6

FABRIC
(1) ETFE cushions
Cushions
Air supply
The material
Fabrication
Durability
Performance in fire
(2) Single membrane : Cone-shaped roof
Fabric roof principles
Fabric types
Comparison of types
Thermal insulation
Acoustics
Durability
Performance in fire
Condensation
(3) Single membrane : Barrel-shaped roof
Membrane roof fabrication
Membrane roof edges
Suspension points
Membrane folds

MCR_ 175

Fabric 01
ETFE cushions

2
5

Isometric view of junction of clamping plates

Arteplage, Neuchatel, Switzerland. Architect: Groupe Multipac.

Section 1:5. Junction of clamping plates

2
4
3

5
5

Fabrics used as roof membranes have the

tion of inflatable fabric roofs.

Cushions

advantage of being light in weight, strong in

Although large scale self-supporting

tension and durable, and have the ability to

inflatable roof structures are in use, particu-

mum of two layers of ETFE sheet which are

be cut to different shapes and joined togeth-

larly for covering sports stadiums, they

set back to back to form a flat panel and are

er economically, which is difficult to achieve

remain structurally stable only while air is

sealed at the edges.The void within the

so easily with metal and is very expensive to

being supplied to the structure. If the air

cushion-shaped panel is inflated with air to a

achieve with curved glass. Roof membrane

supply is interrupted, the complete roof

pressure of between 200 Pascals and 700

fabrics are used in tension structures, either

structure deflates. In smaller scale applica-

Pascals, depending on the cushion size and

by stretching the material, or 'prestressing'

tions, air-filled cushions remain in place when

the manufacturer's proprietary system, to

the membrane, between structural supports

the air supply fails or is switched off when

provide structural stability to the panel.The

or, alternatively, by supporting the material

used as non-loadbearing panels.This type,

increased air pressure stretches, or 'pre-

pneumatically in inflated structures.The use

where ETFE sheet is used to make panels

stresses', the outer membranes, giving ETFE

of fabric membranes in prestressed roofs is

formed as air-filled 'cushions', provides highly

cushions their characteristic curved shape.

discussed in the next two sections on single

transparent, lightweight and resilient roofs

The cushions are held in place by clamps

layer fabric membranes.This section consid-

that have thermal insulation values similar to

that form a frame around the cushions in

ers ETFE cushions, also called 'pillows' or

those of double glazed units.

the manner of glazed rooflights.The clamping

'foils', which are the most common applica-

MCR_ 176

ETFE cushions usually consist of a mini-

frames are then supported by a mild steel

Section 1:10. Opening smoke vents with insulated gutter

Detail F

Section 1:5. Clamping plate assembly

1
1

1
4
3

Details

5. Supporting structure
6. Plastic air supply tube
7. Main air supply tube
8. Insulated metal lined gutter
9. Metal flashing
10. ETFE cushion with
contours shown for clarity

1.
2.

ETFE cushion
Extruded aluminium
clamping plate
3. Extruded aluminium
retaining profile
4. Plastic edge bead to
fabric membrane
Plan 1:10. Junction of clamping plates

Section 1:5. Clamping plate assembly

2
1

Plan 1:10. Clamping plate with air supply pipes

Detail C

1
3
5

6
1
5
7

structure formed typically as box sections or

breaks at the panel perimeter to partially

are connected to a larger pipe that supplies

tubes. Cushions typically have three layers

overcome this loss of thermal insulation.The

the air to all the cushions either side of a sin-

that form two chambers, as (A).The two

overall U-value can be reduced by forming a

gle structural support.This main pipe is also

chambers are linked by a hole formed in the

wide gap between the two outer mem-

usually made from plastic and can be con-

middle (flat) membrane in order to allow air

branes, as (B), to provide a consistently wide

cealed within the supporting structure, being

to pass to both chambers from a single air

air space within the cushion.Thermal insula-

only up to a diameter of around 60mm.The

supply, and to ensure that the air pressure in

tion performance can also be improved by

air supply, which maintains the air pressure

both chambers remains equal.This three

increasing the number of air chambers with-

within the cushions at a constant level, is

layer cushion provides a U-value of around

in the cushion by adding further layers of

supplied by electrically powered fans with air

2.0 W/m K, which is similar to a double

ETFE membrane.

filters (to avoid the passage of dust), as used

glazed unit used in glass roofs. Cushions

made from two layers of ETFE sheet are also
used but the thermal insulation performance

in mechanical ventilation systems within

Air supply
Air is supplied to cushions from rubber

buildings.The humidity level of the air is usually controlled to avoid the possibility of con-

is reduced considerably.Thermal insulation

pipes or flexible plastic pipes that are con-

densation forming within the cushions. Once

performance is reduced at the perimeter of

nected to the underside of the cushion near

the ETFE cushions have been inflated, air is

the cushion where its thickness is reduced to

the clamping assembly, as shown in (C). Pipes

supplied to the cushions for only around 5-

a thin edge. Some cushions have thermal

are usually of around 25mm diameter, and

10 minutes per hour to compensate for loss

MCR_ 177

Fabric 01
ETFE cushions

Section 1:10. Junction with adjacent roof

2
1

3
8
3
5
5

Section 1:10. Junction of clamping plates

Section 1:10. Junction at base

Detail B

Section 1:5. Junction with gutter

3

2
9
3

Section 1:10. Junction of clamping plates

Detail A

1
2

of air pressure from leaks from cushions or

ensuring that ventilation levels within the

Teflon) which is made by extrusion as a

from air supply pipes.

