Department of Mechanical, Materials & Manufacturing Engineering

Material Models and Modes of Failure MM4MMM

Convenor: Dr W Sun (Coates Building B68, w.sun@nottingham.ac.uk)

ELASTICITY AND ANISOTROPY

Hooke's Law
For a one-dimensional system, Hookes law can be represented as

E
More generally, in the three-dimensional case, for isotropic materials
1
[ xx ( yy zz )]
E
1
yy [ yy ( zz xx )]
E
1
zz [ zz ( xx yy )]
E
1
1
xy
xy
xy
2G
E
1
1
yz
yz
yz
2G
E
1
1
zx
zx
zx
2G
E
xx

or in terms of stress

E
[(1 ) xx ( yy zz )]
(1 )(1 2)
E
yy
[(1 ) yy ( zz xx )]
(1 )(1 2)
E
zz
[(1 ) zz ( xx yy )]
(1 )(1 2)
E
xy
xy
(1 )
E
yz
yz
(1 )
E
zx
zx
(1 )
xx

Write these in a matrix form

 xx E1

yy E
zz
E

yz 0
zx 0

xy 0

E
1
E
E

0
0
0

E
E

0
0
0

1
E

0
0
0

0
0
0
0

1
2G

0
0

1
2G

xx

yy

zz

yz

zx
1
2G
xy
0
0
0
0
0

For isotropic materials, under linear elastic conditions, there are three elastic
constants, E, and G, but two independent constants since G = E/2(1+).
Generalized Hooke's Law (Anisotropic Form)
For an anisotropic material (where different material properties are seen in each
directions), Hooke's law can be further generalized so that each of the 6 components
of stress are linearly related to the 6 components of strain.
The stress-strain relationship written in matrix form,

= S
or,

= C
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where C is the stiffness matrix, S is the compliance matrix, and S = C-1.

There are 36 stiffness matrix components. However, the stiffness and compliance
matrices are symmetric reducing the number of independent components to 21.
Based on strain energy density, where

xx

U o
1 U o
and xy
2 xy
xx

U o
xx C11 xx C12 yy C13 zz C14 yz C15 zx C16 xy
xx
U o
xy C 61 xx C 62 yy C 63 zz C 64 yz C 65 zx C 66 xy
xy
where, by differentiation

2U o
C12 C 21 ,
xx yy

2U o
C13 C31 etc.
xx zz

2U o
C 46 C 64 ,
xy yz

2U o
C 56 C 65
xy zx

Thus,
C12 = C21, C13 = C31 etc. or, in general Cij = Cji, giving 21 independent elastic
coefficients.
Orthotropic Materials
An orthotropic material has at least 2 orthogonal planes of symmetry. Orthotropic
materials have 9 elastic constants in the stiffness/compliance matrix.
The 9 elastic constants in orthotropic constitutive equations are 3 Young's modulii Ex,
Ey, Ez, the 3 Poisson's ratios yz, zx, xy, and the 3 shear modulii Gyz, Gzx, Gxy.
The compliance matrix takes the form,

where

Note that, in orthotropic materials, there is no interaction between the normal stresses
x, y, z and the shear strains yz, zx, xy.
The factor 1/2 multiplying the shear modulii in the compliance matrix results from the
difference between shear strain and engineering shear strain, where

xy xy yx 2 xy , etc.
The stiffness matrix for orthotropic materials, (the inverse of the compliance matrix),
is,

where,

Given that the stiffness matrix is symmetric, the following is true,

Transverse Isotropic Materials

Transverse isotropic materials have the same properties in one plane (e.g. the x-y
plane) and different properties in the direction normal to this plane (e.g. the z-axis)
and they are described by 5 independent elastic constants.
By convention, the 5 elastic constants in transverse isotropic constitutive equations
are the Young's modulus and Poissons ratio in the x-y symmetry plane, Ep and p, the
Young's modulus and Poissons ratio in the z-direction, Epz and pz, and the shear
modulus in the z-direction Gzp.
The compliance matrix is,

where

The stiffness matrix for transverse isotropic materials is

where,

Given that the stiffness matrix is symmetric - the following applies,

Volumetric Changes and Hydrostatic Stress

Under tensile elastic loading, small volume change occurs which is associated with
normal (directional) strains. Shear strains are not involved, as they cause no volume
change, only distortion.
Now consider a rectangular solid body, as shown in this diagram below, where there
are normal strains in all three directions. The dimensions L, W and H change with dL,
dW and dH, respectively. The normal strains are:

dL
dW
dH
;y
;z
L
W
H

The volume, V = LWH, changes by dV:

dV

V
V
V
dL
dW
dH , so
L
W
H

dV dL dW dH

V
L
W
H

This ratio of the change in the current volume to the original volume is called the
volumetric strain, v:
v

dV
x y z
V

10

For an isotropic material, the volumetric strain can be expressed in terms of normal
(directional) stresses by the Hookes law:v

1 2
( x y z )
E

This relationship shows that = 0.5 causes the change in volume to be zero, even in
the presence of non-zero stresses. Also, a value of > 0.5 would imply negative v,
which is a decrease in volume. This would be impossible for tensile stress states.
The average of the normal stresses, in the x, y and z directions, is called the
hydrostatic stress:
m

( x y z )
3

Substituting this to the volumetric strain equation:

v

3(1 2)
m
E

Hence, the volumetric strain is proportional to the hydrostatic stress. The constant of
proportionality is called the bulk modulus:
B

m
E

v
3(1 2)

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