Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
research-article2015
Article
Authentic Leadership
Perception, Trust in the
Leader, and Followers
Emotions in Organizational
Change Processes
Abstract
Despite the increasing interest in emotions at work, there is still a need for more
research that focus on the antecedents of emotions in organizational change
contexts. Moreover, literature on the subject considers leadership and trust to be
fundamental when dealing with change processes. Taking into account both ideas, it
is proposed here that authentic leadership (AL) perception can influence followers
trust and emotions during change. To test these hypotheses, we gathered and
analyzed the experience of 102 Spanish human resource managers using structural
equation modeling based on partial least squares. Findings show that AL is directly
and positively related to followers trust in the leader and the experience of positive
emotions. Furthermore, we found that trust mediates the relation between AL
perception and the experience of negative emotions. Based on these findings, some
practical implications are proposed, such as the implementation of training initiatives
in order to provide human resource managers with a better understanding of the
AL concept and facilitate different actions that could be carried out by them so as to
contribute to trust building.
Keywords
authentic leadership, trust, emotions
1Talleres
Corresponding Author:
Nekane Aramburu, Deusto Business School, Camino de Mundaiz, 50, San Sebastian 20012, Spain.
Email: nekane.aramburu@deusto.es
36
Introduction
Change has become an increasingly common context in organizations (Kiefer, 2005).
Acknowledging this managerial concern, researchers have long tried to find the key
success factors in change processes. One overarching conclusion has been that the
reactions of change recipients are an important determinant of success and failure in
implementing change. Much of this research has, until recently, taken on a cognitive
and/or behavioral perspective in which emotions have been considered an obstruction
(Kiefer, 2002). However, new integrative alternatives are arising to fill the gaps left by
cognitive theories. It is now thought that emotions guide people in adapting to new
environments; they are thus a vital part of change and do not always have negative
consequences as used to be thought (Kiefer, 2002). Several proposals, such as affective events theory (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996) or informational theories (Forgas,
1995, 2002), posit that people not only engage in behavior rooted in conscious thinking and deliberation but also in more spontaneous, emotion-based behavior, especially
in uncertain and ambiguous contexts (e.g., organizational changes) or when they lack
sufficient interest, motivation, or resources to create a more elaborate response
(Bartunek, Balogun, & Do, 2011; Forgas, 1995, 2002; Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996).
Interest in emotions in the organizational context has been intense and increasingly
popular. However, many theoretical and methodological opportunities remain (Brief
& Weiss, 2002). In particular, research has focused more on the consequences of emotions than on explaining how and why they occur and how they can be explained
(Giver, 2009b). Thus, it is proposed that more research is needed on antecedents of
emotions during organizational change to understand better the factors underlying successful change implementation (Lines, Senz, & Aramburu, 2010). And this is exactly
what this investigation attempts to do.
In addition to emotions, leadership style and level of trust in the leader are considered fundamental elements for the success of change processes, and have also been
thought to influence emotions. On the one hand, few articles have tried to demonstrate
the general belief that leaders behavior is a fundamental source of employees emotions at work. In terms of our interest in a relatively new leadership style, there has been
a smaller amount of research in the form of authentic leadership (AL). And there are
even fewer studies if we focus on organizational change contexts. On the other hand,
trust is considered an important element in the effectiveness of leadership; however, the
role of trust and emotions in leading and following is still underresearched. Therefore,
questions concerning whether and how authentic leaders may influence followers
emotions, how they can build trust in the leader, or whether trust plays any role in the
relationship between leaders behavior and followers emotions remain unanswered.
Regarding the role of human resource managers (HRMs) in organizational changes,
this has also been examined from different perspectives giving rise to multiple proposals (e.g., Alfes, Truss, & Gill, 2010; Caldwell, 2001; Ulrich, 1997). But there is still a
lack of research into the role of HRMs emotions in change processes. Moreover, there
are no studies that focus on an analysis of the influence of the leadership style (in particular, AL) on HRMs emotions.
37
Agote et al.
The present study addresses the aforementioned gaps in literature on leadership and
emotions (i.e., lack of studies about the antecedents of emotions during organizational
change, and about whether and how authentic leaders may influence followers emotions, how they can build trust in the leader, or whether trust plays any role in the
relationship between leaders behavior and followers emotions), by examining why
AL behavior matters, and how it may influence followers level of trust in the leader
and emotions during organizational change processes. In concrete terms, this empirical study will be centered on HRMs and the AL behavior of their direct leaders. Direct
leaders leadership attributes will be considered that trigger events of HRMs emotional reactions, based mainly on an appraisal theories of emotions. In particular, their
perceptions of their direct leaders AL behavior and level of trust in their leaders will
be analyzed as antecedents of HRMs positive and negative emotions during organizational change processes. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first attempt to
explore the relation between followers AL perception, trust, and emotions in organizational change contexts.
38
Kinicki, & Scheck, 2002; Giver & Helles, 2010; Kiefer, 2005), while others
prefer to take a positive perspective (e.g., Avey, Wernsing, & Luthans, 2008).
Qualitative techniques, mostly case studies, have been popular (e.g., Balogun,
Bartunek, & Do, 2010; Bartunek etal., 2011; Bartunek, Rousseau, Rudolph, &
Depalma, 2006; Giver, 2009a; Giver & Helles, 2010; Huy, 2002,2005; Kiefer,
2002; Smollan & Sayers, 2009; Smollan, Sayers, & Matheny, 2010; Stam &
Stanton, 2010; Turnbull, 2002; Vince, 2006). However, quantitative studies are
also present in literature (e.g., Avey etal., 2008; Lines etal., 2010; Lines, Senz,
Aramburu, & Rivera, 2009; Seo, Taylor, & Hill, 2007). Some articles are mainly
interested in managers emotions (e.g., Balogun etal., 2010; Huy, 2002; Kiefer,
2002; Mossholder, Settoon, Armenakis, & Harris, 2000; Vince, 2006) and others
in the relation between emotion and time (e.g., Fugate etal., 2002; Giver, 2009a;
Smollan etal., 2010). Finally, some authors aim to build new theories by integrating different perspectives, such as psychodynamics (e.g., Carr, 2001) or psychoanalytics (e.g., Antonacopoulou & Gabriel, 2001), offering new approaches (e.g.,
Balogun etal., 2010; Kiefer, 2002; Liu & Perrew, 2005), creating new concepts
such as emotional balancing (Huy, 2002), or new theories such as the multilevel
theory of emotion and change (Huy, 1999).
What many of these investigations have in common is that they are grounded on
appraisal theories of emotions (e.g., Fugate, Kinicki, & Prussia, 2008; Giver, 2009a;
Giver & Helles, 2010; Huy, 2005; Kiefer, 2005; Liu & Perrew, 2005), especially
those that analyze the antecedents and consequences of emotions (e.g., Avey etal.,
2008; Bartunek etal., 2006; Fugate etal., 2008; Huy, 2005; Kiefer, 2005; Lines etal.,
2009; Lines etal., 2010; Seo etal., 2007; Smollan, 2006; Stam & Stanton, 2010;
Szabla, 2007). Affective events theory has emerged as the main theoretical focus for
these studies (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996).