building are sufficiently high to avoid this

sheet material.Thicknesses vary but 0.2mm

If air pressure within the cushion is lost as

occurring, and that levels of relative humidity

is a common thickness of material for ETFE

a result of damage to one of the outer mem-

are suitably controlled.Where condensation

cushions, allowing them to be very light in

branes or from loss of air pressure in the

is still a risk, condensation channels are fixed

weight at around 350g/m for this thickness

supply pipe, the cushion deflates to its flat-

to the underside of the cushion clamping

of sheet. Heavier gauge sheet at 0.5mm

tened shape. As wind pressures are applied

assembly as shown in (D), similar to that

thickness weighs around 1000g/m. Inner lay-

to the external face of the cushion, the outer

used for glazed rooflights. In most cases the

ers of ETFE sheet that provide separate

skin will deflect either inwards or outwards

temperature of the air supplied to the cush-

chambers within the cushion are often made

as a result of the positive or negative pres-

ions is similar to that of the internal space

from 0.1mm thick sheet.The material is also

sures.This does not usually cause damage to

immediately below the roof, so condensa-

used for its high level of transparency, with

the cushions before the air supply is restored.

tion does not usually occur on the underside

95% light transmission, and its durability

Some manufacturers' systems have one-way

of the cushion.

when compared to other fabric materials,

valves to prevent loss of air pressure from

the cushions back to the supply pipes.
Condensation on the underside, or internal face, of ETFE cushions is avoided by

MCR_ 178

with a life expectancy of 25-35 years, based

The material
ETFE (ethylene-tetra-flouro-ethylene) is
a polymer similar to PTFE (marketed as

on visual criteria. In order to provide translucent areas of roof (or faade) using the
same material, a white coloured translucent

Section 1:5. Junction of clamping plates

Detail D

Isometric view of junction of clamping plates

10
10

6
5

Details
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Section 1:10. Junction of clamping plates

ETFE cushion
Extruded aluminium clamping plate
Extruded aluminium retaining profile
Plastic edge bead to fabric membrane
Supporting structure

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Plastic air supply tube

Main air supply tube
Insulated metal lined gutter
Metal flashing
ETFE cushion with contours shown for clarity

5
5

sheet is manufactured which provides

The amount of solar shading provided can

the use of a thin ,stretched, membrane

around 40% light transmission. ETFE does

be varied by allowing the middle layer to

material.

not provide a barrier to the passage of UV

move as a result of changing the air pressure

light, making it ideal for use in buildings

within the cushion.The middle layer moves

where extensive planting is displayed, though

either outwards or inwards to increase the

the translucent white sheet has greatly

overlap of the printed screen of dots that

the workshop but can be assembled on site

reduced UV light transmission. Solar shading

has the effect of varying the amount of solar

to suit project conditions.The material is

can be provided by a pattern of dots printed

shading provided.

manufactured in rolls of considerable length

onto the surface of the ETFE cushion, with a

The sound absorption of ETFE cushions

Fabrication
ETFE cushions are usually fabricated in

but of a width of around 1.5 metres. For this

reflective silver colour being a popular

is low, so that sound travels easily through

reason, ETFE cushions are often made with

choice, though other colours and patterns

the material.While this can be an advantage

spans in widths of around 3.0 metres to 4.0

can be developed for individual projects.The

in noisy internal environments, it can be an

metres between clamped frames, in lengths

printed dots on clear ETFE sheet reduce the

inappropriate material if external noise is

up to between 15 - 30 metres, but lengths

light transmission to around 50-60%, but this

able to travel through the roof to internal

up to 60 metres have been used. Larger

can be increased further by printing dots on

spaces where a quiet environment is

cushions are made by welding sheet togeth-

two faces of the air-filled cushion in areas of

required. Cushions can also produce a

er in the workshop to form wider sheets to

the roof where more shading is required.

drumming effect during rain resulting from

form cushions that vary from the rectangular

MCR_ 179

Fabric 01
ETFE cushions
1

1
2

2
2
9

5
10

Section 1:5. Junction of clamping plates

Details

Detail E

Isometric view of junction of clamping plates

Section 1:5. Junction with adjacent roof

1.
2.

