From Mimesis To Kinesis

22/04/2015
FromMimesistoKinesis:TheAristotelianDramaticMatrix,Psychoanalysis,andSomeRecentAlternati
returntoreligiononline
FromMimesistoKinesis:The
AristotelianDramaticMatrix,
Psychoanalysis,andSome
RecentAlternati
byEkbertFaas
EkbertFaas,withdoctoraldegreesfromMunichandWrzberg,teacheshumanities
andEnglishatYorkUniversity,Downsview,Ontario,Canada.Thefollowingarticle
appearedinProcessStudies,pp.88,Vol.13,Number1,Spring,1983.Process
StudiesispublishedquarterlybytheCenterforProcessStudies,1325N.College
Ave.,Claremont,CA91711.Usedbypermission.Thismaterialwaspreparedfor
ReligionOnlinebyTedandWinnieBrock.
Freudsmindwastragicallyoriented...
theresalwaysattheendofthevisionthat
vacantspotwhereheknowshesdefeated,
buthewantsthentobedefeatedwithdignity.
Doyousee?Hecantcureeverybody.He
maynotevenhaveananswer,but,byGod,
hesgoingtotrywithgreatdignityandallthe
intelligenceandfeelinghesgottoarriveat
somewisdom.
ArthurMiller1
OfWhiteheadsmorespecificconcepts,his"presentational
immediacy,"the"immediateperceptionofthecontemporaryexternal
world,"2hasprobablyhadthegreatestsingleimpactonrecentpoets.
Suchdirectinfluence,however,bynomeansexhauststherelationship
betweenhisphilosophyandcontemporarypoetics.Thoughlargely
unconnectedwiththeevolutionofrecentarttheories,Whitehead
propheticallyanticipatedsomeoftheirmostradicalconcerns.The
followingexcerptsfromhis1933AdventuresofIdeassumupsomeof
thesewithamazingaccuracyandcomprehensiveness.Thehuman
body,Whiteheadwrites,
isaninstrumentfortheproductionofartinthelifeofthe
humansoul.Itconcentratesuponthoseelementsinhuman
experienceselectedforconsciousperceptionintensitiesof
subjectiveformderivedfromcomponentsdismissedinto
shadow....Inthiswaytheworkofartisamessagefrom
theUnseen.Itunloosesdepthsoffeelingfrombehindthe
frontierwhereprecisionofconsciousnessfails.The
startingpointforthehighlydevelopedhumanartisthus
tobesoughtamidthecravingsgeneratedbythe
http://www.religiononline.org/showarticle.asp?title=2539
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physiologicalfunctioningsofthebody.Theoriginofart
liesinthecravingforreenaction....Thereisabiological
lawwhichhowevermustnotbepressedtoofarthatin
somevaguesensetheembryointhewombreproducesin
itslifehistoryfeaturesofancestorsinremotegeologic
epochs.Thusarthasitsorigininceremonialevolutions
fromwhichissueplay,religiousritual,tribalceremonial,
dance,picturesoncaves,poeticliterature,prose,music.3
HadIbeenawareofitatthetime,thestatementmightwellhave
influencedmypreviousattempttodescribethenewunderstandingof
art"asareenactmentofnatureinprocess,achievedbyprojective
empathyandpsychophysiologicalspontaneity,ratherthanasan
imitationofrealityinstasis."4ToWhiteheadasagainstAristotle,the
subjectmatterofartisnotthe"kindofthingthatmightbe,"5but
unmediatedrealityespeciallywhereitreachesintounconscious,pre
civilizedexperience.Thecreativitywhichgivesitshape,takesits
impetusnotsomuchfromrationalactivitiesalliedtophilosophical
speculation,asfromtherhythmsofthebodyandthemotionsofour
soul.Language,eveninthestrictlyliteraryarts,isnomorethana
meanstotheendofsuggestingfactsultimatelyinaccessibletowords.
Enshrinedasitmaybecomeinprint,thecreativeimpulsefirstand
foremostderivesfromthebody.ThetraditionalbiasofWestern
aestheticstowardsdiscursivereason,inotherwords,hasbeen
reversed.
AccordingtoAristotle,SophoclesOedipusRexowedpartofits
eminenceasthegreatestworkofarttothefactthattheplaycouldbe
givenitsfullartisticimpactbymererecital,thatistosaybyvirtueof
itsstrictlylinguisticpotential.Justasthispositionmarksour
traditionalunderstandingofartatitsperhapsfurthestextreme,soits
reversal,nowwidelypracticedintodaysavantgardetheater,has
helpedthenew"body"poeticstoitsmostradicalandliteral
realization.ToJerzyGrotowski,forinstance,theprimarymediumfor
theactoroughttobehisbody."[E]verythingmustcomefromand
throughthebody.Firstandforemost,theremustbeaphysicalreaction
toeverythingthataffectsus.Beforereactingwiththevoice,youmust
firstreactwiththebody.Ifyouthink,youmustthinkwiththebody."6
Grotowskismentor,Artaud,hadearlierdemandedasimilarprimacy
ofthespectacleoverthespokenword.Infollowing"thevery
automatismoftheliberatedunconscious,"7thistheaterofcruelty
shouldavoidthe"cheapimitationsofreality"ofAristotelian
persuasion.Whileemphasizingthepsychotherapeuticbiasofhisown
efforts,Artaudatthesametimeinveighsagainst"apurelydescriptive
andnarrativetheatrestorytellingpsychology"aswellaspsychology
ingeneral.JustliketheAristoteliandramaticmatrix,psychology,he
seemstoimply,"...worksrelentlesslytoreducetheunknowntothe
known,tothequotidianandtheordinary,[and]isthecauseofthe
theatersabasementanditsfearfullossofenergy."
AllthiscallsforanexplanationwhichArtaudhimselforhisvarious
followershavesofardeniedus.Whatconnections,ifany,exist
betweenAristotelianpoeticsandthecontemporarypsychological
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theateraswellaspsychoanalysisitself?Andtowhatdegreecanthe
effortsofanArtaudorGrotowskitoevolveanewtheaterofthebody
ratherthanthespokenwordbeseenasanalternativetothistraditional
nexus,analternativewithitsrootsinthesamebodilycharacterof
experienceemphasizedsooften,andsoemphatically,byWhitehead?
