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What is Qualitative Research?

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It is
1. Grounded in a philosophical position which is broadly interpretivist in
the sense
that it is concerned with how the social world is interpreted,
understood, experienced, produced or constituted. While different
versions of qualitative research
might understand or approach these elements in different ways (for
example,
focusing on social meanings, or interpretations, or practices, or
discourses, or
processes, or constructions), all will see at least some of these as
meaningful elements in a complex possibly multi-layered and
textured social world.
2. Based on methods of data generation which are both flexible and
sensitive to the
social context in which data are produced (rather than rigidly
standardized or
structured, or entirely abstracted from real-life contexts).
3. Based on methods of analysis, explanation and argument building
which involve
understandings of complexity, detail and context. Qualitative research
aims to
produce rounded and contextual understandings on the basis of rich,
nuanced
and detailed data. There is more emphasis on holistic forms of
analysis and
explanation in this sense, than on charting surface patterns, trends
and correlations. Qualitative research often does use some form of
quantification, but
statistical forms of analysis are not seen as central.

It is

It is non-numerical, descriptive, applies reasoning and uses words.

Its aim is to get the meaning, feeling and describe the situation.
Qualitative data cannot be graphed.
It is exploratory.
It investigates the why and how of decision making.

Deciding what your Research is about

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Requires considering the following questions

1. What is the nature of the phenomena, or entities, or social reality that I
wish to investigate?
o This refers to your social reality or ontological perspective.
o These are the following examples of ontological perspectives
people, social actors, humans
bodies, subjects, objects
minds, psyches
rationality, emotion, thought
feeling, memory, senses
consciousness,
sub consciousness, instincts
understandings, interpretations
motivations, ideas, perceptions
attitudes, beliefs, views
identities, essence, being

selves, individuals, subject

positions
others, collectivities
representations, cultural or
social
constructions
experiences, accounts
stories, narratives, biographies
evolution, development,
progress
texts, discourses
words, codes, communications
languages
actions, reactions, behaviours
events
interactions, situations, social
relations
social or cultural practices
social processes
rules, morality, belief systems
material cultures, objects,
things
time
institutions, structures, the
material, markets
cultures, societies, groups
producers, consumers
nature, genes, humans, animals
empirical patterns, regularities,
order, organization,
connectedness
empirical haphazardness
spontaneity, disorder,
disorganization, chaos and
disconnectedness
underlying mechanisms
one objective reality, multiple
Realities or versions.

2. What topic or broad substantive area is the research concerned with?

o This will express something of the researchers ontological position.
o This is clearly referred to now as the TOPIC of the research.
o But what is a TOPIC of a research?

This refers to the key issue(s) that a researcher will or must

work about in his or her research paper.

But what qualifies a TOPIC as researchable?

a. It must have CLARITY/ specificity.
This implies that it must
1. Accommodate single interpretation
2. Must be free of any ambiguity
3. It must be directional
4. Can set the whole research methodology
b. it is WELL-DEFINED.
This means that
1. It is easy to understand
2. It must have single meaning.

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c. Its language must be SIMPLE.
This means that
1. Everyone can understand the word(s)
2. Its words are free from sort of bias directly or
indirectly
d. It must be with CURRENT IMPORTANCE.
3. What do I wish to explain or explore? Or what type of puzzle is it?
o This refers now to your research questions.
o These are the following examples of puzzles or questions being based
on
a. Developmental puzzles First, you might, for example, pose a
developmental
puzzle how and why did x or y develop? The x or y might be
anything, ontologically speaking, for example, racist attitudes, cultural
imperialism, the
American system of government, a mental illness, and so on.
b. Mechanical puzzles Alternatively, your puzzle might be about how
something
works or is constituted. How does x or y work? Why does it work in
this way?
Again, x or y might be anything intimate personal relationships, a
legal system,
a penal institution, the human psyche, and so on.
c. Comparative puzzles Your puzzle might be about what we can learn
from comparing x and y, and how we can explain differences and similarities
between
them. This could involve comparing legal or social institutions
internationally, different cultural objects or artifacts, or groups of
people with different sets of
experiences, for example.
d. Causal/predictive puzzles You might be interested in causality, and
pose a puzzle
about what influence x has on y, or what causes x or y? You might
extend that
into a predictive puzzle - what is the likely outcome of x or y, where
x or y might
be a social intervention or programme for example.
4. What is the purpose of my research? What am I doing it for? What is/are
its objectives?
o This refers now to your end point of your research.
o Thus, what is/are objective(s)?
Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study. -They
inform a reader what you want to attain through the study. -It is
extremely important to word them clearly and specifically.
Objectives should be listed under two headings: a) main
objectives ( aims); b) sub-objectives.
a.