ETFE cushion
Extruded aluminium clamping
plate
3. Extruded aluminium retaining
profile
4. Plastic edge
bead to fabric
membrane
5. Supporting
structure
6. Plastic air supply
tube
7. Main air supply
tube
8. Insulated metal
lined gutter
9. Metal flashing
10. ETFE cushion
with contours
shown for clarity

1
2

form created from a standard width of ETFE

aluminium, that holds the panel in place by

sheet. Cushions up to around 7.0 x 7.0

clipping it into an aluminium profile, then

supported by a structural frame beneath,

metres have been made in a variety of

holding it in place with an aluminium pres-

with mild steel, aluminium and laminated

shapes from circles to hexagons using a hot

sure plate that clamps the edges.The com-

timber all being used to suit the design. In

welded process undertaken in the workshop.

plete assembly usually performs in a similar

(E), the clamped framing assembly is fixed to

The welded seams are visible but are not

way to the framing used for glazed roofs,

mild steel tubes by fixing the framing onto T-

visually striking when viewed from around

with a drained and ventilated inner chamber

sections which are welded in short lengths

the building.The width, or span, of the cush-

that serves as a second line of defence

to the mild steel tube.The aluminium fram-

ion has an effect on its depth, where the

against rainwater penetration. Any rainwater

ing spans between the T-section supports to

depth is typically around 1/5 the span of the

that passes through the outer clamping plate

provide a visual separation between the

cushion. Larger cushions sometimes use a net

is drained away in grooves formed adjacent

ETFE cushions and the supporting steelwork.

of connected cables to provide additional

to the edges of the ETFE cushions, the water

restraint.

being drained back to the outside of the

The cushions have an edge bead, typically

roof.The clamping assembly is typically

The complete ETFE cushion assembly is

Durability
The toughness of ETFE sheet is com-

in plastic, which is used to retain the panel in

around 100mm wide, which is wider than

bined with a high resistance to tear. Damage

its supporting frame.The cushion is set into a

that used for glazed roofs, but less framing is

by sharp objects puncturing an outer mem-

clamping frame, usually made from extruded

required than that used on glazed roofs .

brane does not spread easily into a larger

MCR_ 180

Isometric view of junction of ETFE cushion assembly

10

10

9
Arteplage, Neuchatel, Switzerland. Architect: Groupe Multipac.

Isometric view of junction of junction with gutter

tear easily. Birds can puncture the outer

ing along the external clamping plates with

burning fragments will fall below during a

membrane, but they have great difficulty in

cable assistance or from external structure.

fire, since the material melts rather than

coming to rest on the roof itself, except on

Roofs are designed so as to ensure rainwa-

burns, with most of the burnt material being

the clamping plates, where wire is some-

ter drains easily from the roof. Gutters are

carried away in the rising hot air of a fire.

times fitted to avoid providing any spaces for

introduced on long span roofs between sets

ETFE sheet melts at around 275C, forming

birds to stand.The material has fairly high

of clamping plates, as shown in (F). Cushions

holes in the fabric which allows the heat and

resistance to surface fading from UV light

are repaired by the use of ETFE tape, which

smoke of a fire to escape. However, some

where there is a gradual loss of surface

is visible, or by complete replacement of the

roofs still require smoke vents, since this may

reflectivity. ETFE sheet is also highly resistant

panel, depending largely on the visual

not always occur during a fire if the smoke

to attack from chemicals and from airborne

requirements of the roof design.

and heat is being generated in an area away

pollution in urban areas. Its low level of surface friction ensures that cushions do not
hold dirt and dust easily, making cushion

from the roof, where the ETFE cushions are

Performance in fire
A major concern in the use of polymer

not affected by the fire.The small amounts of

material used in ETFE cushions, with an aver-

roofs relatively easy to maintain. ETFE roofs

materials for single layer and multiple layer

age wall thickness of 0.2mm, result in little

are usually cleaned as a result of rain in tem-

fabric roofs is their performance in fire. ETFE

material being deposited during a fire.

perate climates, though access for mainte-

sheet is not easily inflammable and will self-

nance is required, usually provided by walk-

extinguish quickly under direct flame. Few

MCR_ 181

Fabric 02
Single membrane : Cone-shaped roof

1
11
1
1
1

2
Plaza de toros, Madrid, Spain.
Architect: Schlaich Bergermann und Partner / Ayuntamiento de Madrid

Isometric view of cone-shaped fabric roof

Details

4.

1.
2.
3.

5.

Fabric membrane panel

Supporting mild steel structure
Extruded aluminium
retaining profile

6.

Plastic edge bead to fabric

membrane
Extruded aluminium clamp
assembly
Stainless steel cable

7.
8.
9.