I
ForlackofexampleslistedbyArtaudhimself,twoplays,Pirandellos
SixCharactersinSearchofanAuthorandMillersDeathofa
Salesman,mayservetoillustratethatpartoftwentiethcenturytheater
withrootsinthetraditionalnexusbasedonAristotleand
psychoanalytictheory.Atfirstsightthetwoplaysseemtohavelittle
incommonexceptthattheirauthorsconsideredthemastragedies.
Pirandellofeltthathehaddramatized"theinherenttragicconflict
betweenlife(whichisalwaysmovingandchanging)andform(which
fixesit,immutable)."8Millerthoughtofhisplayasthetragedyofa
manwho"gavehislife,orsoldit,inordertojustifythewasteofit."9
Yeteventheseconceptsoftragedyareconspicuousfortheir
differencesratherthantheiraffinities.Whatrelatesthetwoplaysand,
infact,makesthemtwoofthemostforcefulmanifestationsofthe
tragicinourcentury,remainedasecreteventotheirauthors.
ThegenesisofSixCharactersiswellknownfromtheplaywrights
1930prefacetotheplay.TheFatherwho,possessedwiththedemonof
experiment,sendshisownwifetolivewithanothermanandalmost
endsupsleepingwithhis"StepDaughter"bythesurrogatehusband,
hadsomehowtakenholdofhisimaginationwithoutrevealingits
deepermeaninginasignificantform.Forrealpoets,inPirandellos
Aristotelianconviction,"admitonlyfigures,affairs,landscapeswhich
havebeensoaked,sotospeak,inaparticularsenseoflifeandacquire
fromitauniversalvalue."10Unabletodiscoveritaftermucheffort,
Pirandelloeventuallyfoundthisdeepersignificanceintheconflict
"betweenlifeinmovementandform"whichcrystallizedintwoscenes
ofan"outrageousunalterablefixity."Thecharacterssearchforan
author,thewholeimpromptustuntofstagingtheirmelodramatic
entanglementsbeforethesurprisedmanager,islittleelsethanthe
searchforthesetwocrucialmoments.Thefirstoccurswhenthe
Father,abouttosleepwithaprostitute,realizesthatsheishisStep
Daughterthesecond,atragicresultofthefirst,whentheyoungBoy
outofthesubstitutemarriageshootshimselfwitharevolver.TheStep
Daughter,liketheFather,is"dyingtolive"hersceneinthebeliefthat
itcausedallherpresentmisery.Inturn,theFathercallsithis"eternal
moment":"She(indicatingtheStepDaughter)isheretocatchme,fix
me,andholdmeeternallyinthestocksforthatonefleetingand
shamefulmomentofmylife."
TheeagernesswithwhichFatherandStepDaughterwanttoreenact
thistraumaticencounterfindsitsrepressivecounterpartinthetwenty
twoyearoldSon,whoismadetorelivethesecondscene.Hisfathers
claimtohavefathomed"themeaningofitall"isamatterofmere
scornandrevulsiontohim.Suchthings,inhisopinion,"oughttohave
remainedhidden."Butthoughhepreachesrepression,heisunableto
escapethethrallofhistwotraumaticmemories,onethesuicideofthe
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Boy,theotherthedeathbydrowningofthefouryearoldChild.
"Therewasnoscene,"heprotests."Iwentaway,thatsall!Idontcare
forscenes!"Hisfinalrelivingofthesceneisallthemoreauthenticfor
beingsoinvoluntarilyspontaneous.
IranovertoherIwasjumpingintodragheroutwhenI
sawsomethingthatfrozemyblood...theboystanding
stockstill,witheyeslikeamadmanswatchinghislittle
drownedsister,inthefountain!(TheStepDaughterbends
overthefountaintohidethechild.Shesobs.)Then...(A
revolvershotringsoutbehindthetreeswheretheBoyis
hidden.)
Pirandello,infusingpretenseandreality,hasactualdeathandsuicide
"reenacted"onthestagehere.Thisseemstoimplythatrepressed
traumaticeventsbecomemorepowerfulthanrealityitselfoncethey
arereleased.Theplaywrighthimself,ofcourse,whowasbarelyaware
ofFreudatthetimehewroteSixCharacters,wouldhardlyhavetalked
abouthisplayinthesepsychoanalyticterms.Insteadofpointingout
whatfromapostFreudianperspectiveappearsasitscasehistorylike
plot,Pirandellodiscussestheplayinthetraditionalvocabularyof
Aristotle,towhomthemostimportantthinginaplaywashowthe
authorhadtransformedtherandomeventsoflifeinto"oneaction,a
completewhole,withitsseveralincidentssocloselyconnectedthat
thetransposalorwithdrawalofanyoneofthemwilldisjoinand
dislocatethewhole."11InPirandellosview,thecontentofSix
Charactersmaywellbechaotic,buthispresentationofitwas"the
reverseofconfused."Afterall,audiencesaroundtheworldhad
recognizedtheclarityoftheintrigueandthewayinwhichthewhole
wasfinally"quitesimple,clear,andorderly."12
WefindMillermakingsimilarclaimsforDeathofaSalesman.The
playwrightsgeneralsenseofform,heconfessedinaninterview,
"comesfromapositiveneedtoorganizelife.Theveryimpulseto
write,Ithink,springsfromaninnerchaoscryingfororder,for
meaning,andthatmeaningmustbediscoveredortheworklies
deadasitisfinished."13ThisAristoteliansearchforsignificantform
crystallizedinaspecificscenewhich,asinPirandellosSix
Characters,holdseverythinginits"outrageousunalterablefixity."
Thereissimilarityevenofcontent.JustasPirandellosFather,making
lovetohisStepDaughterprostitute,isdiscoveredbytheMother,so
MillersWillyLomanandhismistressaresurprisedbyhissonBiffin
aBostonhotelroom.
Thetwotragediesdiffermainlyinthewayinwhichtheir"internal
logic"(touseMillersphrase)isarrangedaroundthesefocalscenes.
Speakinginpsychoanalyticterms,Pirandellosprotagonistplaysthe
roleofhisownanalystinexplainingandreenactingthecauseofhis
misery."Imcryingaloudthereasonofmysufferings,"14heexclaims.