The main objective is an overall statement of the thrust

of your study. It is also a statement of the main
associations and relationships that you seek to discover
or establish.
b. The sub-objectives are the specific aspects of the topic
that you want to investigate within the main framework
of your study. -They should be numerically listed.
-Wording should clearly, completely and specifically
Communicate to your readers your intention. -Each

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objective should contain only one aspect of the Study.
-Use action oriented words or verbs when writing
objectives.

The objectives should start with words such as to determine, to

find out, to ascertain, to measure, to explore etc. The wording
of objectives determines the type of research (descriptive,
correlational and experimental) and the type of research design
you need to adopt to achieve them.

Generating Qualitative Data

- This refers now to the what, where, how to obtain data.
- Obtaining data or the process of obtaining data involves activities that are
intellectual, analytical and interpretive.
- What is/are data?
Data means.
o Data are distinct pieces of information, usually formatted in a special
way for purposes of analysis to produce original research result.
Possible Data are
a. People (as individuals, groups or collectivities)
b. Organizations, institutions and entities
c. Texts (published and unpublished sources including virtual
ones)
d. Settings and environments (material, visual/sensory and virtual)
e. Objects, artifacts, media products (material, visual/sensory and
virtual)
f. Events and happenings (material, visual/sensory and virtual)
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA
Data come in two main forms, depending on its closeness to the event recorded.
1. Data that has been observed, experienced or recorded close to the event are
the nearest one can get to the truth, and are called primary data.
o There are four basic types of primary data, distinguished by the way
they are collected:
a. Measurement collections of numbers indicating amounts, e.g.
voting polls, exam results, car mileages, oven temperatures etc.
b. Observation records of events, situations or things experienced
with your own senses and perhaps with the help of an instrument,
e.g. camera, tape recorder, microscope, etc.
c. 3 Interrogation data gained by asking and probing, e.g.
information about peoples convictions, likes and dislikes etc.
d. Participation data gained by experiences of doing things e.g. the
experience of learning to ride a bike tells you different things about
balance, dealing with traffic etc., rather than just observing
o The primary data are the first and most immediate recording of a
situation.
o Collecting primary data is time consuming and not always possible.
2. Written sources that interpret or record primary data are called secondary
sources, which tend to be less reliable.
Analyzing Qualitative Data
- This involves the following
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Close reading of a text.

Becoming immersed in the data.
Reading and re-reading a text.
Taking notes.
Reflecting on the data and writing down interpretation.
Discussing possible interpretations with group of other researchers.