Stainless steel connector

Membrane skirt
Gutter formed by membrane
skirt
10. Mild steel ring support
11. Fabric cover to close ring

Section 1:400. Cone-shaped fabric roof

11

2
2
2
2

The following two sections discuss the two

them.They use their curvature as a method

membrane without over-tensioning some

most common shapes used for single layer

of tensioning the membrane against a sup-

parts and under-tensioning other parts of

roofs: the 'cone-shaped' roof and the 'barrel-

porting structure, which is typically a mixture

the membrane, with the resulting design

shaped' roof. A third type, based on the

of mild steel tubes and stainless steel cables.

resisting all load combinations in their differ-

shape of a hyperbolic paraboloid, uses the

same principles as those for these two types
and is constructed using the same principles

ent directions.This work is usually developed

Fabric roof principles

Early examples of fabric roof structures

in the form of a computer model, either by

specialist structural consultants or by manu-

and same construction details. For that rea-

of 30 years ago were based, in part, on

facturers as part of the design development

son its specific geometry is not discussed

observations of how forces act in soap bub-

process.The minimal surface form must also

here, but the construction principles

bles, where the soap film wall of the bubble

be suitable for draining away rainwater,

described here can be applied equally to

takes up a minimum of surface area as a

which forms another aspect of design devel-

hyperbolic paraboloid forms.

result of the surface tension of the wall of

opment, together with the treatment of

The advantages of single membrane fab-

the bubble being evenly distributed. In a fab-

interfaces with adjacent areas roof and

ric roofs are their smooth curves, typically

ric roof the membrane is structurally mod-

external wall.The resulting form is designed

with different in opposite directions, and thin,

elled so that the resultant form developed

to keep all parts of the fabric membrane in

sharp edges that provide translucent roofs

between architect and structural engineer

tension, not just from the supporting struc-

that allow diffused daylight to pass through

distributes the tensile forces within the

ture but from imposed loads, mainly wind

MCR_ 182

Plan 1:400. Cone-shaped fabric roof

Elevation 1:400.
Cone-shaped fabric roof

1
1

2
2

loads.Wind pressures are resisted by re-dis-

downloads from the membrane and

visual effect on the adjoining structure is bal-

tributing the forces within the fabric mem-

imposed loads (mainly wind loads) and the

anced with the requirements of the mem-

brane. Any areas of the fabric roof that go

lower points at the edges take up the effect

brane roof and its own frame.

into compression as a result of slackness in

of wind uplift. In shallow sloped roof mem-

the membrane reveal themselves as creases

branes, more of the structural loads are

sand can cause permanent stretching of the

in the material.

taken by the edges or points at the base,

fabric membrane, the form of the roof and

often resulting in large columns or posts

its associated slopes are made sufficiently

section and the barrel-shaped example of

being required at these points.The distribu-

steep to avoid creating areas or pockets on

the following section make use of an internal

tion of loads within the fabric roof design is

the fabric roof where they can collect.

steel structure that supports part of the

revealed in the supporting structure, which

membrane, to tension it in some areas, with

can be as visually lightweight and elegant as

roof edges where the material is held and

the fabric membrane itself, or can become

tensioned ,either at points or with continu-

visually heavy, which can detract from the

PVC-coated polyester fabric and PTFE-coat-

ous clamped fixings similar to those

intended lightweight effect of the mem-

ed glass fibre fabric. Both are woven cloth

described in the previous section on ETFE

brane.Where roofs transfer forces to an

materials which are protected by coatings,

cushions. Generally speaking, the high points

adjoining structure, rather than contain the

usually applied on both sides. Other open-

of the supporting structure take up the

loads within their own supporting frame, the

weave materials are used as solar shading

Both the cone-shaped example in this

Where imposed loads such as snow or

Fabric types
The two most common fabrics used are

MCR_ 183

Fabric 02
Single membrane : Cone-shaped roof
Section 1:50. Clamping ring with fabric cover

12

6
11

12

only, and are manufactured without protec-

Most fabric roof materials imitate the

PVC powder, softeners and plasticisers, UV

tive coatings.These are made from polymer

appearance of natural canvas, but this mater-

stabilisers, pigments and fire retardants. An

threads, sometimes with a protective coating

ial is used only where its appearance and

additional outer coat of lacquer slows down

applied to the manufactured thread itself, to

individual texture is considered to be the

the effect in the PVC coating of becoming

increase the life expectancy of the material. In

most important consideration. Natural can-

increasingly brittle with age, which results

all these woven materials the strength of the

vas is less stable than synthetic fabrics when

from the softeners within the material grad-

fabric can be different in the two directions

used in tension structures, and is difficult to

ually moving to the surface of the PVC coat-

in which the 'cloth' is woven.When selecting

clean. A modified acrylic canvas material,

ing.The lacquer coating also slows down the

a material, the strength of the' warp' threads

with a similar texture to natural canvas, is

fading effects of the colour pigments. A

running the length of the material is com-

sometimes used for its greater dimensional

PVDF lacquer (a fluorinated polymer) is typi-

pared to the 'weft' threads running the

stability. Neither material is suitable for long

cally used, which also ensures that the sur-

width. In most commonly used roof mem-

span fabric roofs.

face has low surface friction so that it will

branes, the tensile strength of the warp and

PVC/polyester fabrics are made from

attract little dust and dirt, and allowing the

weft directions are similar, but these need to

polyester cloth which is coated on both

membrane to be cleaned easily. Acrylic lac-

be checked when the material type is cho-

sides with a layer of PVC.The coating pro-

quers are also used.The typical weight of

sen.