Hisendlessperorationsonhowasingleencounterhascrippledhislife
foreverremindthemanagerofPirandello,anauthorheheartily
detests.TheFather,inotherwords,assumestheroleoftheplaywright
inexpoundingwhattheauthorof,say,Aristotlesmodeltragedy,
OedipusRex,revealsinthegradualunfoldingofhisplay.Inabrilliant
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detectivestorylikepursuitinwhichtheinvestigatorrevealshisown
crime,Oedipusfindsoutaboutthecauseofhismisery,whilethe
Fathersimplywantstodemonstrateand,whatismore,theorizeabout
it.Forman,heexplains,"neverreasonssomuchandbecomesso
introspectiveaswhenhesufferssinceheisanxioustogetatthecause
ofhissufferings,tolearnwhohasproducedthem,andwhetheritis
justorunjustthatheshouldhavetobearthem."
ArthurMillersrelationtohisprotagonist,then,resemblesnotsomuch
PirandellostowardstheFather,asSophoclestowardsOedipus.The
playsinternallogicgraduallyrendersbothaudienceandheroawareof
hishiddenguilt.InOedipusRexthistakestheformofaninvestigation
intoobjectivefacts,whileDeathofaSalesmangivesusa
psychoanalyticvariantofthesameprocess.WillyLomanshalf
dementedforaysintohispastproceedwiththerandom
unpredictabilitywithwhichaneuroticpatientmighttalktohisanalyst.
Buttheformofthisinvoluntaryconfession,asmanifestintheplays
structure,finallyamountstoacoherentcasehistoryofthe
protagonistsdilemma.Characteristically,theoriginalversionofthe
playwasentitledTheInsideofHisHead.15
DeathofaSalesman,asMillerpointsout,isthetragedyofamanwho
unwittinglyruinshisson,recognizeshisguilt,andisforgivenbyhis
victim.16Morethanhalfwaythroughtheplay,WillyLoman,talkingto
Bernard,hissonsformerschoolmate,stillwonderswhyBiffatage
seventeensuddenlyturnedfromahighschoolfootballherointoa
hopelessgoodfornothing.SurelyBuffsfailureinamathcourseis
notenoughtoexplainthistransformation.TobothBernardandWilly
itisatotalenigma:
WILLY:Why?Why!Bernard,thatquestionhasbeen
trailingmelikeaghostforthelastfifteenyears.He
flunkedthesubject,andlaiddownanddiedlikeahammer
hithim!17
WhenBernardsuggeststhatithappenedafterBiffhadgonetovisithis
fatherinBoston,Willy,waveringbetweenhalfrecognitionand
aggressiveness,reactslikeOedipuswhenJocastatellshimthe
circumstancesofLaiusmurderatthecrossroads.18Tothespectator
thereislittlesurpriseinallthis.
Forthroughoutthefirsthalfoftheplaywehavebeenmadetowatch
Willywiththeeyesofananalystlisteningtohisneuroticpatient.What
wewitnessnowiswhatFreudwouldhavecalledafinaloutburstof
"resistanceduetorepression."19Verysoontheprotagonists
embattledegowillyielditsdefensestotheforcesofarepressed
traumaticexperienceasitinvadeshimfromtheunconscious.Willy
Loman,inMillersownwords,is"thekindofmanyouseemuttering
tohimselfonasubway...hecannolongerrestrainthepowerofhis
experiencefromdisruptingthesuperficialsocialityofhis
behaviour."20Andasweseehisdaydreamphantasiesenactedinfront
ofoureyes,onesingleeventstandsoutwithparticularobsessiveness.
AtonepointhiswifeLindatellshimheis"thehandsomestmaninthe
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world."This,inWillysguiltriddenmind,evokesascenewithhis
formermistresscallinghima"wonderfulman"andthankinghimfor
somestockingshegaveher.ThereisasecondassociationwhenWilly
wakesupfromthisreverie,seesLindamendingherstockingsand
screams:"Nowthrowthemout!"Allthis,wearemadetounderstand,
issomehowconnectedwithBiffsfailureinthemathcourse.For
followingthehotelroomscenethereisanotherflashback,disruptedby
themistresslaughterandWillys"Shutup!"inwhichyoungBernard
warnstheLomansthattheirsonisabouttoflunkmath.Butatthis
pointwestillaskourselveshowthetwoincidentsinterconnect.
Willysoverflowingunconscious,however,doesnotwithholdthe
answerformuchlonger.HisconversationwiththeadultBernardhas
stirredupthecruciallinkinthechainofassociations.Willyisata
restaurantwithhistwosonsandtheirpickups.WhenBuffrefusesto
tellhimabouthisrecentinterviewwithhisformerboss,Oliver,he
suddenly,totheconfusionofeverybody,burstsout:"No,no!Youhad
togoandflunkmath!"Nowhiswanderingmindreturnstothescenein
whichyoungBernardreportedBiffsfailure.Butthescenehas
undergoneasignificantchange.OnlyLindaandyoungBernardare
present,whileBiffhasalreadyleftforBoston.Meanwhileinthe
restaurant,BiffaskshimselfwhyheeverwenttoseeOliver.In
Willysmindthisquestionispromptlyansweredbythelaughterofhis
formermistress,whichisenoughtofinallybreakdownhisremaining
consciousdefenses.Abandonedbyhistwosons,herelivesthe
traumaticscene,longrepressed,whichcontainsthesolutiontothe
riddlethathasplaguedhimforsolong.Biff,thinkingthathisfather
mightintercedeforhimwithhismathteacher,foundWillyinthe
companyofahalfnakedwoman.
II
AsmuchastheypointbacktoAristotlesPoeticsandSophocles
OedipusRex,theplotstructuresofbothDeathofaSalesmanandSix
CharactersinSearchofanAuthor,then,showequalaffinitywith
twentiethcenturypsychoanalysis.Thisisallthemorestrikingasboth
PirandelloandMillerwerepracticallyignorantofFreudsteachings
whentheywrotetheirplays.21ItalsosuggeststhatbothFreudian
psychoanalysisandcontemporarypsychologicaldrama,eachthrough
independentchannels,havecommonrootsintheAristoteliandramatic
matrixaslargelyderivedfromSophoclesOedipusRex.Itremainsto
beseenwhatconnectionstherearebetweenpsychoanalysisproperand
thisovertwothousandyearoldaesthetictradition.
