ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY

TECHNIQUES
IV YEAR B.TECH PETROLEUM
ENGINEERING
I-SEMISTER
UNIT-I

ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY

SYLLABUS FOR UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

Petroleum Reservoir: A porous and permeable medium
containing brine, oil, and gas which move towards producing
wells under either existing or applied pressure. The porosity
of most of commercially productive reservoirs 10 to 25%.
Permeability of Reservoir Rocks(oil): 0.5 mD to 3500 mD. Subsurface reservoir fluids oil, gas and water vary 0 to 100%.
Oilfield water is called brine its salinity 200 to 300000 ppm.
Viscosity and Temperature: The crude oil mobility in the
reservoir is influenced by the viscosity of oil. The oil viscosity
is temp sensitive, reducing with an increase of temp. This
temp is estimated from the mean surface temp of the
location and the geothermal gradient, e.g. 1.80 C/ 100 m.
Thus considering a mean surface temp of 25 0 C and a depth
of 2000 m, the reservoir temp will be approximately 610 C.

INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

Oil Recovery Processes: Subdivided into
1) Primary 2) Secondary 3) Enhanced oil recovery.
1) Primary Oil Recovery:
Oil is forced out from the reservoir by existing natural pressure
of the trapped fluids. This pressure originated in the reservoir
from various forces:
a) Expanding force of natural gas
b) Gravitational force,
c) Buoyancy force of encroaching water and
d) An expulsive force due to compaction poorly consolidated
reservoir rocks.

INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

a) Among these forces, the expanding force of high pr natural
gas contributes mainly to oil production.
b) The gravitational force is more effective in steeply inclined
reservoirs, where it facilitates drainage of oil.
c) Encroachment of water from the side or bottom of a reservoir
is also an effective displacement of oil. The ability of the edge
water to encroach depends on pr distribution & permeability.
d) Compaction of the reservoir as fluids are withdrawn also is a
mechanism for movement of oil to production wells.
2. Secondary oil recovery: The decrease of pr in the reservoir
during primary oil recovery may be restored partially by
injecting gas, air, water or aqueous solutions of caustic and
polymer into the reservoir to achieve a high pressure.

INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

Gas injection methods can be 3 categories
Pressure restoration: Gas is injected into productive
formation through one well while the other wells are kept
closed until the pr is restored throughout the reservoir which
may take a year or more. After achieving desired reservoir pr,
gas injection can be stopped and production can be started
from other wells through artificially developed pr.
In the pr maintenance method gas from producing wells is
recompressed and injected into the selected wells before the
reservoir pr is totally exhausted.
In the gas drive method, gas is injected into the reservoir
under pressure which drives the oil in the form of a film or gas
bubbles a head of the gas toward the producing wells.

INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

After primary oil recovery, the pr of the depleted reservoirs

can be restored by water injection or water flooding.
In this process, water is injected into the reservoir through
selected injection wells which drives oil through reservoir rocks
toward the producing wells.
The most common pattern of injection and production wells
is a five-spot configuration as shown in Fig.1.1
Water is injected in the central well displacing oil to the four
surrounding production wells.
To improve the efficiency of the water flooding, some
chemicals such as caustic or polymers are added to water to
lower the interfacial tension, making low viscosity emulsion oil
to move to producing wells easily.

INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

The efficiency of water flooding also can be improved by
lowering the water-oil mobility ratio.
M = kw o/ ko w
Where Kw = Effective water Permeability, mD
Ko = Effective oil Permeability, mD
w = Water viscosity, cP
o = Oil viscosity, cP
Mobility ratio > 1 , is unfavorable as water is more mobile than
oil. Water will finger through oil zone.
Mobility ratio 1, is favorable as displacement of oil by water
is piston like in water flooding.
Mobility ratio can be reduced by adding some chemicals like
alcohols, sugar, glycerin, polymers etc. to the injected water.

INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

3. Enhanced oil recovery (EOR):
EOR processes have as their objective the increase of recovery
from depleted reservoirs by secondary recovery methods like
waterflooding or gas injection. EOR processes can be divided into
three major categories.
1. Chemical. Used to recover mainly light oils
2. Thermal Used to recover mainly heavy oils
3. Miscible Used to recover mainly light oils
Various subdivisions of EOR methods are illustrated through line
diagram in Fig.1.2
Thermal Processes: Least uncertainty, promising approach for
70% of worlds EOR production
Surfactant flooding is the most complex and high uncertainty. If
its formulation is properly controlled in the reservoir, it can also
achieve maximum oil recovery

INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

Chemical Flooding Processes: Fig. 1.3
1. Surfactant flooding
2. Polymer flooding
3. Caustic flooding
Displacement mechanism in surfactant and caustic flooding is
based on the formation of ultra-low interfacial tension
In polymer flooding, injection of surfactant followed by
polymer flooding, results in controlling mobility for EOR.
Heavy oil means low sp gr ( 200 API ), i.e. high viscosity oil
needs thermal process to increase oil mobility for EOR.
Thermal Processes: 1) In-situ combustion 2) Steam injection 3)
Wet combustion.

INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

In-situ Combustion:
o The crude oil near the wellbore is ignited using chemicals,
downhole electric heaters or gas burners.
o Continuous air injection promotes movement in the burning
zone toward the producing wells.
o Propagation of a continuous burning zone results in almost
complete removal of all reservoir liquids
Steam Injection :
Steam is injected into reservoir either continuously or in cycles.
Continuous steam injection involves both injection and
production wells, whereas cyclic injection involves one well
only which serves as both injection and production well.
Steam floods are easier to control than in-situ combustion.

INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

Wet Combustion:
In the in-situ combustion process, a large amount of heat is
left behind as waste heat.
The heat utilization and efficiency of the process can be
improved by periodical water injection.
Superheated steam forms in an evaporation front and travels
behind the combustion front.
The important advantage of this process is that the amount of
residual oil left to be burned as fuel by the burning front is
considerably decreased which in turn displaces more oil and
less air is required to burn a unit volume of oil in the reservoir.

INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

Miscible Displacement Process:
The oil in the reservoir can be dissolved by the injection of a solvent
such as alcohol, refined Hc, condensed Hc gases, LPGs or CO2
The injected solvent reduces the capillary forces that cause oil
retention in the pore spaces of the reservoir rocks.
In this process, the injected solvent slug is followed by the injection
of a liquid or gas to force the solventoil mixture out.
This miscible displacement process can be subdivided into
1. The Miscible slug processes.
2. The Enriched gas processes.
3. The High-Pressure, Lean gas processes
4. The Mutual solvent & CO2 processes

INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

Miscible Slug Process:
It involves the injection of a slug of liquid HCs (50% of the
pore volume of the reservoir) followed by gas or water
injection to drive the slug through the reservoir.
Enriched Gas Process:
The injected slug (10-20% pore volume) of enriched natural
gas is followed by lean gas or lean gas and water.
High-pressure lean Gas Process
It consists of injecting a lean gas at a high pr in order to
cause retrograde evaporation of crude oil and formation of a
miscible phase between the reservoir oil and the gas.

INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

The Mutual Solvent Process:
It consists of injecting solvents ( e.g., alcohols) which are
miscible both in reservoir oil and water
These solvents form a single phase in the reservoir & improve
oil recovery. A very high concentration of these solvents is
required to maintain the single phase.
In the Carbon dioxide process, the mechanism of CO2
miscibility in oil is similar to that in high-pr. lean gas process.
Under the right conditions of pressure, temp, reservoir oil
composition; CO2 can create a miscible front which moves as a
single liquid phase and efficiently displaces reservoir oil.
CO2 miscibility can be achieved at pressures as low as 1500 psi.

INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery (MEOR)
This technique involves the injection of selected microorganisms
into the reservoir and the subsequent stimulation and
transportation of their in-situ growth products.
This unique process seems superior in many respects, however, it
has certain constraints.
Populations of various types of microbes have been found in
subsurface reservoir down to a depth of about 2000 m.
The prevalent theory is that the microbes were introduced by
drilling, well completion, and well WOR or by w/ injection.
Petroleum reservoirs are not biologically sterile which encourages
for fundamental research to discover microbes, technology that
can lead to EOR.

INTRODUCTION: Process Recovery

Techno-economics:
The EOR processes require large initial investments and careful
monitoring during application, whereas the rate of incremental
oil recovery is low and extended over a long period of time.
The EOR projects require an extensive economic evaluation
and forecasting because of low rate of returns of investments.
To determine the feasibility of any EOR project, initial reservoir
definition, stratigraphy and hydrology are to be determined.
Highly trained personnel are required for all phases of EOR
implementation.
However, two EOR methods, CO2 flooding and thermal
recovery methods are proving to be successful.

EOR Techniques: Gas Injection

Introduction:
o Gas injection is the oldest injection process for the purpose of
maintaining reservoir pr and restoring oil well productivity.
o Recent gas injection applications have been intended to increase
the ultimate recovery, considered as EOR applications.
o The success of EOR project depends
1) upon the mechanism by which the injected fluid displaces the
oil (displacement efficiency),
2) on the volume of reservoir which the injected fluid contacts
(sweep efficiency)
o Gas, because its adverse viscosity ratio (higher mobility ratio) is
inferior to water in recovering oil. Gas may offer economic
advantages, however, because of its availability and relative ease
of injection. Thus gas injection is still the preferred secondary
recovery method in certain cases.