Affective events have been described in the work context as incidents, the consequences of the interaction between employees and their working environment that
stimulates the individual assessment processes, triggering an emotional experience
(Basch & Fisher, 2000; Bisquerra, 2009). For example, when a person is excited about
a recent promotion, the promotion would be the work event that triggers the emotion
of excitement.
Research into work events as elicitors of emotions during change is not very common in the literature. Three categories of events can trigger negative emotions during
change: issues relating to working conditions, issues relating to personal status, and
organizational issues (e.g., acts of management and the values and fairness of the organization; Kiefer, 2005). The present research would fall into Kiefers organizational
issues category, as HRMs report their leaders behavior during a change process. In
the same category, change agents actions and managers transformational leadership
behavior have been demonstrated to be antecedents of emotions during change in
Huys (2005) and Seo etal.s (2007) research, respectively.
We decided to focus on the direct leader because, as the closest manager this is the
one with whom workers spend more time; hence, this is the manager who most frequently and most intensely influences them.
39
Agote et al.
This definition reflects the four underlying dimensions of the construct of AL (i.e.,
balanced processing, internalized moral perspective, relational transparency, and selfawareness) that have been generally accepted following its empirical validation
(Walumbwa etal., 2008).
According to Gooty, Connelly, Griffith, and Guptas (2010) literature review on
leadership, affects and emotions are deeply intertwined with the process of leading,
leaders outcomes, and followers outcomes. In fact, Avolio etal. (2004) presented a
framework in which they suggested that emotions could be a key variable in explaining the process by which authentic leaders influence followers outcomes.
When trying to understand how and why emotions arise, most researchers base
their proposals on Lazaruss (1991) appraisal theory of emotions, as did Weiss and
Cropanzano (1996) in developing affective events theory, a theory of emotions at
work. The appraisal theory of emotions considers these to be specific reactions to
events, indicating the importance of the episode to the individual. However, the stimulus that activates the appraisal process does not need literally to be an event; it can also
be a stable feature that is salient (Elfenbein, 2007). As previously mentioned, events
related to interactions with coworkers, customers, and supervisors are among those
that have the greatest emotional impact on workers, with leaders behavior looming
particularly large (Elfenbein, 2007). Therefore, leaders behavior can be the event that
activates the appraisal process, giving rise to emotional experiences.
AL is a complex leadership style that involves the enactment of several distinct types
of behavior that together constitute an internally consistent gestalt. At the basic level,
however, it can be contrasted with an autocratic, command-and-control style by which
leaders solicit little input from their followers and show little concern for followers
well-being, focusing exclusively on organizational-level objectives without regard for
how decisions affect those working in the organization. Autocratic leadership based on
40
control-and-command has been related to negative feelings of uncertainty, anxiety, vulnerability, and general discomfort, because followers, when faced with such leadership
behaviors, perceive such high levels of risk that the leader can exploit the power dependence asymmetry in ways that are harmful to followers (Konovsky, 2000; Lind, Kulik,
Ambrose, & De Vera Park, 1993). The behavior of authentic leaders, in contrast, may
eliminate some of the processes underlying these negative emotions. By soliciting
information from a wide variety of sources, prior to making a decision, followers might
perceive that their interests are being considered more fully and are being partly used as
criteria for making change-relevant decisions regarding the content of change, as well
as the timing and attributes of the change process itself. This should elicit perceptions
of decision control (Thibaut & Walker, 1975), which in turn would be less colored by
negative emotions than processes where followers experience little or no control over
the decision process. Research on procedural fairness suggests that this effect might be
present even in situations where followers interests do not have an impact on final
decisions (Konovsky, 2000). The mere experience that ones views and interests are
being considered might elicit positive emotions and lower the likelihood of negative
emotions being experienced. The authentic leaders internalized moral perspective,
when observed by followers, might also affect emotions felt during the change process.
Research into behavioral integrity shows that followers routinely observe and assess
the consistency of leaders behavior over time, and the correspondence between what
leaders say and what they do. Leaders with an internal moral perspective are more
likely to be perceived as honest and trustworthy because, regardless of external pressures, they will attempt to behave in accordance with their internal moral principles and
values. In cases where external pressures are too strong, they might exhibit relational
transparency and justify their decisions openly to followers by explaining why they
have to behave in a seemingly inconsistent way due to these pressures. The provision
of well-grounded and convincing justification for behavior has previously been shown
to alleviate negative reactions, even when the consequences of decisions are harmful to
the recipients (Brockner etal., 1994). By extension, we expect leaders who exhibit an
internalized moral perspective underlying their behavior to elicit more positive and less
negative emotions in their followers.
Considering the aforementioned, we propose the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1a: The perception of AL behavior is positively related to the experience of positive emotions during organizational change.
Hypothesis 1b: The perception of AL behavior is negatively related to the experience of negative emotions during organizational change.
41
Agote et al.
Espedal, and Johansen (2005), Sresen and Hasle (2009), Kelloway, Turner, Barling,
and Loughlin (2013), and Zhu, Newman, Miao, and Hooke (2013). It will be used in
this study.
Trust in the leader is considered a relevant factor for the successful implementation
of organizational changes (Oreg, 2006; Sresen & Hasle, 2009; Zhu, May, & Avolio,
2004) because it is considered crucial for getting individuals to work toward a common goal (Dirks, 2000), especially under high levels of perceived uncertainty.
Moreover, trust in the leader is also considered a fundamental element in the effectiveness of leadership (Bass, 1990). This idea is supported by Dirks and Ferrins (2001,
2002) meta-analysis, in which they found that leadership style can increase trust in the
leader, which is in turn associated with attitudes, perceptions, and important organizational outcomes such as organizational citizenship behavior, job performance, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, or intention to quit. Based also on past research
into trust, Schoorman, Mayer, and Davis (2007) considered the study of the relationship between trust and emotions, a very interesting area of research. In response to this
call, Ballinger, Schoorman, and Lehman (2009) demonstrated that work group members affective reactions to the departure of a leader were partly based on the quality of
the relationship they had with the leader. These affective reactions influenced group
members trust judgments of the new leader, unless they had access to previously
formed judgments about the leaders ability. Yet the role of trust and emotions in leading and following is underresearched (Gooty etal., 2010).