tects the fabric against the effects of rain and

roof using this material is 500-800g/m. A

of UV light.The PVC coating is a mixture of

PVC/polyester membrane roof will last

MCR_ 184

Section 1:5. Base of roof with membrane skirt

Plan 1:10. Junction of adjacent fabric membranes

6
5

5
1

1
1

1
1

Details
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Fabric membrane panel

Supporting mild steel structure
Extruded aluminium
retaining profile
Plastic edge bead to fabric
membrane
Extruded aluminium clamp

assembly
6. Stainless steel cable
7. Stainless steel connector
8. Membrane skirt
9. Gutter formed by membrane
skirt
10. Mild steel ring support
11. Fabric cover to close ring
5

Section 1:10. Clamping ring

5
8

8
5

around 15-25 years.

PTFE/glass fibre membranes are made

Comparison of types
Both PVC/polyester and PTFE/glass fibre

naturally from its manufactured beige colour

after a few months of being exposed to sun-

from a glass fibre mat which is coated with a

have high tensile strength and high flexibility,

light.Weld marks that occur during fabrica-

PTFE layer such as Teflon. As with PVC/poly-

making them very suitable for curved and

tion also disappear as a result of bleaching in

ester membranes, the coating protects the

double curved roof membranes.They both

sunlight. PTFE/glass fibre has lower surface

fabric from the effects of both the weather

have a light transmission of 5-20% depend-

friction than PVC/polyester, allowing the for-

and UV light as well as forming a low friction

ing on the thickness of membrane used,

mer to remain cleaner, while PVC/polyester

surface to reduce the collection of dirt and

reflecting 75-80% of light. Neither will catch

requires cleaning more frequently. PTFE/glass

dust. Most dirt is washed away by rain, but

fire easily, and both resist the deteriorating

fibre requires greater care in transportation

some cleaning is needed using the same

effects of UV light, though PVC/polyester

to site and erection than PVC/polyester, the

methods as for PVC/polyester roofs.Typically

becomes increasingly brittle with age. Both

latter being capable of being folded without

it weighs 800-1500g/m.The life expectancy

have almost no acoustic performance and

damage to the membrane.

of a PTFE/glass fibre membrane roof is

have poor thermal insulation performance

longer than PVC/polyester membranes at

when used as a single membrane roof.

around 30-40 years.

PVC/polyester has a greater range of colours

Thermal insulation
A single layer membrane fabric roof in

readily available, while PTFE/glass fibre is usu-

either PVC/polyester or PTFE/glass fibre typ-

ally white, the colour to which it bleaches

ically has a U-value of around 6.0W/m2K.

MCR_ 185

Fabric 02
Single membrane 1: Cone-shaped roof
6

Plaza de toros, Madrid, Spain.

Architect: Schlaich Bergermann und Partner / Ayuntamiento de Madrid

Section 1:10. Base of fabric roof

Detail G

Section 1:10. Junction of adjacent fabric membranes meeting at same angle

Detail F

Section 1:10. Junction of adjacent fabric membranes meeting at different angles

Detail E
5

5
6

Where two layered membranes are used,

the use of double layer fabric membranes is

with a minimum air gap of 200mm between

set to develop considerably over the next

the membranes, the U-value can be reduced

10 years.

to around 3.0 W/m K. Double layer mem2

branes are less commonly used as they have

a severely reduced light transmission, the

within the building.

Durability
Fabric roofs are highly susceptible to

Acoustics
Like ETFE cushions discussed in the pre-

damage from sharp objects. Small cuts in the

membrane can be repaired with patches

translucency of the material being one of the

vious section, single layer membranes pro-

made from the same material which are

main advantages of the material.Thermal

vide no significant reduction of noise through

glued into position. Larger tears are repaired

insulation can be added to a double layer

the roof. A double layer roof with an

with hot air welders, usually undertaken by

membrane by using a translucent fibre-based

acoustic lining will provide some acoustic

the specialist contractor that installed the

insulation, as used in fibre glass cladding pan-

performance but will have the effect of los-

fabric roof. Large repairs are visible, and pan-

els discussed in the previous chapter.The

ing most of the light transmission through

els are replaced where visibility is the most

insulation can be fixed to the inner face of

the membranes. In addition, low frequency

important consideration. Since large tears

either membrane, depending on how the

sound is difficult to absorb due to the low

can affect the overall structural performance

roof void is ventilated.With the increasing

mass of the cladding material. In common

of the membrane, the complete membrane

importance of the role of thermal insulation

with ETFE cushion roofs, the roofs are

is sometimes removed for another panel to

in the reduction of energy use in buildings,

almost transparent to sound emitted from

be stitched or welded, and re-coated in the

MCR_ 186

Elevation 1:200. Membrane cover

Section 1:200. Cone-shaped fabric roof

Details
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

11

Fabric membrane panel

Supporting mild steel structure
Extruded aluminium retaining profile
Plastic edge bead to fabric membrane
Extruded aluminium clamp assembly
Stainless steel cable
Stainless steel connector
Membrane skirt
Gutter formed by membrane skirt
Mild steel ring support
Fabric cover to close ring