Suchlinkscanbefoundevenformorerecentpsychoanalyticmethods
whichintheiremphasisonphysiologicalreenactmentseemtooffer
radicalalternativestoFreudsrationalistmethods.What,forinstance,
couldbefurtherremovedfromstrictlydiscursivepsychoanalysisthan
primalscreamtherapy?ButrereadingArthurJanovonequickly
realizesthatscreaminghereisonlyameanstotheendofuncovering
theunbrokenchainofneatlyinterconnectedeventsor"scenes"often
leadingbacktothe"majorscene"whichcausedtheneurosis.Toquote
fromJanovsexamples:
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Apatientwhohadnomemorybeforetheageoftenbegan
toreliveexperiencesattheageoffourteenandworkedher
waydowntheageladderuntilsherelivedaterribleevent
thatcausedthefinalsplitattheageoftenSomepatients
areabletogodirectlytothemajorsceneinwhichthey
feltthesplitotherstakemonthstogetthere."22
AsimilarpictureemergesfromBioenergetics.Itsmainexponent,
AlexanderLowen,proposesto"helpapersongetbacktogetherwith
hisbodyandtohelphimenjoytothefullestdegreepossiblethelifeof
thebody."23Tothisend,Lowendesignedanumberofingenious
physicalexercisescombinedwithprimaltherapy.Buttheseare
subservienttoakindoftorturechamberpsychoanalysisinwhichthe
patientrevealshispastinthestateofexhaustionoremotionalturmoil
inducedbyscreamingandphysicalexercise.InLowensownwords:
Oneofthepurposesoftheanalysisistocreatethatmapin
thepatientsmind.Itisamapofwords,madeupof
memories,andisthereforethefullhistoryofthepersons
life.Whenitallcomestogetherlikethepiecesinajigsaw
puzzle,itfinallymakessenseandthepersonseeswhohe
isandhowheisintheworld,aswellasknowsthewhyof
hischaracter.
LowensandJanovsdirectindebtednesshereistoFreud,who
throughouttalksabouthispatientsrepressedexperiencesintermsof
highlyspecific,dramatic,andtraumatic"scenes."Theanalyst,like
Theseusinthelabyrinthoftheunconscious,hasto"getholdofapiece
ofthelogicalthread"24thatwillleadhimtoalogicallycoherentcase
history.Notbeforeallthepiecesofthepuzzleareassembledshouldhe
revealthepatientstruelifehistorytoitsprotagonistwhowillthenbe
"overbornebytheforceoflogic."
Itisonlytowardstheendofthetreatmentthatwehave
beforeusanintelligible,consistent,andunbrokencase
history.Whereasthepracticalaimofthetreatmentisto
removeallpossiblesymptomsandtoreplacethemby
consciousthoughts,wemayregarditasasecondand
theoreticalaimtorepairallthedamagestothepatients
memory.Thesetwoaimsarecoincident.Whenoneis
reached,soistheotherandthesamepathleadstothem
both.
AlternativelyonemightarguethatJanovsandLowensindebtedness
toFreudreachesfarbeyondthefatherofpsychoanalysisor,ifviewed
fromadifferentangle,thatFreudsimpactonhisdisciplesand
twentiethcenturythoughtgenerallystemstoalargeextentfromthe
factthathetranslatedintonew,psychoanalytictermswhatinitsmajor
premisesformspartofanovertwothousandyearoldtraditionof
Westernthought.
Freudwaspartlyawareoftheseroots.Evenbeforethebirthof
psychoanalysisproper,Aristotlesconceptofthepurgingofcertain
detrimentalemotions(fearandpity)reachedbywitnessingsomeone
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elsescalamitiesprovidedFreudandBreuerwiththelabelfortheir
catharticmethod.Herethepsychicalprocesswhichcausedthe
neurosis"mustberepeatedasvividlyaspossibleitmustbebrought
backtoitsstatusnascendiandthengivenverbalutterance."Even
thoughthepatient,todescribehiminAristotelianterms,becomeshis
ownspectacle,theanalogyholds.Formostoftherepressedmaterial
heismadetorelivewillstrikehimlikeanalienexperience.Freud
beforelongabandonedthismoredramaticmethodforoneinwhichthe
patientridshimselfofhisneurosisbylearningtoseeitasapartofhis
intelligiblecasehistory.Butevenaslateas1924hestilladmittedthat
"thecatharticmethodwastheimmediateprecursorofpsychoanalysis,
and,inspiteofeveryextensionofexperienceandofevery
modificationoftheory,isstillcontainedwithinitasitsnucleus."
Freudsindebtednesstothetraditionaldramaticmatrixisequally
apparentregardingthecomplex,whichtohimconstitutes"thenucleus
ofallneuroses"aswellasthebeginningpointofall"religion,morals,
societyandart."25FromitsearliestmentionintheletterstoFliess,26
FreudnamedthecomplexafterOedipusRex.Thediscovery,hewrote
inTheInterpretationofDreams(1900),
isconfirmedbyalegend...whoseprofoundand
universalpowertomovecanonlybeunderstoodifthe
hypothesisIhaveputforwardinregardtothepsychology
ofchildrenhasanequallyuniversalvalidity.WhatIhave
inmindisthelegendofKingOedipusandSophocles
dramawhichbearshisname.27
OnequestiontoberaisedinthisconnectionisifFreud,withouthis
model,wouldhaveever"discovered"thecomplex.Anotherconcerns
thesupposedly"universalvalidity"ofthelegend.Freudmayquestion
theinterpretationofOedipusKingasa"tragedyofdestiny"butonly
byreinterpretingthenotionofdestiny.Destinytohimisnotonemans
specificfateaccordingtothewillofthegodsbut"thefateofallofus."
Oedipus"destinymovesusonlybecauseitmighthavebeenours
becausetheoraclelaidthesamecurseuponusbeforeourbirthasupon
him...KingOedipus,whoslewhisfatherLaiusandmarriedhis
motherJocasta,merelyshowsusthefulfillmentofourownchildhood
wishes."Yetrecentinvestigationsintothehistoryofthestorycometo
theoppositeconclusion.AsThaliaP.Feldmanpointsout,Oedipus,in
theextantliteratureuptoAeschylus,wasnottreatedasanoffender
whoneededpunishment."ItistheAeschyleanOedipuswhofirst
blindshimself,anunprecedentedindividualactionwhichsignifiesthat
theoffenderisloadinghimselfwiththeenormousburdenofshame
andhorrorwhichhefeelsathisinvolvement,eventhoughheand
everyoneelseknowsthatheisnotguilty."28Thisthrowsserious
doubtsonFreudsclaimthatthekillingoftheprimalfather,the
formationoftheOedipuscomplex,andthebirthoftragedyall
happenedatthedawnofhistory.Whatseemstobeclosertothetruth
isthatbothtragedyandtheOedipuslegendrepresentrelativelyrecent
phenomenainaspecificculturewhichassuchbequeathedits
limitationstoFreudsdiscoveriesofneurosisandthediscontentsof
civilization.