A leaders trustworthiness is based on followers expectations about the leaders
future behavior, more specifically that the leader will not behave in ways that threaten
followers interests (Rousseau etal., 1998). These expectations, in turn, are based on
information from past experiences regarding the leaders fundamental attributes of
ability, integrity, and benevolence. The trust construct, however, is also forward looking in the sense that highly trusted leaders are expected to behave competently, with
integrity, and in ways that do not harm followers interests in future situations. In a
change context that is characterized by high levels of outcome uncertainty and ambiguity, trust is likely to be at the forefront of followers concerns, and may act as a core
determinant of how change recipients react emotionally. Because highly trusted leaders are considered to be follower oriented and expected to take into account how followers are affected by change(s), they are unlikely to make decisions that threaten
important values held by followers. As value relevance is a core determinant of the
appraisal process underlying emotional reactions (Lazarus, 1991), we expect that this
perceived benevolence of trusted leaders makes them better able to avoid producing
negative emotions and to foster the experience of positive emotions during change.
The expectation of leader integrity inherent in trust will further reduce the likelihood
of experiencing negative emotions and foster the experience of positive emotions.
Moreover, mere interaction with a trusted leader can engender positive emotions
unmediated by cognitive considerations like those outlined above. In the presence of
trusted individuals, people tend to experience feelings of interpersonal warmth, calm,
and hope (Jones & George, 1998). Most likely, these emotional reactions are mediated
by the low levels of threat experienced when a person is in contact with highly trusted
42
individuals. The experience of threat and the absence of threat are fundamental for our
understanding of emotional processes and the ecological function of human emotions
(Lazarus, 1991). In contrast, in the presence of distrusted persons, feelings of anxiety
are likely to emerge, especially when individuals are highly dependent on the person
being distrusted, as is often the case in leaderfollower relationships. Hence, we
propose:
Hypothesis 2a: Trust in the leader is positively related to the experience of positive
emotions during organizational change.
Hypothesis 2b: Trust in the leader is negatively related to the experience of negative emotions during organizational change.
43
Agote et al.
Positive
emotions
Relational transparency
Internalized moral perspective
Balanced processing
Authentic
leadership
perception
Trust
Negative
emotions
Self awareness
performance (Clapp-Smith etal., 2009), voice behavior (Wong & Cummings, 2009),
and work engagement (Hassan & Ahmed, 2011; Wong etal., 2010). These results
imply that trust might also mediate the relation between AL and followers emotions.
In fact, Avolio etal. (2004) suggested there could also be a relation between AL, trust,
and positive emotions, although they did not present an explicit hypothesis. According
to Clapp-Smith etal. (2009) followers may be more willing to place trust in the
leaders future actions because they can use past experiences to predict future
responses (p. 232). In other words, authentic leaders make employees feel more comfortable and secure about the leaders future behavior. Positive past behavior provides
behavior predictability, which seems to be a particularly relevant facet of trust in the
examination of its relation with authentic leadership (Peus etal., 2012, p. 335).
Moreover, trust enables followers to perceive the leaders actions as genuine (Zhu
etal., 2013). In this way, trust helps followers judge the leader in a favorable light,
favoring in turn the experience of more positive emotions and less negative emotions.
As authentic leaders are expected to behave in a manner perceived as trustworthy, followers are expected to demonstrate more positive emotions and less negative emotions. Therefore, we propose:
Hypothesis 4a: The relationship between the perception of AL behavior and the
experience of positive emotions is mediated by the level of trust in the leader.
Hypothesis 4b: The relationship between the perception of AL behavior and the
experience of negative emotions is mediated by the level of trust in the leader.
Figure 1 represents the conceptual model being tested.
Research Method
Sample Framing and Data Collection
A multiorganizational approach for data gathering was chosen because we decided to
focus our attention on various HRMs experience during organizational changes. The
research focused on Spanish companies with more than 50 employees, and to identify
these companies, the database SABI was used.1
44
45
Agote et al.
Multivariate Analysis
Structural equation modeling (SEM) based on partial least squares (PLS) is used to
test the hypotheses of the research due to the characteristics of the model and sample.
In comparison with the covariance-based approach (an alternative SEM approach),
PLS avoids two important problems: those related to nonunique or otherwise improper
solutions (Fornell & Bookstein, 1982) and those related to the use of small data samples (Fornell, 1982). Thus, PLS can be a powerful analysis method due to its minimum
requirements in terms of variable measurement scales, sample size, and residual distribution (Chin, Marcolin, & Newsted, 2003).
The sample size obtained is large enough to perform a statistical study based on a
PLS approach to SEM by means of PLS-Graph software (Chin etal., 2003; Chin &
Frye, 2003). Since all the constructs of the model are reflective in nature, the largest
number of antecedent constructs leading to an endogenous construct in the structural
model will determine the minimum sample size requiredin our case, 50 responses
for the first-order model and 20 for the second-order model.
PLS analysis consists of two consecutive stages, although measurement and structural parameters are concomitantly estimated (Barclay, Higgins, & Thompson, 1995).
First, the measurement model must be evaluated to assess its validity (i.e., that it really
measures what we want to measure) and reliability (i.e., that it does so in a stable,
consistent way). This will guarantee that the theoretical concepts are properly measured by the variables observed. Afterward, structural model evaluation can take place
in order to analyze the weight and extent of relations between constructs and to test the
research hypotheses.
Results
Measurement Model Evaluation
Since AL perception is a second-order construct, it is necessary to create a first-order
model and make all the basic checks (in the case of reflective constructs, individual
item reliability, construct reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity
46
have to be tested). In all cases, the results of the first-order model are satisfactory
(results of the first-order measurement model evaluation in Appendix B).
As far as individual item reliability is concerned, a rule of thumb is to accept items
with loadings of 0.707 or more, which implies more shared variance between the construct and its measures than error variance (Barclay etal., 1995; Carmines & Zeller,
1979). As can be seen in Appendix B, Part I, indicator loadings are greater than 0.707,
with three exceptions: TRUST6 (loading: 0.6815), POSEMO1 (positive emotions;
loading: 0.6690), and NEGEMO3 (negative emotions; loading: 0.6256). According to
Barclay etal. (1995), loadings above 0.5 and 0.6 are also acceptable in early stages of
scale development as is the case for this construct. Thus, all the indicators proposed
have been retained in the research.
Construct reliability or internal consistency refers to the extent to which all the
indicators of a specific construct measure the same latent variable. If this were to be
true, all the indicators making up the construct should be highly correlated. For this to
be tested, composite reliability (c) has been calculated. According to Nunnally
(1978), a value of 0.70 constitutes a benchmark for modest reliability in early stages
of research, whereas later on, values higher than 0.80 would be preferable. As can be
observed in Appendix B, Part I, all constructs of the research have a composite reliability over 0.8. Hence, internal consistency is adequate.
Convergent validity is assessed by means of the so-called average variance extracted
(AVE). This measure was created by Fornell and Larcker in 1981, and it provides the
amount of variance that a latent variable captures from its indicators, relative to the
amount due to measurement error. It is recommended that AVE should be greater than
0.50, this meaning that 50% or more of the variance of the construct is due to its own
indicators. As can be seen in Appendix B, Part I, this is the case in all constructs of the
research.