1
1

factory.
The outer surface of fabric roofs are
cleaned with soft brushes that wash the

ceptible to mould growth than PTFE/glass

to drop down from the roof. PTFE/glass fibre

fibre fabrics, essentially because the latter has

fabrics fail at a around 1000C, but seams

lower surface friction.

will fail at a much lower temperature of

around 270C.With both materials, the fail-

membrane surface, the work being done

typically from either a mobile platform or by
rope access cleaners (abseilers) who are

Performance in fire
The performance of a membrane during

ure of the membrane forms holes in the

roof which allow heat and smoke to escape.

attached in harnesses and suspended from

a fire depends on both the fabric used and

cables attached to a steel bracket anchor

the stitching at the seams, where this joining

point on the top of the membrane roof.The

method is used. Membranes lose their ten-

anchor point forms part of the steel or tim-

sion under high temperatures, with

on the underside of the membrane in an

ber supporting structure to the membrane

PVC/polyester stretching above 70-80C,

internal space within the building, then either

roof. Cleaning is also an important consider-

and PVC/polyester seams starting to peel at

a second membrane is added or, more com-

ation in areas of high humidity where there

around 100C. At 250C the PVC melts,

monly, increased ventilation is provided with-

is a higher risk of mould forming on the sur-

leaving holes in the membrane. PVC has fire

in the space below the roof.

face of the fabric which can cause perma-

retardants in the coating so that it self-extin-

nent staining. Regular cleaning prevents

guishes when the flame source is removed

mould growth. PVC/polyester is more sus-

which results in few, if any, burning fragments

Condensation
Where condensation is likely to occur

MCR_ 187

Fabric 03
Single membrane : Barrel-shaped roof

Plan, elevation 1:200. Barrel-shaped fabric roof

2

12

11

11

12
2

12

11

Membrane roof fabrication

being made increasingly by a cutting

rial folded over itself to strengthen the joint.

machine. Fabric panels are usually made

Joint widths vary from around 25mm to

ual panels of fabric which are cut from sheet

slightly undersized to allow for the stretching

100mm depending on the size of the mem-

material, the curved forms of membranes

of the material when it is under tension as a

brane and its associated loads. Additional

being formed from flat sheet material.The

roof membrane.

strips of fabric are usually bonded onto the

Roof membranes are made from individ-

conical-shaped example shown in the previ-

Fabric panels are joined together with

outer (upper) face of the stitched seam to

ous section is made from panels with edges

lapped seams which are either sewn, welded,

avoid rainwater penetration through the

that curve inward, while the barrel-shaped

bonded or joined in a combination of stitch-

sewn thread. PVC/polyester panels can be

roof shown in this section is made from pan-

ing and welding, with all processes being car-

stitched in conjunction with most lacquer

els with edges that curve outward. PVC coat-

ried out in the workshop.The width of the

types.

ed polyester fabric is made in widths from

lap, which is visible from below the roof as

2000-3000mm, in thicknesses up to 1.2mm,

well as from outside the building, is deter-

lap between panels, then heating the lapped

while PTFE coated glass fibre fabric is made

mined by the structural forces on the mem-

areas and pressing them together. Joint

in widths up to around 5000mm in thickness-

brane, with higher loads requiring wider

widths are similar to those required for

es up to 1.0mm. Large panels are usually cut

seams.

stitched seams. Seams in PTFE/glass fibre

Welded seams are made by forming a

by CNC cutting machines, with small pieces

In stitched panel joints, wider seams have

panels are formed by hot element welding

cut by hand, but even small pieces are now

more rows of stitching visible, with the mate-

rather than by stitching or bonding, with an

MCR_ 188

Section 1:10. Edge of roof

8

10

Isometric view of roof assembly

Section 1:10. Junction between panels

Details

Detail A

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

8
1

10

Fabric membrane panel

Supporting mild steel structure
Extruded aluminium retaining profile
Plastic edge bead to fabric membrane
Extruded aluminium clamp assembly
Stainless steel cable
EPDM sealing tape
Membrane skirt
Gutter formed by membrane skirt
Thermal insulation
Welding seam
Wind up lift cable (above membrane)

Isometric view of roof assembly

2
2

2
2

Japanese Pavilion Expo 2000, Hannover, Germany.