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Freudsthirdmajordebttothetraditionaldramaticmatrixisreflected
inhisgeneralpreference,sharedwithAristotle,forOedipusRexasa
playwhoseaction"consistsinnothingotherthantheprocessof
revealing,withcunningdelaysandevermountingexcitement...that
OedipushimselfisthemurdererofLaius."29Sophoclestragedy,ifit
isnotanactualprecursorofthemoderndetectivestory,cancertainly
betermedanearlyexampleofwhatEdgarAllanPoecalleda"taleof
ratiocination."30Particularlyingenioushereistheuseofcoincidence
suchaswhenOedipussendsfortheshepherdwhosavedhislifeat
mountCithaeron,whoalsohappenstobethesolesurvivorofthe
kingsmurderatthehandsofhisunknowingsonorwhenthenewsof
Polybusdeathisbroughtbyamessengerwhohappenstobethe
shepherdwhotookyoungOedipusfromhisThebancolleagueand
broughthimtoPolybus,kingofCorinth.ForamomentOedipus
believesthathehasescapedtheprophecythathewillmurderhis
fatheruntilthemessengertellshimthathewasnotrelatedtoPolybus.
ThisreversalisconfirmedbythearrivingThebanshepherdwhois
forcedtotestifytoOedipusidentitywiththekillerofLaius.What
Freudcalls"theprocessofrevealing,withcunningdelaysandever
mountingexcitement,"iswhatAristotle,withhiscustomaryprecision,
describesasanexampleofperipetyandanagnorisiscombined,a
fusionmadeevenmorepowerfulbythefactthatbotharisefroma
"probableornecessarysequenceofevents."31Thus,thetwodevices
addthefinaltouchofperfectiontoaplotwhoseseveralincidentsare
socloselyconnectedthatthetransposalorwithdrawalofanyoneof
themwilldisjoinanddislocatethewhole."
NowonderthatFreud,incallingtheactionofOedipusRexamere
processofrevealing,withcunningdelaysandevermounting
excitement,"wasremindedofsimilarrevelationshewasinvolvedin
almostdaily.Theprocess,hewrites,"canbelikenedtotheworkofa
psychoanalysis,"32whichitselfleadstotheequivalentofAristotles
plot,an"intelligible,consistentandunbrokencasehistory."Onemight
addthattheanalogyhasacausaldimensioninthattheAristotelian
dramaticmatrixplayedmidwifeattheverybirthofpsychoanalysis.
Bothtragedyandpsychoanalysisdealwithandinawaytrytoresolve
humansuffering.Ironically,Aristotleherewasfarmoreoptimistic
thanFreud,whofromthebeginningpurportedtodonomorethanto
transform"yourhystericalmiseryintocommonunhappiness."Forin
theAristotelianhierarchyofentelechies,allofwhicharestriving
towardsselfperception,poetry,asagainsthistoriography,imitates
thingsnotastheyarebutastheyoughttobe.Itsstatementstherefore
areofthenatureofuniversalsratherthanparticulars.While"Nature
alwaysstrivesafterthebetter,"33artanticipatesthatprocessof
teleologicalselfimprovementandseekstofilltip"thedeficienciesof
Nature"hereandnow.34Buthowthencantragedy,imitatingtheworst
aspectsoflife("EW]hatisdonebyviolenceiscontrarytoNature),35
bethegreatestformofartasAristotleasserts?Theansweriscontained
inthecatharsisconcept,and,sincethebetterkindsofcatharsisare
arousedby"theverystructureandincidentsoftheplay,"36theanswer
isfoundinthecoherenceoftheplot.ToAristotle,pityandfearare
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irrationalemotions,andtheirpurgation,achievedbypresentingthe
irrationalinanorderedcontext,canonlyhavetheaimofmakingman
morerational.37"Now,inmen,"AristotlewritesinPolitics,"rational
principleandmindaretheendtowardswhichnaturestrives,sothat
thebirthandmoraldisciplineofthecitizensoughttobeorderedwitha
viewtothem....Andasthebodyispriorinorderofgenerationtothe
soul,sotheirrationalispriortotherational."38
Thecatharsisconcept,then,seemstocoverthewholespectrumfrom
Freuds"catharticmethod"ofactingoutrepressedexperiences,to
psychoanalysisproperpurportingtocurethepatientbymakinghim
understandtheseexperiencesasbeingpartofhisintelligible,
consistent,andunbrokencasehistory.Theforcesatworkonthe
Aristotelianspectatoroftragedyareofasimilarnature.Withoutsome
displayofviolenceorsuffering,ofcourse,nofearandpitycanbe
aroused.ButtoAristotle,thisisnottobemisunderstoodinthesense
ofatheaterofcruelty.Those,hewrites,"whomakeuseofthe
Spectacletoputbeforeusthatwhichismerelymonstrous...are
whollyoutoftouchwithTragedy."39Similarly,thebestwayof
handlingthedeedofhorrorisfoundinaplaylikeCresphonteswhere
Merope,"onthepointofslayingherson,recognizeshimintime."40
Moreimportantthantheactualpresentationofviolenceandsuffering
isthedeviceofperipetyincausingsurprisewhileatthesametime
lettingusrecognizewhatsurprisedusasanorderedsequenceofcause
andeffect.Forthearousalofpityandfear,liketheemotionsfeltin
relivingarepressedtraumaticscene,willbepurgedbysuchhindsight.
AristoteliancatharsisandFreudiantherapyalsoshareanalmost
exclusiverelianceondiscursivelanguage.JustasFreudrestricts
analysistothepatientsverbalarticulationofhiserraticlifestory
towardsthelogicallyconsistentdiscourseofhiscasehistory,so
Aristotle,asalreadypointedout,preferstohavethecatharticimpactof
tragedydependonthespokenwordtotheexclusionofaspectacle.