EOR Techniques: Gas Injection

o Gas injection may be either a miscible or an immiscible
displacement process. The type of process can be determined by
the base of oil & gas, temp, pr conditions.
o Gas can be injected into a reservoir to maintain the pr ( dispersed
gas injection) or to attempt to bank and sweep oil to the producing
wells (gas-cap injection).
o Oil recovery could be greatly increased by pressure maintenance,
particularly in the case of oils having a high formation volume factor.
o Elkins and Cooks (1949) noted that the volume of gas injected and
the associated change in oil viscosity and formation volume factor
may be principal factors to determine the oil recovery.
o The volume of reservoir contacted by the gas must be as high as
possible to obtain the maximum benefits.
o For massive carbonate reservoirs with good permeability, injection
pressure does not appear to have a large effect on final recovery.

EOR Techniques: Gas Injection

o The effect of the reservoirs permeability profile on gas sweep
efficiency may be evaluated by a short-term pilot test.
o It may also provide necessary data to calculate required gas
volumes so that gas compressor can be designed.
o Four recommendations were suggested in the pilot test
1. The rate of gas injection and its duration should be sufficient
to result in significant changes of produced gas/oil ratio. The
daily injection rate should at least equal the volume of fluids
by first-row producing wells.
2. Gauging facilities should be adequate to ensure accurate
measurement of the performance of first row wells.
3. The test period should include a time period prior to and after
the injection of gas to establish gas/oil ratio produced.
4. Continuous monitoring is preferred. When possible, the pilot
test should be conducted early in the life of the field.

EOR Techniques: Gas Injection

Predictive Techniques:
Two major predictive techniques, the Welge (1952) & the
Tarner (1944), either one is applicable to the analysis of both
sandstone and carbonate reservoirs.
Welge Method:
The advantage of Welge method over Buckley-Leverett
technique is, the curve showing the saturation distribution in
the reservoir is not required in the former method.
The average gas saturation is used to determine the recovery,
where as the terminal gas saturation near the out flow face,
defines the fractional flow of oil, fo , and hence the flowing
gas/oil ratio at any desired time during production.
As a result, a considerable amount of time required for
calculation and plotting is saved.

EOR Techniques: Gas Injection

Predictive Techniques: (continued)
Assumptions
1. The reservoir is a single homogeneous layer, & linear flow.
2. Gas displaces oil saturated with gas at a constant pressure.
3. Oil displacement is immiscible.
4. Flow occurs in one direction only.
With these assumptions, the fraction of oil at the flow face is
Fo = NP / (GP + NP ) .(4.1), & Gi = GP + NP . (4.2)
NP = Sga (4.3)
The fraction of oil flowing is thus the slope of the cumulative
oil produced verses the cumulative gas injected, expressed in
pore volumes:

EOR Techniques: Gas Injection

Predictive Techniques: (continued)

EOR Techniques: Gas Injection

Predictive Techniques: (continued)
Procedure:
1) Review the relative permeability data obtained from core
analysis. If more than one set of data is available, choose a set
which appears to be most representative.
2) Approximate the irregular shape of the reservoir with a linear
model. An idealized length and cross-sectional area of the
reservoir to flow must be determined.

 Eqn. 4.13 is sensitive to the assumed conditions such as gas velocity,

permeability, and geometric configuration of reservoir. It tends to
yield GOR values higher than those occurring in the field for the
same cumulative recovery.
This method is sensitive to the throughput velocity, vo .
Inasmuch as the velocity is in the denominator of the gravitational
term (column 4, eqn. 4.9) rapid displacement reduces the size of the
gravitational term and increases the fraction of gas fg , flowing
through the reservoir, indicating a lower displacement efficiency.
On the other hand, where the gravitational term is sufficiently
large, fg can approach zero; this implies countercurrent flow of gas
updip and oil downdip, resulting in gravity drainage which yields
the maximum displacement efficiency.
If a gas cap overlies the oil zone, drainage can be vertical and crosssectional area to flow can be very large. Gravity drainage will yield
high recoveries unless the vertical permeability is low.

Frequently a field has been produced for a period of time prior

to initiation of gas injection. Welge predictive technique steps
followed except that calendar time is used.

