3
9.0
10.0
10.2
13.0
12.6
12.5
12.8
12.9
Sugar-cane
1.3
1.6
1.6
1.5
2.0
2.4
2.4
2.6
2.2
Cotton
4.3
5.0
4.6
4.5
4.0
4.7
5.0
4.6
4.1
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
Tobacco
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
Some of the salient features of the cropping pattern over time are as follows:
1)
2)
3)
There are only minor variations in the proportion of area under the rice
crop. It varied between 22 to 25 per cent. The relatively shrinking area
under rice crop may largely be due to greater increase in area brought
under cultivation which did not have access to water resources which is
21
vital for the rice crop. However, the proportion of area under rice has
risen since the beginning of 2000-01.
Sectoral Performanc-I
4)
The proportion of area under wheat has been almost consistently on the
rise.
5)
6)
It may be noted that the area under both rice and wheat put together
has risen since the beginning of the decade of 1980s. It fluctuated
around 31 to 33 per cent up to the beginning of the 1970s. Thereafter, it
picked up and has varied between 36 to 38 per cent in the 1980s and
thereafter.
7)
Among the non-foodgrain crops the only crop group that has shown a
discernible rise in its share of the total cultivated area is oilseeds. It
increased from nearly 8 per cent to almost 13 per cent between 1950s
and 1990s. It has continued to fluctuate around 13 per cent with minor
year-to-year variations.
8)
9)
9.3.3
22
Uttar Pradesh has remained the largest producer of foodgrains for quite
some time. Punjab has been the second largest producer of foodgrains
with Madhya Pradesh remaining at the third rank. It is, however,
interesting to note that while this ranking was maintained during the
decade of 1990s, the figures for 2002-03 show that West Bengal was the
third largest producer of foodgrains displacing Madhya Pradesh. For the
year 2003-04, however, it is Rajasthan, which has risen to the rank of
3)
Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana have remained the three largest wheat
producing states in that order.
4)
5)
6)
7)
Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra are among the two largest producers of
sugar-cane in that order. The third rank has been occupied either by
Karnataka in some years or by Tamil Nadu.
8)
Agricultural Growth,
Productivity Trends
and Crop Patterns
These data show that there is a given inter-regional cropping pattern with the
states of North and Central India concentrating largely on foodgrains.
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra are the major producers
of oilseeds. With the role of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
increasing in the production of groundnut, their share in oilseeds production is
on the rise. Maharashtra, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh are the three large
producers of cotton with the relative share of Punjab and Haryana somewhat
on the decline. It may be added that Punjab which has been producing greater
23
Sectoral Performanc-I
proportion of rice and has displaced Andhara Pradesh, the latter has emerged
as a major producer of cotton displacing Punjab from among the top ranking
producers of cotton. On the whole, there does appear to be a semblance of
inter-regional specialisation with the states of Northern and Central India
producing foodgrains whereas the states of Western and Southern regions are
concentrating on the cash crops. It must, however, be added that UP remains
the most dominant state producing both foodgrains and sugar-cane.
Check Your Progress 5
Note: i) Space is given below each question for your answer.
1)
ii) Check your answer(s) with those given at the end of the unit.
On what basis cropping pattern is analysed?
..
..
..
..
..
2)
3)
State three main features of changes in cropping pattern in India over the
last 50 years or so.
..
..
..
..
..
..
4)
24
Agricultural Growth,
Productivity Trends
and Crop Patterns
9.5
EXERCISES
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Sectoral Performanc-I
2)
3)
2)
3)
The growth in production of all crops during IInd phase was 2.8 per cent
per annum which is slightly lower in comparison to phase I. However, the
contribution of growth in yield per hectare to this growth was much
higher at 2.3 per cent whereas contribution to area was only 0.5 per cent
per annum.
4)
During phase II, growth in area coupled with growth in productivity has
raised the rate of growth of non-foodgrains production to a level higher
than that of foodgrains production.
5)
26
1)
2)
Yes, the rise in productivity in post green revolution period and advanced
agricultural system in India.
2)
3)
Agricultural Growth,
Productivity Trends
and Crop Patterns
2)
Foodgrains are the most dominant crop group. Of foodgrains, 80 per cent
of the area goes to cereals and rest 20 per cent to pulses. Within the
cereals, rice and wheat are major crops. Oilseeds are the major crops
among the commercial or non-foodgrain crops. Among the plantation
crops, tea, coffee and rubber are the significant crops.
3)
4)
27