ThePlotinfactshouldbesoframedthat,evenwithout
seeingthethingstakeplace,hewhosimplyhearsthe
accountofthemshallbefilledwithhorrorandpityatthe
incidentswhichisjusttheeffectthatthemererecitalof
thestoryinOedipuswouldhaveonone.41
III
WhoeverrememberstheHappeningsofthesixtiesandseventieswill
knowthatArtaudbynomeansofferedthemostradicalreaction
againstthisposition.WhileMichaelKirbyhailedTheTheatreof
Crueltyas"almostatextforHappenings,"42Artaudhimselfwasfar
fromadvocatingatotalabolitionoflanguageinthetheater.Buthewas
equallyremovedfromFreudsorAristotlesbeliefthatlanguagecan
resolvethecontingencyofexperienceinitsdiscursiveorder.Onthe
contrary,languagehasbeenossifiedbysuchassumptions,and,before
itcanbeusedinthetheater,hastobecleansedofitsabstract
encrustations.Forhiddenunderneathisitsolddynamicpotential
which,asArtaudconcludedbeforeCharlesOlson,43canbereclaimed
fromtherespiratorysourcesoflanguage:
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letwordsbejoinedagaintothephysicalmotionsthatgave
thembirth,andletthediscursive,logicalaspectofspeech
disappearbeneathitsaffective,physicalside,i.e.,let
wordsbeheardintheirsonorityratherthanbeexclusively
takenforwhattheymeangrammatically.44
Artaudhadhisownideasabouthowthetheaterofcrueltywould
benefitthespectators.Thisisachievedneitherbylettingthemseethe
randomnessofeventsintheirdeepercausalcoherencenorbymaking
themunderstandlifeasalogicallyconsistentcasehistory.Noamount
ofexplainingorunderstandingwilldoawaywiththebasiccrueltyof
life"thatlifeisalwayssomeonesdeath."Man,ratherthandeluding
himselfthatsufferingmightbeeliminated,shouldsimplylearnto
confrontit.Thenewtheater,then,"farfromcopyinglife,putsitself
wheneverpossibleincommunicationwithpureforces."Itshould
immersethespectatorintheirrationalratherthanstrivetopurgeitout
ofhim.Theactoristoprovidehimwithamodelinthispursuit.To
Artaud,"everyemotionhasorganicbases,"sothatthesoul,for
instance,isnomorethana"skeinofvibrations."YinandYang,
Chineseacupuncture,andtheCabalaareinvokedindiscussing
possiblenewactingtechniquesthatwillprovideanalternativetothe
Aristotelianmimetictheateranditstwentiethcenturyvariant,story
tellingpsychology."Asan"athleteoftheheart,"theactorshould
explorethedifferentmodesofrespirationinhisacting.Thusjoining
"thepassionsbymeansoftheirforces,insteadofregardingthemas
pureabstractions,"willconfera"masteryupontheactorwhichmakes
himequaltoatruehealer."
Artaudsalternativetothepsychologicaltheaterwastoalargeextent
inspiredbynonWesternsources.ABalinesedancegroupwhichhe
sawatthe1931ColonialExhibitioninParisbroughthisratherdiffuse
ideasabout"TheTheaterandthePlague"or"TheAlchemicalTheater"
toaconcretefocus.Italsoledhimtodefinehisgoalsinanalogyto
"theOrientaltheaterofmetaphysicaltendency"asopposedto"the
Occidentaltheaterofpsychologicaltendency."TheseBalinese
productions,hewrote,"takeshapeattheveryheartofmatter,life,
reality.Thereisinthemsomethingoftheceremonialqualityofa
religiousrite,inthesensethattheyextirpatefromthemindoftheon
lookerallideaofpretense,ofcheapimitationofreality."Somewhat
later,Hinducosmologyhelpedhimredefinehisconceptofcrueltyas
thecentrallawoftheuniverse.UnliketheJudeoChristianGod,
Brahmasuffershisowncreation"withasufferingthatyieldsjoyous
harmonicsperhaps,butwhichattheultimateextremityofthecurve
canonlybeexpressedbyaterriblecrushingandgrinding."
ThepassageservestoremindusthatArtaudwasnotthefirsteitherto
opposetheAristoteliandramaticmatrixortoderivehisalternatives
fromnonWesternsources.Italsobringstomindtheonesided
distortionswhichhavecharacterizedthisnownearlytwohundred
yearoldtraditionrightfromthedaysofSchopenhauerspessimistic
transcriptionofEasternthought.ForEasternphilosophy,ifconsidered
initsownright,isneitherpessimisticnoroptimistic,butratherwhat
wemightcallfatalistic.Indepictingthesupremedivinityasamonster
ofdestruction,theBhagavadGita,forinstance,clearlyadmitstothe
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naturalcrueltyoflife.Atthesametimeitexhortsustoactevenifsuch
actionmayinvolvesomeoneelsessufferingordeath.Neither
teleologicallawsinherentinlifenorrationalordersthatmanmight
imposeuponitwilleliminatethisdilemma.Allmancandointryingto
faceit,isdeveloptheappropriatekindofselfdetachmentthrough
meditation.Analogously,Sanskritdramahaslittleconcernwith
implicitteleologicalschemes,coherentplotsshowingthingsasthey
oughttobe,orthepurgingoffearandpitywiththeaimofproducing
morerationalcitizens.BharatasNatyasastra,theSanskritequivalent
ofAristotlesPoetics,definesdrama,notasthe"imitationof...one
action,acompletewhole"45butasthe"representationofconditions
andsituations"46aimingtoinduceastateofappreciativeserenity
analogoustothelifeaffirmingselfdetachmentreachedthrough
meditation.
ArthurSchopenhauer,thefirstphilosopheraestheticiantomakesuch
ideashisown,misinterpretedtheEasternacceptanceofsufferingasa
denunciationoflifeandtheattempttocometotermswithitas
resignation.Lackingallsenseofthepsychophysiologicalcoreof
Easternmysticism,heconsistentlyadvocatedarepression
("Unterdrckung")andnegationofalllifeimpulses.Hencetragedyto
himissimplyapowerfulartisticmediumtothesameend.In
portrayingthe"horrificsideoflife"("dieschrecklicheSeitedes
Lebens")47andshowinghowallthemiseryofliferesultsfromthe
blindworkingsoftheWillwhichiseverything,tragedymerely
inducesastateofquietisminthespectator:
Thepoweroftransportpeculiartotragedymaybeseento
arisefromoursuddenrecognitionthatlifefailstoprovide
anytruesatisfactionsandhencedoesnotdeserveour
loyalty.Tragedyguidesustothefinalgoal,whichis
resignation.