Finally, discriminant validity indicates the extent to which a given construct is different from other constructs (i.e., the extent to which the constructs making up the
research model really measure different things). For this to be true, a construct should
share more variance with its measures than it shares with other constructs of the model
(Fornell & Larcker, 1981). In other words, AVE should be greater than the variance
shared between the construct and other constructs (i.e., the squared correlation between
two constructs). Once the correlation matrix is obtained, it is easier to calculate the
root value of AVE for each construct (this would be the diagonal of the correlation
matrix) and to compare it with the correlations obtained. For adequate discriminant
validity, the diagonal elements (i.e., the root values of AVE) should be greater than the
off-diagonal elements in the corresponding rows and columns. This is exactly the case
in our research (see Appendix B, Part II).
Once the first-order measurement model has been checked, the same has to be done
for the second-order model. Therefore, the second-order model was created and the
measurement model evaluated. Following the same criteria as before, we satisfactorily
checked individual item reliability, construct reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity (results of the second-order measurement model evaluation in
Appendix C).
47
Agote et al.
In particular, and as far as item reliability is concerned, loadings are higher than
0.707 in all cases, with the exception of three indicators: TRUST6 (loading: 0.6803),
POSEMO1 (loading: 0.6548), and NEGEMO3 (loading: 0.6189; see Appendix C, Part
I). As stated earlier, and according to Barclay etal. (1995), loadings above 0.5 and 0.6
are also acceptable in early stages of scale development as is the case for this construct. Thus, all the indicators proposed have been retained.
With regard to construct reliability, composite reliability (c) is above 0.8 in all cases.
And for convergent validity, AVE is higher than 0.5 in all cases. Therefore, both tests are
satisfactory (see Appendix C, Part I). Finally, and regarding discriminant validity, this test
is also acceptable (i.e., diagonal elements in the correlation matrix are larger than offdiagonal elements in the corresponding rows and columns; see Appendix C, Part II).
Mediation Test
Two different approaches can be used for mediation testing: the traditional approach
and the Sobel test. Following the traditional approach, two models have to be run for
mediation to be tested. In the first model, the mediator variable should be excluded
(trust) and the independent (AL) and dependent (positive and negative emotions) variables should be linked to check that the relations between the exogenous variable and
the endogenous variables are significant.
Downloaded from jab.sagepub.com at Universiti Utara Malaysia on March 25, 2016
48
Table 1. Influence of Trust on Positive and Negative Emotions, and of Authentic Leadership
on Trust, Positive, and Negative Emotions.
Endogenous
construct
Trust
Positive
emotions
Negative
emotions
Parameter
Path
Correlation
Contribution to R2
Path
Correlation
Contribution to R2
Path
Correlation
Contribution to R2
Trust
NA
NA
NA
0.144
0.506
7.29%
0.428***
0.538
23.03%
52.56%
37.38%
30.00%
0.2419
0.1201
0.0374
Note. Goodness-of-fit (GOF) = 0.5. GOF is the square root of (mean of average variance extracted values mean of R2
values). The value of GOF has to be between 0 and 1.
p < .1. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001 (based on t , one-tailed test).
499
0.499***
30.09%
Authentic
leadership
perception
0.725***
52.56%
Relational transparency
Internalized moral perspective
Balanced processing
Self-awareness
0.144
7.29%
37.38%
Trust
52.56%
Positive
emotions
-0.428***
23.03%
Negative
emotions
30.00%
-0.151
6.98%
Note. Path coefficients () contributions to the amount of variance explained of the endogenous
constructs (R2) are provided. Additionally, the total amount of variance explained by the model of each
endogenous construct is provided.
p < .1. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001 (based on t , one-tailed test).
499
As shown in Table 2, the first condition for mediation to exist is fully satisfied as
AL exerts a significant impact on emotions.
The second is a model in which all the variables are included. In fact, this is the
model analyzed in the previous section (see Table 1). This model is intended to check
that the relation between the mediator variable (trust) and the endogenous variable
(positive and negative emotions) is significant. The relationship between trust and
positive emotions is not statistically significant. Therefore, trust does not mediate the
relation between AL and positive emotions, and so Hypothesis 4a cannot be accepted.
However, the relation between trust and negative emotions is statistically significant,
satisfying the second condition established for mediation to exist.
Downloaded from jab.sagepub.com at Universiti Utara Malaysia on March 25, 2016
49
Agote et al.
Table 2. Mediation TestInfluence of Authentic Leadership on Positive and Negative
Emotions.
Endogenous
construct
Parameter
Authentic
leadership
Total amount of
variance explained (R2)
Positive
emotions
Negative
emotions
Path
Correlation
Contribution to R2
Path
Correlation
Contribution to R2
0.607***
0.607
36.84%
0.464***
0.464
21.53%
36.84%
21.53%
< .1. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001 (based on t499, one-tailed test).
The third condition for mediation is that the path value () of the relation between
the exogenous variable (AL) and the endogenous variable (negative emotions) in the
complete model should be lower than that in the model without mediators (see Table 2).
The association between AL and negative emotions increases from 0.151 in the complete model to 0.464 in the model without mediators. And since the relation between
these two constructs in the complete model is nonsignificant, trust fully mediates the
relation between AL and negative emotions. Therefore, Hypothesis 4b is accepted.
These mediation results have also been confirmed by means of the Sobel test. As a
result of this test, the values of the z parameter were compared with a standard normal distribution2 (Preacher & Hayes, 2004) to establish statistical significance.
In the case of negative emotions, the z value is significant. Hence, mediation
exists, but it is not significant with regard to positive emotions, and so trust does not
mediate the relation between AL perception and positive emotions (zAL-TRUST-POSEMO =
1.169; and zAL-TRUST-NEGEMO = 3.426).
For the final mediation, Table 3 shows the total effect of AL on emotions as a sum
of the direct and indirect effects. As can be seen, the effect of AL on positive and negative emotions is quite different. AL has a positive and mainly direct effect on positive
emotions, while it has a negative and mainly indirect effect on negative emotions
through trust.
50
Direct effect
Indirect effect
Total effect
0.499
0.151
0.104
0.310
0.603
0.461
leader, which is in line with previous results, as indicated by Gardner, Cogliser, Davis,
and Dickens (2011). These authors published a literature review on AL on December
31, 2010, in which they indicated that the three articles in the review that empirically
studied this relationship supported the positive influence of AL on trust in the leader.
Since then, more articles supporting this relation have been published (e.g., Hassan &
Ahmed, 2011; Zamahani etal., 2011). However, there is still more theoretical than
empirical support for this relation.