Recognizing and Reading Data

1. This refers to the process of sorting and organizing data that
constitute data in the context (sense) of the research.
2. The guiding question here is this
i. What count as data or evidence in relation to my
research questions?
3. Doing this process entails the following readings
a. Literary reading
o This examines into the words and language used, the sequence of
interaction, the form and structure of the dialogue, and the literal
content.
o In this way, the researcher is interested in documenting a literal
version of what is there.
b. Interpretive reading
o This involves you in constructing or documenting a version of what
you think the data mean or represent, or what you think you can infer
from them.
o It is a way of reading through or beyond the data in some way, be
they texts, artifacts, visual image or whatever.
c. Reflexive reading
o This way will locate you as part of the data you have generated, and
will seek to explore your role and perspective in the process of
generation and interpretation of data. You will probably see yourself as
inevitably and inextricably implicated in the data generation and
interpretation processes, and you will therefore seek a reading of data
which captures or expresses those relationships.
Different ways of Arguing with Qualitative Data
- This refers to the various ways to make or establish perspective, an
interpretation, or a line of reasoning or analysis founded on relational and
evident process, and expresses convincing effects.
- This can be done in the following
a. Arguing evidentially (I can make this argument because I can show you
the relevant evidence.) If this is your argument, you will be concerned to
demonstrate that you have marshaled and assembled your evidence
carefully and appropriately. You will need to be clear about the basis on
which you suppose your data constitute evidence.
b. Arguing interpretively or narratively (I can make this argument because I
can show you that my interpretation or my narrative is meaningful or
reasonable.) If this is your argument, you will be concerned to show that
your interpretation is sensitive, appropriately nuanced, and valid.
c. Arguing evocatively or illustratively (I can make this argument because I
can evoke understanding or empathy in you, or because I can provide a
meaningful illustration.) If this is your argument, you will aim to get your
audience to feel or understand experientially or by illustration whatever it
is you are seeking to convey. Evocation can take text or non-text based
forms.
d. Arguing reflexively or multivocally (I can make this argument because I
can make you aware of a meaningful range of perspectives, experiences
and standpoints, including my own.) If this is your argument, you will be
seeking to show a sensitivity to a range of interpretations and voices in
your data, and a willingness to critique and question your own as well as
those of others.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES

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Essentially, the procedures by which researchers go about their work of

describing, explaining and predicting phenomena are called research
methodology. It is also defined as the study of methods by which knowledge
is gained. Its aim is to give the work plan of research.
What are the methodologies?
Positivistic method (positivism)
In this method the researcher is limited to data collection
and interpretation through objective approach and the
research findings are usually observable and quantifiable.
Symbolic interactionism
This method helps the researcher to analyze and
establish the fact that society is shaped by the subjective
meanings that people impose on objects, events, and
behaviors. Subjective meanings are given primacy
because it is believed that people behave based on what
they believe and not just on what is objectively true.
Thus, society is thought to be socially constructed
through human interpretation. People interpret one
anothers behavior and it is these interpretations that
form the social bond.
Phenomenological method (phenomenology)
This method helps the researcher in attempting to
understand people's perceptions, perspectives and
understandings
of
a
particular
situation
(or
phenomenon).
This makes the researcher consider the question 'What is
it like to experience such and such?
In this method the researcher is required to do the
following steps;
c. Bracketing
d. Intuiting
e. Analyzing
f. Describing
Here the data collection tools are;
a. Interviews/speech
b. Diaries/written
c. Drawing/non-verbal
d. Observation/ visual
Hermeneutics
This method aids the researcher in seeking and setting
understanding rather than explanation.
This also makes him or her acknowledge the situated
location of interpretation.
This likewise recognizes the role of language and
historicity in interpretation.
This method is productive and comfortable with
ambiguity.
This is not to develop a procedure of understanding, but
rather to clarify the interpretive conditions in which
understanding takes place.
Interpretivism or Critical theory
Critical theoretical approaches tend to rely on dialogic
methods;
methods
combining
observation
and
interviewing with approaches that foster conversation
and reflection.
This reflective dialogic allows the
researcher and the participants to question the 'natural'
state
and
challenge
the
mechanisms for
order
maintenance. This is a way to reclaim conflict and
tension.

Rather than naming and describing, the critical

theorist tries to challenging guiding assumptions.
Critical theorists usually do this by beginning with an
assumption about what is good (e.g. autonomy,
democracy) and asking people in a social group, culture
or organization to reflect on and question their current
experience with regard to the values identified (e.g. To
what extent are they an autonomous worker?)
Critical theorists are not just trying to describe a situation
from a particular vantage point or set of values (e.g.
the need for greater autonomy or democracy in a
particular setting), but that are trying to change the
situation.