SchopenhauerswordsfromTheWorldasWillandIdeaarequotedin
Nietzsches1886"CriticalGlanceBackward"inTheBirthofTragedy
(1872),48whichinvertstheSchopenhauerianpositionbywayof
anticipatingthemorerecenttheaterofcruelty.Reactingagainstall
previousteleologicalandrationalistmakebelieve,Nietzsche,likehis
teacher,seestragedyasdealingwiththe"naturalcrueltyofthings"
("naturlicheGrausamkeitderDinge")49andhemakeslightofcritics
who"nevertireoftellingusabouttheherosstrugglewithdestiny,
aboutthetriumphofthemoralorder,andaboutthepurgingofthe
emotions."50Facing"theHeracliteandoublemotion"ofApollonian
creativityandDionysiacdestructiveness,thetragedianfocuseson"the
eternalwoundofbeing"andshowshow,againandagaininlife,the
Apollonianillusionor"veilofMaya"istornapartuntilnothing
remainsbut"shredsfloatingbeforethevisionofmysticalOneness."
Butas"anauguryofeventualreintegration,"theDionysiacspirit
"whichplayfullyshattersandrebuildstheteemingworldof
individuals"inducestheveryoppositeofSchopenhauerianresignation
inthespectator:
Tragedycries,"Webelievethatlifeiseternal!"...It
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makesusrealizethateverythingthatisgeneratedmustbe
preparedtofaceitspainfuldissolution....Pityandterror
notwithstanding,werealizeourgreatgoodfortunein
havinglifenotasindividuals,butaspartofthelife
forcewithwhoseprocreativelustwehavebecomeone.
Inadvocatingthisuntragiccelebrationoflifedespitethe"horrorof
individualexistence,"NietzscheanticipatesArtaudtotheverypointof
soundingimposinglymessianicwhilefailingtoinvestigatethe
practicalpossibilitiesofthenewtheater.ThereislittleeveninLe
thtreetsondoublethatenablesustoimaginehow,asthepotential
audienceofsuchspectacles,wewillbemadetojoininsuchamorfati
rejoicing.Allitamountsto,asJerzyGrotowskiconcludes,is"avery
fertileaestheticproposition.Itisnotatechnique."Artaud,like
Nietzschebeforehim,evolvedatheoreticalalternativetothe
Aristoteliandramaticmatrixanditspsychoanalyticderivations.But
neitherexploredthewaysinwhichtheirtheorycouldbeturnedinto
practice,ataskmorerecentlytackledbyBrook,Grotowski,andothers.
TheprimaryaimofGrotowskispoortheater,forinstance,is"akind
ofsocialpsychotherapy"51inwhichthespectatorcomestosharethe
actorspsychophysiologicalselfpenetrationtowardsan"inner
harmonyandpeaceofmind."Thisisachievedneitherbyan
Aristotelianportrayalofcharactersforthesakeoftheiractionsnora
psychoanalyticdissectingofemotionsforthesakeofestablishing
tragiccasehistories.ActingtoGrotowskiistheveryOppositeof
imitatinganactionoremotion."Anactorshouldnotusehisorganism
toillustrateamovementofthesoul,heshouldaccomplishthis
movementwithhisorganism."Insteadofenactingthewordscodified
inaliterarytextheoughttousehisbodyinordertofindalanguageof
signs.WordstoGrotowski"arealwayspretexts"andmoreoftenthan
notdisguisetheimpulsethattriestorevealitselfinthem.Tomake
wordstheguidelinesforactingisasilladvised,therefore,asto
suggestboredom,forexample,bylettingtheactoractina"bored"
manner.Foraboredman,ashedesperatelyandunsuccessfullytriesto
findsomethingthatwillendhisboredom,isfarmoreactivethan
usual.Beforeallelse,thetheatersmediumisthebodyoftheactor.
"Beforereactingwiththevoice,youmustfirstreactwiththebody.If
youthink,youmustfirstthinkwithyourbody."
Inthisregard,Grotowskispoortheaterdiffersnotonlyfromits
AristotelianandFreudiancounterpartsbutalsofromsuchneo
FreudianadvocatesofaprocesspsychotherapyasJanovorLowen.
Primafacie,TowardsaPoorTheater,withitshandbooklikelistsof
physicalexercisesanditspsychoanalyticvocabulary,sometimes
soundsconspicuouslylikeLowensBioenergetics.Living,Grotowski
writes,
isnotbeingcontracted,norisitbeingrelaxed:itisa
process.Butiftheactorisalwaystoocontracted,the
causeblockingthenaturalrespiratoryprocessalmost
alwaysofapsychicalorpsychologicalnaturemustbe
discovered.Wemustdeterminewhichishisnaturaltype
ofrespiration.Iobservetheactor,whilesuggesting
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exercisesthatcompelhimintototalpsychophysical
mobilization.
ButtoGrotowski,theprocessof"totalpsychophysicalmobilization,"
includingprimalscreamtechniques,nolongerservesasameans
towardstheendofestablishingconsistentcasehistorieswithinthe
overallframeworkofapsychoanalyticallydiscursivelogic.Itstruer
counterpartsperhapsarePoeticsliketheSanskritNatyasastraorthe
JapaneseKwadensho.Suchtreatisesatleastshowthatthetrainingof
actorsinamannerresemblingaprocesspsychotherapydevoidof
rationalistsystematizationismorethanarecentfadoftheWest.Ithas
beencommonpracticeinIndiaandJapanformanycenturies.
Notes
IRichardA.Evans,PsychologyandArthurMiller(NewYork:F.P.
Dutton,1969),p.79.
2A.N.Whitehead,Symbolism,ItsMeaningandEffect(NewYork:
CapricornBooks,1959),p.21.Concerningtheinfluenceofthe
conceptoncontemporarypoetsseeF.Faas,TowardsaNewAmerican
Poetics:Essays&Interviews(CharlesOlson,RobertDuncan,Gary
Snyder,RobertCreeley.RobertBly,AllenGinsberg)(SantaBarbara:
BlackSparrowPress1979),pp.47,65,andpassim.SeealsoCharles
Altieri,"FromSymbolistThoughttoImmanence:TheGroundof
PostmodernAmericanPoetics,"Boundary21(197273),60541,pp.