Architect: Shigeru Ban.

additional fabric strip added either on top or

stronger joint. If the joint is first sewn then

brane with a series of stainless steel link

within the joint itself between the mem-

welded, this avoids the need for an addition-

plates. Straight edges are usually formed with

branes to provide the required strength. For

al strip to be added to the upper surface,

an edge bead made from a flexible PVC or

welded joints on PVC membranes, the edge

which can enhance the visual appearance of

EPDM rod in a small pocket.This reinforced

of the panel being jointed has the PVDF lac-

the membrane on its outer surface. Bonding

edge is then held captive within an alumini-

quer removed before welding, which is

with solvents is used on PVC/polyester fab-

um clamping plate assembly similar to that

applied again when the welding is complete

rics only, but can be done in conjunction

used for ETFE cushions, as (A) or alternative-

to ensure that the PVC is fully welded and

with most lacquers used on that material.

ly in a luff groove extrusion.

that the PVDF lacquer forms a continuous

seal across the joint when formed.

Cable restrained curved edges to fabric

Membrane roof edges

roofs usually follow a circular or catenary

PVC/polyester can be both hot air welded

Edges of membranes are usually either

shape. A sleeve is formed by folding the

and hot element welded, the advantage of

gently curved or straight. Curved edges are

membrane back over itself and stitching or

hot air welding being that repair work and

formed with a cable held in a continuous

welding it to form a continuous pocket in

some complex jointing can be undertaken

pocket at the edges of the membrane. An

which a stainless steel cable is inserted. A

during erection on site. Fabric roofs with

alternative detail used in PTFE/glass fibre

25mm diameter stainless steel cable is typi-

high structural loads within the membranes

canopies is to have an exposed cable con-

cal, depending on the structural forces. A

can be both welded and sewn to provide a

nected to the clamped edges of the mem-

strip of membrane material or plastic is set

MCR_ 189

Fabric 03
Single membrane : Barrel-shaped roof
Section 1:10. Edge of roof with penetration

Elevation 1:10. Roof penetration

Detail M
2

1
1
8

Details

1.
2.
3.
4.

Fabric membrane panel

Supporting mild steel structure
Extruded aluminium retaining profile
Plastic edge bead to fabric membrane

10

Elevation 1:10. Roof penetration

2
2
5
1

between the cable and the membrane to

steel cable is required.The edges of the

membrane has reached a maximum size for

allow the two to move independently with-

membrane have a flexible plastic or EPDM

either fabrication or installation. In both cases

out abrasion occurring. A reinforced plastic

edge strip or rod, typically of 10mm diame-

the clamping plates are positioned to ensure

strip is sometimes added into the pocket but

ter, that prevents the membrane from slip-

that rainwater can run freely along its edge

this is not visible from either above or below

ping within the clamping assembly.The

rather than creating a barrier where rainwa-

the roof.

clamps sometimes have an additional cover

ter can collect.

Straight clamped edges use clamping

strip to serve as a first line of defence against

plates, around 100mm wide, set back to back

rainwater penetration but any rainwater that

corners or points, they are usually fixed to a

and bolted together, which comprise two flat,

passes into the groove, where the edge of

single mild steel plate.The cable is fixed into

grooved plates, rather than the clamping

the membrane is held captive, is drained

a stainless steel cable fixing which is secured

plate and supporting extrusion used at joints

away within the groove which also serves as

with a pin connection back to a supporting

between panels.The clamping plates are fixed

a drainage channel.Water is then drained at

steel plate.The corner of membrane is cut

back to either a visible cable which is set

the base of the roof.

to form a curved end. Additional straps are

Where two cables meet at membrane

around 100mm away from the edge of the

Clamping plates are also used at the

sometimes added to ensure that the mem-

cable, which follows the edge of the mem-

junction between two areas of roof where

brane does not slide away from the corner.

brane or, alternatively, individual brackets are

the two parts are required to be fabricated

fixed to a supporting wall, where no stainless

and installed separately, usually where the

MCR_ 190

Rainwater can be directed along the

edge of a membrane, rather than being

Section 1:10. Edge of roof

Detail K

Section 1:10. Edge of roof at abutment

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

5
1

10
4

Extruded aluminium clamp assembly

Stainless steel cable
Stainless steel connector
Membrane skirt
Gutter formed by membrane skirt
Thermal insulation

8
10
1
4

Section 1:10. Edge of roof

5

Section 1:10. Edge of roof

Detail L

Section 1:5. Edge of roof

1

1
5

5
4

Section 1:10. Clamping plate assembly

5
4

1
4

allowed to fall directly off the edge, by intro-

or, alternatively, by a 'palm tree' arrangement

the central mast or clamped around it.The

ducing a standing seam adjacent to the edge.

of projecting curved metal brackets which

ring is either freely suspended from cables,

A strip of membrane is rolled around a foam

serve to tension the continuous membrane

or is firmly fixed to the mast with can-

strip and is welded or stitched to the mem-

against its supporting mast set within the

tilevered brackets to which the ring is

brane.This is particularly useful where build-

building.

secured.

ing users pass beneath, as when the fabric

The first option with a metal ring

In the 'palm tree' supported solution,

roof forms an external canopy. Junctions

requires an additional membrane cover

cantilevered brackets with a curved shape

with vertically-set membranes beneath the

piece, while the second 'palm tree' option

are set out radially in order to create a

roof, are formed as flexible membrane con-

forms a continuous membrane with a

smooth curved form on which the mem-

nections to allow for movement between

smooth curved top, without any breaks in

brane is set.The brackets are usually aligned

roof and wall.