EOR Techniques: Gas Injection

Reservoir Performance:
The recovery of oil by vaporization is the primary intent of
cycling operations where as gas injection is to provide a pressure
gradient which moves the oil toward nearby producers.
Oil recoveries with gas cycling operations could range 15-70% of
immobile STB depending on the characteristics of reservoir fluids
The total (primary + secondary) recovery from the Pickton
reservoir was estimated 73%
Table 4-II & Figs. 4.2, 4.3 show the theoretical effects of oil gr., pr,
temp and the quantity of gas cycled upon the ultimate oil
recovered. The viscosities for the oil and gas cannot be
extrapolated to field performance.
The recovery of stock tank oil per unit of pr decline should be
predicted reservoir fluid composition.

EOR Techniques: Gas Injection

Gas Injection in Carbonate Reservoirs:
The benefits obtained by the gas injection are dependent upon
horizontal and vertical sweep efficiency of the injection gas. The
sweep efficiency depends on the type of porosity system present.
Intercrystalline intergrannular porosity systems:
Gas injection of the Panhandle dolomite reservoir, Texas,
classified as Intercrystalline-intergrannular porosity system.
Wells located in the areas having lower permeability to be
chosen because reservoir pr is higher in this area and thus helps
retard the fingering of gas.
Preference also is given to the wells with low GOR and lower
saturations. Deepening of producers prior to the initiation of
injection helped improve vertical coverage.
Well cleanout and acidizing programs yield better results after
gas injection.

Fracture-matrix porosity system:

Representative data collection is difficult for reservoirs with a
well-developed fracture-matrix porosity system consisting of
low permeability and inter-connected fractures.
As a result, calculations of recoverable oil will seldom yield
volumes equal to those determined by material balance
calculations. This divergence is greater where the permeability
of the reservoir matrix is low.
Factors directly responsible for this difference are
1. Significant differences between the pr in the tight rock matrix
and pr in the interconnected fractures
2. Difficulties in determining the quantity and distribution of the
gas saturation within the rock matrix, fractures.
3. The quantity and rate of water influx during repressurization.
A well developed fracture matrix porosity system can result in
severe channeling of injected gas or water influx with little
benefit to the ultimate recovery of oil.

Vugular solution porosity system:

As a gas conservation measure and in order to increase ultimate oil
recovery in vugular-solution porosity system, gas was injected into
the Westerose D-3 pool, Alberts, Canada.
Based on reservoir pr behavior, it was determined that all pools on
the reef trend are, in pr communication with each other. To predict
the performance of this field a 2D modal was developed.
The model parameters were adjusted until there was close
agreement between the reservoir modal & 20 yr production history.
The results of the simulation studies indicated that D-3 Pool had
lost, so gas injection was stopped.
This does not mean that it can not be successful in other reef
reservoirs. However, the need to understand the geology of the
reservoir completely when selecting method of EOR.

Inert Gas Injection:

Promising substitutes in place of Natural gas are 1) Pure Nitrogen
gas & 2) Inert gas mixture, i.e., N2 which is presently emerging as
one of the best EOR methods. Currently, more than 30 oil fields
in US are under nitrogen gas injection. It is less expensive and
more easily available.
Following mechanisms can be applied for Nitrogen EOR
depending on pr, temp and the properties of injected gas and
reservoir fluids
1. Pressure maintenance: It can be quite applicable in volumetric
reservoir to keep pr above the bubble pt or the dew pt.
2. Immiscible displacement: It is effective if mobility ratio is
favorable and if structure and density difference between
injected and reservoir fluids allow gravity segregation to occur
3. Miscible displacement: It can occur only in a narrow range of
fluid composition, pr, volume & temp. through either direct or
multiple contact.

The advantage of inert gas is

1. Its availability
2. Lower cost.
3. Prevention of oil encroachment into the gas cap if gas cap is
available.
4. Higher recoveries compared to water drive in reservoirs having
low permeability.
5. Residual inert gas at abandonment rather than saleable natural
gas
6. Reliability of the supply.

Candidates for gas Injection:

Oil fields that have low oil saturation in either primary or secondary
gas cap are prime candidates for gas injection for EOR.
Further shrinkage of oil is reduced by gas injection.
In reservoirs having high permeability and high vertical span, gas
injection may result in high recovery because of gr. segregation.
In thick formations in the presence of sufficient vertical
permeability the injected gas would move to the higher structural
positions.
In reservoirs containing volatile crude oil, vaporization of lighter
components also will result in higher recovery efficiency.
Vaporization of immobile oil in the flow path can play an important
role in higher oil recovery by pr maintenance & gas cycling.
The successful injection of gas into an oil reservoir having a large
amount of dissolved gas and a large shrinkage factor