623ff.
3(NewYork:Macmillan,1967),pp.27071.
4NewAmericanPoetics,p.32.
5Aristotle,Poetics1451b5.Thisandallfollowingquotationsfrom
AristotlesPoeticsarefromIngramBywaterstranslation,Aristotle.
RhetoricandPoetics.IntroductionbyF.Solmsen(NewYork:
RandomHouse,1954).
6TowardsaPoorTheater(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,1968),p.
204.
7ForthisandthefollowingquotationsfromArtaudseeTheTheater
anditsDouble(NewYork:GrovePress,1958),pp.54,60,76,77.
8NakedMasks.FivePlays,ed.EricBentley(NewYork:E.P.Dutton,
1952),p.367.
9DeathofaSalesman.TestandCriticism.ed.C.Weales(NewYork:
VikingPress,1967),p.150.
10ForthisandthefollowingquotationsfromPirandelloseeNaked
Masks,pp.36465,371,367,223,258,260,239,274,276.
11Poetics,1451a3234.
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12NakedMasks.p.374.
13ForthisandthefollowingquotationsfromA.MillerseeDeath,ed.
C.Weales,pp.185,171,149.
14ForthisandthefollowingquotationfromPirandelloseeNaked
Masks,p.267.
15SeeDeath,ed.G.Weales,p.155.
16Seeibid.,p.167.
17Ibid.,p.93.
18CompareDeath,ed.G.Weales,p.94,withOedipusRex,line711ff.
19AnOutlineofPsychoAnalysistranslatedbyJamesStrachey(New
York:Norton,1969),p.36.
20ForthisandthefollowingquotationsfromA.MillerseeDeath,ed.
C.Weales,pp.158,37,38,39,40,109.
21A.Millermaintainsthathe"waslittlebetterthanignorantof
Freudsteachingswhen[he]wroteDeathofaSalesman,"Death,ed.
C,Weales,p.161.
22ThePrimalScream(NewYork:Dell,1974),p.97.
23ForthisandthefollowingquotationfromA.Lowensee
Bioenergetics(Harmondsworth:PenguinBooks,1975),pp.43,327.
24ForthisandthefollowingquotationsfromFreudseePelicanFreud
Library,15vols.,ed.A.Richards(Harmondsworth:PenguinBooks,
1973ff.),III,380,387VIII,47III,57,44.
25TotemandTaboo,pp.15657.
26SeeTheOriginsofPsychoAnalysis.LetterstoWilhelmFliess,
DraftsandNotes:18871902,ed.MarieBonaparte,etc.(NewYork:
BasicBooks,1954),p.223.
27ForthisandthefollowingquotationfromFreudseePelicanFreud
Library,ed.A.Richards,IV,36263,364.Foradetailedanalysisof
FreudsOedipusinterpretationinDieTraumdeutungseeCynthia
Chase,"OedipalTextuality:ReadingFreudsReadingofOedipus,"
Diacritics9(1979),5468.Theauthor,however,seemstometoderive
erroneousconclusionsfrommisinterpretingOedipusselfblindingas
anactofrepression(seep.57).
28"TaboointheOedipusTheme,"OedipusTyrannus,translatedand
editedbyL.BerkowitzandT.F.Brunner(NewYork:Norton,1970),
pp.5969,63.
29PelicanFreudLibrary,ed.A.Richards,IV,363.
30TheNewColumbiaEncyclopedia,ed.W.H.HarrisandJ.S.Levey
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(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1975),p.752.
31Poetics,1451a3334.
32ForthisandthefollowingquotationsfromFreudseePelicanFreud
Library,ed.A.Richards,IV,363III,387III,393.
33OnGenerationandCorruption,3.36b27,TheBasicWorksof
Aristotle(NewYork:RandomHouse,1941),p.527.
34Politics,1337a41,BasicWorks,p.1305.
35GenerationofAnimals,788b2829,TheWorksofAristotle.
TranslatedintoEnglishundertheEditorshipofJ.A.SmithandW.D.
Ross(Oxford:AttheClarendonPress,1970),V.
36Poetics,1453b910.
37Cf.LeonGolden,"TheClarificationTheoryofKatharsis,"Hermes
104(1976),pp.43752,especiallyp.445,whichofallcatharsis
interpretationslamawareofcomesclosesttotheonepresentedhere.
38Politics,1334b1421,BasicWorks,p.1300.
39Poetics,1453b910.
40Ibid.,1454a67.Concerningthecontradictionbetweenthis
statementand1453a1315,seeJ.Moles,"NotesonAristotle,Poetics
13and14,"ClassicalQuarterlyN.S.XXIX,1(1979),pp.7794,82ff.
41Poetics,1453b37.
42Happenings.AnIllustratedAnthology,writtenandeditedbyM.
Kirby(NewYork:E.P.Dutton,1966),p.34.
43SeeE.Faas,NewAmericanPoetics,p.45ff.
44ForthisandthefollowingquotationsfromArtaudseeTheater,
pp.119,102,82,140,135,133,135,72,60,103.
45Aristotle,Poetics,1451a3233.
46SeeP.Lal,GreatSanskritPlaysinModernTranslation(New
York:NewDirections,n.d.),p.XVII.SeealsoE.Faas,"Faustand
Sacontal,"ComparativeLiterature31,4(Fall1979),pp.36791,
373.
47ForthisandthefollowingquotationsfromSchopenhauersee
Werke.ZrcherAusgabe,ed.ArthurHbscher,10vols.(Zrich:
DiogenesVerlag,1977),II,4721,31819.
48TheBirthofTragedyandTheGenealogyofMorals,translatedby
FrancisGolffing(GardenCity,N.Y.Doubleday,1956),p.12.
49Werke.KritischeGesamtausgabe,ed.G.ColliandM.Montinari
(Berlin:deGruyter,1972),pt.3,vol.1,115.
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50ForthisandthefollowingquotationsfromNietzscheseeBirth,pp.
133,120,108,23,67,143,102.
51ForthisandthefollowingquotationsfromGrotowskiseePoor
Theatre,pp.206,46,45,123,235,236,204,208.
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