Followers trust in their organizational leaders has become an important issue
(Norman etal., 2010), and managers should be aware of the important consequences
their behavior has on employees level of trust. If managers lie, if they act unfairly, if
they do not keep their word, if their decisions are biased by their own interests or pressures from others and employees know it, they will expect managers to act the same
way in the future. This behavior is expected to destroy trust: Employees will not be
willing to accept further vulnerability based on positive expectations of the managers
behavior because they will have no positive expectations. Conversely, since trust is
fundamental for the effectiveness of leadership (Bass & Avolio, 1990; Dirks & Ferrin,
2001, 2002) and AL builds trust, managers should be sincere and honest, maintain
high moral values, and act objectively when making decisions if they want employees
to trust them.
Moreover, we found that AL perception was also significantly and positively related
to the experience of positive emotions. Following Lazaruss (1991) appraisal theory of
emotions, the existence of a direct relationship between leaders AL behavior and positive emotions reveal the importance that AL behavior has for HRMs. However, it
seems that not all AL dimensions have the same influence on positive emotions.
Although it was not our primary intention, further analyses showed that internalized
moral perspective is the only AL dimension that is significantly related to positive
emotions. Therefore, this study reveals that direct boss behavior based on his or her
core values and congruency with his or her thoughts especially matters to employees,
triggering positive emotional reactions. Curiously, it was the lack of ethical conduct of
todays leaders that called for a new, genuine, values-based leadership (Gardner etal.,
2011), giving rise to AL. Considering the results, it seems that it is precisely this moral
perspective that most influences HRMs positive emotions. This fact makes us think
that AL could be more tightly linked to followers positive emotions than other leadership styles such as charismatic, transformational, or transactional types. Independent
research has found positive results relating transactional, transformational, and charismatic leadership to followers emotions, especially to positive emotions. However, it
would be interesting to compare these relations in a single research to determine if
51
Agote et al.
there is any leadership style that can better explain followers positive and/or negative
emotions.
Additionally, it was found that trust mediates the relation between AL perception
and negative emotions. AL behavior seems to be positively related to trust in the
leader, which in turn is negatively related to the experience of negative emotions.
Conversely, and contrary to predictions, trust does not seem to contribute to an explanation of positive emotions, nor does it mediate the relation between AL and positive
emotions. These results point out that the relation between AL, trust, positive emotions, and negative emotions is quite complex and needs further research. An explanation for the results obtained might lie in the consideration of trust as dynamic (Rousseau
etal., 1998), which is developed over time, mainly as a response to leaders behavior.
In addition, as suggested by Gooty etal. (2010), besides cognitive influences, emotions could also influence the level of trust. As the affect-as-information theory
(Forgas, 1995, 2002) proposes, positive emotions might be used as information, and
therefore help build trust, while negative emotions might destroy it. However, given a
concrete time and specific situation (as in the case of the present study), the level of
trust that a follower has in the leader might act as a filter to interpret the leaders
behavior, affecting in turn the followers emotions. Trust in the leader might help interpret the leaders behavior in a positive way, even giving the leader the benefit of the
doubt when negative behavior (such as injustice or unfairness) are perceived. On the
other hand, lack of trust might have negative consequences through a negative interpretation of the leaders behavior due to suspicion and skepticism. In order to confirm
this proposal, new longitudinal research is needed that makes it possible to capture the
evolution of trust and the experience of positive and negative emotions as responses to
leadership behavior.
The results obtained in this article contribute to theory in different ways. For
instance, it helps explain why emotions occur during organizational change processes
by reinforcing the affective events theory and enriching the literature on emotions.
Moreover, the article shows that leaders behavior is a relevant variable to understand
employees emotions at work and trust building, contributing to the literature on leadership, emotions, and trust. And it also contributes to the literature on trust by demonstrating that trust can be a relevant mediating variable.
Additionally, in light of the results obtained and the discussion presented above, we
would like to offer some managerial advice.
First, we consider that, given the benefits of AL, it would be advisable to develop
some specific actions promoted by management and addressed to HRMs with the
purpose of explaining them the foundations of this leadership style, its importance and
benefits, and to help them engage in AL behavior. Among these actions, training programs could be delivered. For instance, a workshop on AL could be organized with the
participation of HRMs belonging to different companies.
A very important issue to be taken into account is that internalized moral perspective is the only AL dimension that is significantly related to positive emotions. It
means that, in the case of HRMs, their behavior has to be congruent with their own
core values and thoughts. Therefore, it would be interesting to focus the training
52
53
Agote et al.
54
Appendix A
Constructs, Codes, and Measures
Constructs
Codes
Authentic leadershipa
(AL; second order)
AL
AL relational transparency
AL internalized moral
perspective
AL balanced processing
ALTRANS
ALMORAL1
AL self-awareness
ALAWARE1
Trust
TRUST
TRUST1
TRUST2
TRUST3
TRUST4
TRUST5
TRUST6
ALBALAN3
Measures
How frequently each of the following statement
fits your direct boss(s) leadership style
during the change process? (1 = not at all, 5 =
frequently, if not always) My direct boss . . .
55
Agote et al.
Appendix A (continued)
Constructs
Codes
Positive emotions
(POSEMO)
POSEMO
Negative emotions
(NEGMO)
POSEMO1
POSEMO2
POSEMO3
POSEMO4
POSEMO5
POSEMO6
POSEMO7
NEGEMO
NEGEMO1
NEGEMO2
NEGEMO3
NEGEMO4
NEGEMO5
NEGEMO6
NEGEMO7
NEGEMO8
NEGEMO9
NEGEMO10
aOnly
Measures
How frequently each of the following
statements fits with what you felt during
the change process? (1 = not at all, 5 =
frequently, if not always)
Relief
Gratitude
Hope
Happiness
Energized
Confirmed
Pride
How frequently each of the following
statements fits with what you felt during
the change process? (1 = not at all, 5 =
frequently, if not always)
Rage
Frustration
Anger
Hopelessness
Shame
Disappointment
Disgust
Contempt
Anxiety
Surprised
the publication of three sample items to measure AL behavior was allowed by the authors.
Appendix B
First-Order Measurement Model Evaluation
Part I
Item Reliability, Construct Reliability, and Convergent Validity.