Ethnographic method
This method helps the researcher studies social
interactions, behaviors, and perceptions that occur within
groups, teams, organizations, and communities.
This aims at provide rich, holistic insights into peoples
views and actions, as well as the nature (that is, sights,
sounds) of the location they inhabit, through the
collection of detailed observations and interviews. As
Hamersley states, The task [of ethnographers] is to
document the culture, the perspectives and practices, of
the people in these settings. The aim is to get inside the
way each group of people sees the world.
Grounded theory
This is a a general research method (and thus is not
owned by any one school or discipline); which guides you
on matters of data collection (where you can use
quantitative data or qualitative data of any type e.g.
video, images, text, observations, spoken word etc.); and
details strict procedures for data analysis.
It is a research tool which enables you to seek out and
conceptualize the latent social patterns and structures of
your area of interest through the process of constant
comparison. (A bit like being the x-ray machine of the
social world? Though just take the quick idea from that
metaphor as it doesn't bear too much examination!)
Initially you will use an inductive approach to generate
substantive codes from your data, later your developing
theory will suggest to you where to go next to collect
data and which, more-focused, questions to ask; which is
the deductive phase of the Grounded Theory process.
CONCLUSION/FINDINGS/RECOMMENDATION
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A conclusion is the last paragraph in your research paper, or the last part in
any other type of presentation.
This refers to the summary of the content and purpose of the paper.

How to formulate conclusion:

1. Restate the topic. You should briefly restate the topic as well as explaining why
it is important.
2. Restate your thesis. Aside from the topic, you should also restate or rephrase
your thesis statement.
3. Briefly summarize your main points.
4. Add the points up.
5. Make a call to action when appropriate.
How to make the conclusion effective as possible:
1. Stick with a basic synthesis of information.

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2. Bring things full circle. Ask a question in your introduction. In your conclusion,
restate the question and provide a direct answer.
3. Close with logic. If your research paper presented multiple sides of an issue,
use your conclusion to state a logical opinion formed by your evidence.
4. Pose a question. Instead of handing the reader the conclusion, you are asking
the reader to form his or her own conclusion.
5. Make a suggestion. If you are including a call to action in your conclusion, you
could provide your reader with a recommendation on how to proceed with
further research.
How to avoid common pitfalls (drawbacks) in the conclusion:
1. Avoid saying "in conclusion" or similar sayings. This includes "in summary" or
"in closing."
2. Do not wait until the conclusion to state your thesis. This means that it is
best practice to start your paper with an introduction that states your main
argument, and to end the paper with a conclusion that re-states your thesis
for re-iteration.
3. Leave out new information. A conclusion should only summarize what you
have already stated in the body of your paper.
4. Avoid changing the tone of the paper. Most often, a shift in tone occurs when
a research paper with an academic tone is given with an emotional or
sentimental conclusion.
5. Make no apologies. Do not make statements that downplay your authority or
discoveries.

Errors against Qualitative Research:

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)

Selective observation
Inaccurate observation
Over-generalization
Made-up information
Ex post facto hypothesizing
Illogical reasoning
Ego involvement in understanding
Premature closure of inquiry
Mystification (to mislead or confuse)

Concluding Point to consider in this lecture about Qualitative Research:

Nobel laureate Werner Heisenberg: If I were asked what was Christopher
Columbus greatest achievement in discovering America, my answer would
not take the advantage of the spherical shape of the earth to get to India by
the western route this idea had occurred to others before him or that he
prepared his expedition meticulously and rigged his ships most expertly
that, too, others could have done equally well. His most remarkable feat was
the decision to leave the 30 known regions of the world and sail westward,
far beyond the point from which provisions could have gotten him back
home again. In science too it is impossible to open up new territory unless
one is prepared to leave the safe anchorage of established doctrine and run
the risk of a hazardous leap forward... However, when it comes to entering
new territory, the very structure of scientific thought may have to be
changed, and that is far more than most men are prepared to do.

Format of the Thesis Paper:

TITLE PAGE
APPROVAL SHEET
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
THESIS ABSTRACT
Chapter
1

THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE

Introduction
Rationale
Theoretical Background
The Problem
Statement of the Problem

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Significance of the Study
Scope and Limitation of the Study
Research Methodology
Definition of Terms
Organization of the Study
2-4
5
RECOMMENDATION

(here discussion will take place)

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION, AND
Summary
Conclusion
Recommendation