the continuity of the membrane. In the 'ring'

with joints between membrane panels.

solution, the membrane is clamped between

Suspension points
Suspension points at the top of a cone-

an inner ring and an outer ring fixed together with bolts. A second clamp is used to fix

Membrane folds
In an external fold in a roof membrane,

shaped fabric roof are usually formed either

the cone-shaped membrane that covers the

the material is draped over the supporting

by a metal ring, which is fixed back to a cen-

top of the ring.The top of the conical-

structure, fixed with fabric strips that are

tral mast by cables or cantilevered brackets

shaped cover is either pulled over the top of

sewn or welded to the underside of the

MCR_ 191

Fabric 03
Single membrane : Barrel-shaped roof

Section 1:10. Edge of roof with penetration

2

Section 1:200. Barrel-shaped fabric roof

Details
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Fabric membrane panel

Supporting mild steel structure
Extruded aluminium retaining profile
Plastic edge bead to fabric membrane
Extruded aluminium clamp assembly
Stainless steel cable
Stainless steel connector
Membrane skirt
Gutter formed by membrane skirt
Thermal insulation

2
2

Japanese Pavilion Expo 2000, Hannover, Germany. Architect: Shigeru Ban.

10

2
2

membrane and clamped to the supporting

each membrane is clamped with an edge

structure. An additional membrane cover

bead, while the clamp itself is fixed to a cen-

continuous line, as (F previous section), the

strip is fixed to the top of the joint to con-

tral cable.The gap between the membranes

same principle of sewn or welded strips can

ceal the stitching if required. An alternative

is closed by two membrane strips which are

be applied, joined with a pressure plate set

method is to form a joint between two

sewn or welded to the base of the strip and

above the level of the adjacent roof, forming

membranes at the external fold, clamping

are clamped down to a thin pressure plate

two gutters where the pressure plate joint is

them with a pressure plate to an aluminium

between the membranes, as (E previous

not submerged when functioning as a gutter.

extrusion which is supported by the primary

section).The clamp that closes the two

structure, such as a mild steel tube, curved to

membrane strips is supported off the metal

internal fold, a single membrane is sewn or

form the shape taken up by the membrane.

straps beneath. By raising the closing strips

welded to each side of the joint and the link-

Internal folds are formed in the same

above the height of the join, two adjacent

ing membrane is held in tension across the

way as hips, with the membrane folded out-

gutters are formed, with the clamping strip

junction. In practice this is difficult to fix

wards rather than across the ridge and

securing the closing flaps being above the

unless the strip is bonded or welded in posi-

downwards. In some cases the membrane

level of the water being drained, rather than

tion on site on at least one side of the mem-

may pass under the cable.These junctions are

being submerged in water if a single gutter

brane.The solution of two strips joined with

formed by clamping the ends of adjacent

were formed where the clamp holding the

a clamping plate allows more easily for fixing

membranes that form the valley.The edge of

straps in place were lower than that shown.

tolerances on site.

MCR_ 192

Where two joining members form a

Where a single gutter is required in an

Plan 1:10. Junction between membrane roof panels

11

3
5

5
11
5
2

5
10

At the base of a fabric roof, a clamping

roof, membrane skirts are used to form a

The membrane skirt at the base of the roof

plate fixed onto a base plate which is weld-

junction, as (A).The same principle is applied

is clamped to the side wall of an insulated

ed, or forms a continuous part of a support-

at the roof edge, as (K), where the mem-

gutter. Adjacent penetrations, also shown in

ing steel member, as (G previous section),

brane continues over the edge of the roof

(M), are closed with a specially formed

provides a sealed termination to a roof. A

where it is mechanically fixed to a metal

membrane skirt that fits around the structur-

gutter to drain away rainwater or, alterna-

flashing. A clamping strip is used to fix the

al member that penetrates the roof.The top

tively, a metal sheet to shed water directly

membrane to the flashing, which also forms

of the skirt is clamped to the projecting

off the roof, can be added to the supporting

a watertight seal. In (L), the metal flashing is

structure, while the base of the skirt is site

structure.Where the clamping plate is at the

fixed to the timber arches.Thermal insulation

welded or bonded to the main roof mem-

base of a low pitched membrane roof,

is set between the metal flashing and the

brane panels.

where there is a risk of water being held

membrane to both avoid the member from

behind the clamping plate, an additional

becoming too hot from the effects of the

membrane skirt can be used to drain away

sun (as a result of direct contact with the

water.The membrane skirt is sewn or weld-

supporting steelwork) as well as to allow the

ed to the membrane in the workshop.

two components to avoid abrasion.The

Where the membrane is formed over

arched supports, as in the barrel-shaped

same principle can be applied where a gutter is formed at the base of a roof, as (M).

MCR_ 193