Constructs and
measures
Loading
ALTRANS
ALTRANS1
ALTRANS2
ALTRANS3
ALTRANS4
0.8178
0.8542
0.8597
0.7375
Composite
reliability
0.890
AVE
0.670
(continued)
56
Appendix B (continued)
Constructs and
measures
ALMORAL
ALMORAL1
ALMORAL2
ALMORAL3
ALMORAL4
ALBALAN
ALBALAN1
ALBALAN2
ALBALAN3
ALAWARE
ALAWARE1
ALAWARE2
ALAWARE3
ALAWARE4
TRUST
TRUST1
TRUST2
TRUST3
TRUST4
TRUST6
POSEMO
POSEMO1
POSEMO2
POSEMO3
POSEMO4
POSEMO5
POSEMO6
POSEMO7
NEGEMO
NEGEMO2
NEGEMO3
NEGEMO4
NEGEMO5
NEGEMO6
NEGEMO7
NEGEMO8
Loading
Composite
reliability
0.886
0.7992
0.8595
0.7749
0.8143
0.850
0.7578
0.7644
0.8998
0.904
0.8207
0.8233
0.8621
0.8434
0.869
0.8082
0.7063
0.7259
0.8464
0.6815
0.901
0.6690
0.7387
0.7852
0.7738
0.8080
0.7337
0.7474
0.902
0.7482
0.6256
0.7654
0.8344
0.8110
0.7371
0.7423
AVE
0.660
0.656
0.701
0.572
0.565
0.569
Note. AVE = average variance extracted; ALTRANS = authentic leadership relational transparency;
ALMORAL = authentic leadership internalized moral perspective; ALBALAN = authentic leadership
balanced processing; ALAWARE = authentic leadership self-awareness; POSEMO = positive emotion;
NEGEMO = negative emotion. For item reliability, loadings should be above 0.707 or close to this limit.
Loadings above 0.6 were accepted. For construct reliability, composite reliability should be above 0.7 in
early stages of investigation. And for convergent validity, AVE ratio should be above 0.5.
57
Agote et al.
Part II
Discriminant Validity.
(0.818)
0.772
0.748
0.763
0.667
0.511
0.417
(0.812)
0.63
0.774
0.649
0.654
0.405
(0.809)
0.778
0.65
0.434
0.388
(0.837)
0.644
0.554
0.449
(0.756)
0.504
0.537
(0.751)
0.519
(0.754)
Appendix C
Second-Order Measurement Model Results
Part I
Item Reliability, Construct Reliability, and Convergent Validity.
Constructs
and measures
AL
ALTRANS
ALMORAL
ALBALAN
ALAWARE
TRUST
TRUST1
TRUST2
TRUST3
TRUST4
TRUST6
POSEMO
POSEMO1
POSEMO2
POSEMO3
POSEMO4
POSEMO5
Loading
Composite
reliability
0.944
0.9132
0.8899
0.8698
0.9224
0.869
0.8082
0.7061
0.7269
0.8465
0.6803
0.901
0.6548
0.7304
0.7833
0.7746
0.8137
AVE
0.808
0.572
0.566
(continued)
58
Appendix C (continued)
Constructs
and measures
Composite
reliability
Loading
POSEMO6
POSEMO7
NEGEMO
NEGEMO2
NEGEMO3
NEGEMO4
NEGEMO5
NEGEMO6
NEGEMO7
NEGEMO8
0.7511
0.7493
0.902
0.7380
0.6189
0.7556
0.8365
0.8060
0.7490
0.7558
AVE
0.569
Note. AVE = average variance extracted; ALTRANS = authentic leadership relational transparency;
ALMORAL = authentic leadership internalized moral perspective; ALBALAN = authentic leadership
balanced processing; ALAWARE = authentic leadership self-awareness; POSEMO = positive emotion;
NEGEMO = negative emotion. For item reliability, loadings should be above 0.707 or close to this limit.
Loadings above 0.6 were accepted. For construct reliability, composite reliability should be above 0.7
in early stages of research. And for convergent validity, AVE ratio should be above 0.5 (Source: The
author).
Part II
Discriminant Validity.
TRUST
POSEMO
NEGEMO
AL
TRUST
POSEMO
(0.756)
0.506
0.538
0.725
(0.752)
0.529
0.603
NEGEMO
AL
(0.754)
0.462
(0.899)
Note. AL = authentic leadership; POSEMO = positive emotion; NEGEMO = negative emotion. Diagonal
elements (values in parentheses) are the square root of the variance shared between the constructs and
their measures, relative to the amount due to measure error (average variance extracted). Off-diagonal
elements are the correlations among constructs. For discriminant validity, diagonal elements should be
larger than off-diagonal elements in the corresponding rows and columns.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of
this article.
59
Agote et al.
Notes
References
Alfes, K., Truss, C., & Gill, J. (2010). The HR manager as change agent: Evidence from the
public sector. Journal of Change Management, 10, 109-127.
Antonacopoulou, E. P., & Gabriel, Y. (2001). Emotion, learning and organizational change:
Towards an integration of psychoanalytic and other perspectives. Journal of Organizational
Change Management, 14, 435-451.
Avey, J. B., Wernsing, T. S., & Luthans, F. (2008). Can positive employees help positive organizational change? Impact of psychological capital and emotions on relevant attitudes and
behaviors. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 44, 48-70.
Avolio, B. J. (2010). Bringing authentic leadership into focus. Retrieved from http://www.mlq.
com.au/docs/feat/AvolioBJ-2010.pdf
Avolio, B. J., Gardner, W. L., & Walumbwa, F. O. (2007). Authentic Leadership Questionnaire
(ALQVersion 1 Rater). Menlo Park, CA: Mind Garden.
Avolio, B. J., Gardner, W. L., Walumbwa, F. O., Luthans, F., & May, D. R. (2004). Unlocking
the mask: A look at the process by which authentic leaders impact follower attitudes and
behaviors. Leadership Quarterly, 15, 801-823.
Avolio, B. J., Walumbwa, F. O., & Weber, T. J. (2009). Leadership: Current theories, research,
and future directions. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 421-449.
Avolio, B. J., & Wernsing, T. S. (2008). Practicing authentic leadership. In S. J. Lopez (Ed.),
Positive psychology: Exploring the best in people (pp. 147-165). Westport, CT: Greenwood.
Ballinger, G. A., Schoorman, F. D., & Lehman, D. W. (2009). Will you trust your new
boss? The role of affective reactions to leadership succession. Leadership Quarterly,
20, 219-232.
Balogun, J. C., Bartunek, J. M., & Do, B. (2010, August). Uncovering relationships and shared
emotion beneath senior managers resistance to strategic change. Academy of Management:
Proceedings, 1-6. doi:10.5465/AMBPP.2010.54493451
Barclay, D., Higgins, C., & Thompson, R. (1995). The partial least square (PLS) approach
to causal modeling: Personal computer adoption and use as an illustration. Technology
Studies, 2, 285-309.
Bartunek, J. M., Balogun, J., & Do, B. (2011). Considering planned change anew: Stretching
large group interventions strategically, emotionally, and meaningfully. Academy of
Management Annals, 5, 1-52.
Bartunek, J. M., Rousseau, D. M., Rudolph, J. W., & Depalma, J. A. (2006). On the receiving
end: Sensemaking, emotion, and assessments of an organizational change initiated by others. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 42, 182-206.
Basch, J., & Fisher, C. D. (2000). Affective events-emotions matrix: A classification of work
events and associated emotions. In N. M. Ashkanasy, C. E. J. Hrtel, & W. J. Zerbe (Eds.),
Emotions in the workplace: Research, theory, and practice (pp. 36-48). Westport, CT:
Quorum Books.
Bass, B. M. (1990). From transactional to transformational leadership: Learning to share the
vision. Organizational Dynamics, 18, 19-31.
60
Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1990). Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ). Retrieved
from http://www.mindgarden.com/16-multifactor-leadership-questionnaire
Bisquerra, R. (2009). Psicopedagoga de las emociones [Psychopedagogy of emotions].
Retrieved from http://www.sintesis.com/data/indices/9788497566261.pdf
Brief, A. P., & Weiss, H. M. (2002). Organizational behavior: Affect in the workplace. Annual
Review of Psychology, 53, 279-307.
Brockner, J., Konovsky, M. A., Cooper-Schneider, R., Folger, R., Martin, C., & Bies, R. J.
(1994). Interactive effects of procedural justice and outcome negativity on victims and
survivors of job loss. Academy of Management Journal, 37, 397-409.
Caldwell, R. (2001). Champions, adapters, consultants and synergists: The new change agents
in HRM. Human Resource Management Journal, 11, 39-52.
Carmines, E. G., & Zeller, R. A. (1979). Reliability and validity assessment (Sage University Paper
Series on Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences, No. 07-017). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Carr, A. (2001). Understanding emotion and emotionality in a process of change. Journal of
Organizational Change Management, 14, 421-436.
Chin, W. W. (1998). The partial least squares approach to structural equation modeling. In G.
A. Marcoulides (Ed.), Modern methods for business research (pp. 295-336). Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Chin, W. W., & Frye, T. (2003). PLS-Graph (Version 3.00, Build 1017) [Computer software].
Houston, TX: University of Houston.
Chin, W. W., & Gopal, A. (1995). Adoption intention in GSS: Relative importance of beliefs.
Data Base for Advances in Information Systems, 26, 42-63.
Chin, W. W., Marcolin, B. L., & Newsted, P. R. (2003). A partial least squares latent variable modeling approach for measuring interaction effects: Results from Monte Carlo simulation study
and an electronic-mail emotion/adoption study. Information Systems Research, 14, 189-217.
Clapp-Smith, R., Vogelgesang, G. R., & Avey, J. B. (2009). Authentic leadership and positive
psychological capital. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 15, 227-240.
Dickson, M. W., Aditya, R. N., & Chokar, J. S. (2000). Definition and interpretation in crosscultural organizational culture research: Some pointers from the GLOBE research program.
In N. N. Ashkanasy, C. Wilderon, & M. F. Peterson (Eds.), The handbook of organizational
culture and climate (pp. 447-464). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Dirks, K. T. (2000). Trust in leadership and team performance: Evidence from NCAA basketball. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 1004-1012.
Dirks, K. T., & Ferrin, D. L. (2001). The role of trust in organizational settings. Organization
Science, 12, 450-467.
Dirks, K. T., & Ferrin, D. L. (2002). Trust in leadership: Meta-analytic findings and implications for research and practice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 611-628.
Elfenbein, H. A. (2007). Emotion in organizations: A review and theoretical integration.
Academy of Management Annals, 1, 315-386.
Falk, R. F., & Miller, N. B. (1992). A primer for soft modeling. Akron, OH: University of Akron.
Fiebig, G. V., & Kramer, M. W. (1998). A framework for the study of emotions in organizational contexts. Management Communication Quarterly, 11, 536-572.
Forgas, J. P. (1995). Mood and judgment: The affect infusion model (AIM). Psychological
Bulletin, 117, 39-66.
Forgas, J. P. (2002). Feeling and doing: Affective influences on interpersonal behavior.
Psychological Inquiry, 13, 1-28.
Fornell, C. (1982). A second generation of multivariate analysis: An overview. In C. Fornell
(Ed.), A second generation of multivariate analysis (pp. 1-21). New York, NY: Praeger.
61
Agote et al.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equationg models with unobservable
variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18, 39-50.
Fornell, C., & Bookstein, F. L. (1982). Two structural equation models: LISREL and PLS
applied to consumer exit-voice theory. Journal of Marketing Research, 19, 440-452.
Fugate, M., Kinicki, A. J., & Prussia, G. E. (2008). Employee coping with organizational
change: An examination of alternative theoretical perspectives and models. Personnel
Psychology, 61, 1-36.
Fugate, M., Kinicki, A. J., & Scheck, C. L. (2002). Coping with an organizational merger over
four stages. Personnel Psychology, 55, 905-928.
Gardner, W. L., Avolio, B. J., & Walumbwa, F. O. (Eds.). (2005). Authentic leadership theory
and practice: Origins, effects and development. San Diego, CA: Elsevier.
Gardner, W. L., Cogliser, C. C., Davis, K. M., & Dickens, M. P. (2011). Authentic leadership: A
review of the literature and research agenda. Leadership Quarterly, 22, 1120-1145.
Geisser, S. (1975). The predictive sample reuse method with applications. Journal of the
American Statistical Association, 70, 320-328.
Giver, F. (2009a). Looking forwards and back: Exploring anticipative versus retrospective
emotional change-experiences. Journal of Change Management, 9, 419-434.
Giver, F. (2009b). Understanding the emotional experience of organizational change. In P. O.
Saksvik (Ed.), Prerequisites for healthy organizational change (pp. 33-40). Beijing, China:
Bentham Books.
Giver, F., & Helles, R. (2010). Negative experiences of organizational change from an emotions perspective: A qualitative study of the Norwegian nursing sector. Nordic Psychology,
62, 37-52.
Gillespie, N. (2003). Measuring trust in working relationships: The behavioral trust inventory.
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia: Melbourne Business School, University of Melbourne.
Gooty, J., Connelly, S., Griffith, J., & Gupta, A. (2010). Leadership, affect and emotions: A
state of the science review. Leadership Quarterly, 21, 979-1004.
Hassan, A., & Ahmed, F. (2011). Authentic leadership, trust and work engagement. World
Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, 80, 750-756.
Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of
the minds (3rd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Hofstede, G., & Peterson, M. F. (2000). Culture, national values and organizational practices.
In N. N. Ashkanas, C. Wilderon, & M. F. Peterson (Eds.), The handbook of organizational
culture and climate (pp. 401-416). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Huy, Q. N. (1999). Emotional capability, emotional intelligence, and radical change. Academy
of Management Review, 24, 325-345.
Huy, Q. N. (2002). Emotional balancing of organizational continuity and radical change: The
contribution of middle managers. Administrative Science Quarterly, 47, 31-69.
Huy, Q. N. (2005). Emotional filtering in strategic change. Fontainebleu, France: INSEAD.
Jones, G. R., & George, J. M. (1998). The experience and evolution of trust: Implications for
cooperation and teamwork. Academy of Management Review, 23, 531-546.
Kelloway, E. K., Turner, N., Barling, J., & Loughlin, C. (2013). Transformational leadership
and employee psychological well-being: The mediating role of employee trust in leadership. Work & Stress, 26, 39-55.
Kiefer, T. (2002). Understanding the emotional experience of organizational change: Evidence
from a merger. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 4, 39-61.
Kiefer, T. (2005). Feeling bad: Antecedents and consequences of negative emotions in ongoing
change. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26, 875-897.
62
Konovsky, M. A. (2000). Understanding procedural justice and its impact on business organizations. Journal of Management, 26, 489-511.
Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Lazarus, R. S. (2003). Does the positive psychology movement have legs? Psychological
Inquiry, 14, 93-109.
Lind, E. A., Kulik, C. T., Ambrose, M., & De Vera Park, M. V. (1993). Individual and corporate
dispute resolution: Using procedural fairness as a decision heuristic. Administrative Science
Quarterly, 38, 224-251.
Lines, R., Senz, J., & Aramburu, N. (2010, August). Thinking about future job characteristics,
emotional reactions, and resistance to change. Paper presented at the 30th SMS Annual
International Conference. Retrieved from http://rome.strategicmanagement.net/pdf/Rome_
program.pdf
Lines, R., Senz, J., Aramburu, N., & Rivera, O. (2009, October). An emotion based account
of strategy implementation success. Paper presented at the 29th SMS Annual International
Conference. Retrieved from http://dc.strategicmanagement.net/pdf/DC_Program_Web%20
version.pdf
Lines, R., Selart, M., Espedal, B., & Johansen, S. (2005). The production of trust during organizational change. Journal of Change Management, 5, 221-245.
Liu, Y., & Perrew, P. L. (2005). Another look at the role of emotion in the organizational
change: A process model. Human Resource Management Review, 15, 263-280.
Luthans, F., & Avolio, B. J. (2003). Authentic leadership development. In K. S. Cameron, J.
E. Dutton, & R. E. Quinn (Eds.), Positive organizational scholarship (pp. 241-258). San
Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.
Mossholder, K. W., Settoon, R. P., Armenakis, A. A., & Harris, S. G. (2000). Emotion during organizational transformations: An interactive model of survivor reactions. Group &
Organization Management, 25, 220-243.
Norman, S. M., Avolio, B. J., & Luthans, F. (2010). The impact of positivity and transparency
on trust in leaders and their perceived effectiveness. Leadership Quarterly, 21, 350-364.
Nunnally, J. (1978). Psychometric theory (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Oreg, S. (2006). Personality, context, and resistance to organizational change. European Journal
of Work & Organizational Psychology, 15, 73-101.
Peus, C., Wesche, J. S., Streicher, B., Braun, S., & Frey, D. (2012). Authentic leadership: An
empirical test of its antecedents, consequences, and mediating mechanisms. Journal of
Business Ethics, 107, 331-348.
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects
in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36,
717-731.
Rousseau, D. M., Sitkin, S. B., Burt, R. S., & Camerer, C. (1998). Not so different after all: A
cross-discipline view of trust. Academy of Management Review, 23, 393-404.
Sagiv, L., & Schwartz, S. H. (2000). A new look at national culture: Illustrative applications to
role stress and managerial behavior. In N. N. Ashkanasy, C. Wilderon, & M. F. Peterson
(Eds.), The handbook of organizational culture and climate (pp. 417-436). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
Sagiv, L., & Schwartz, S. H. (2007). Cultural values in organisations: Insights for Europe.
European Journal of International Management, 1, 176-190.
Schoorman, F. D., & Ballinger, G. A. (2006). Leadership, trust and client service in veterinary
hospitals (Unpublished working paper). West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University.
Schoorman, F. D., Mayer, R. C., & Davis, J. H. (2007). An integrative model of organizational
trust: Past, present, and future. Academy of Management Review, 32, 344-354.
Downloaded from jab.sagepub.com at Universiti Utara Malaysia on March 25, 2016
63
Agote et al.
Seo, M.-G., Taylor, M. S., & Hill, N. S. (2007, August). The role of affect and leadership during radical organizational change. Proceedings of the Academy of Management Annual
Meeting, USA, 1-6. doi:10.5465/AMBPP.2007.26530920
Smollan, R. K. (2006). Minds, hearts and deeds: Cognitive, affective and behavioral responses
to change. Journal of Change Management, 6, 143-158.
Smollan, R. K., & Sayers, J. G. (2009). Organizational culture, change and emotions: A qualitative study. Journal of Change Management, 9, 435-457.
Smollan, R. K., Sayers, J. G., & Matheny, J. A. (2010). Emotional responses to the speed, frequency and timing of organizational change. Time & Society, 19, 28-53.
Sresen, O. H., & Hasle, P. (2009). The importance of trust in organizational change. In P. O.
Saksvik (Ed.), Prerequisites for healthy organizational change (pp. 10-20). Beijing, China:
Bentham Books.
Stam, K. R., & Stanton, J. M. (2010). Events, emotions, and technology: Examining acceptance
of workplace technology changes. Information Technology & People, 23, 23-53.
Stone, M. (1974). Cross-validatory choice and assessment of statistical predictions. Journal of
the Royal Statistical Society, 36, 111-147.
Szabla, D. B. (2007). A multidimensional view of resistance to organizational change: Exploring
cognitive, emotional, and intentional responses to planned change across perceived change
leadership strategies. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 18, 525-558.
Thibaut, J., & Walker, L. (1975). Procedural justice: A psychological analysis. Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Trice, H. M., & Beyer, J. M. (1993). The cultures of work organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Turnbull, S. (2002). The planned and unintended emotions generated by a corporate change
program. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 4, 22-38.
Ulrich, D. (1997). Human resource champions: The next agenda for adding value and delivering results. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Vince, R. (2006). Being taken over: Managers emotions and rationalizations during a company
takeover. Journal of Management Studies, 43, 343-365.
Walumbwa, F. O., Avolio, B. J., Gardner, W. L., Wernsing, T. S., & Peterson, S. J. (2008).
Authentic leadership: Development and validation of a theory-based measure. Journal of
Management, 34, 89-126.
Weiss, H. M., & Cropanzano, R. (1996). Affective events theory: A theoretical discussion
of the structure, causes and consequences of affective experiences at work. Research in
Organizational Behavior, 18, 1-74.
Wong, C. A., & Cummings, G. G. (2009). The influence of authentic leadership behaviors on
trust and work outcomes of health care staff. Journal of Leadership Studies, 3, 6-23.
Wong, C. A., Laschinger, H. K. S., & Cummings, G. G. (2010). Authentic leadership and
nurses voice behaviour and perceptions of care quality. Journal of Nursing Management,
18, 889-900.
Zamahani, M., Ghorbani, V., & Rezaei, F. (2011). Impact of authentic leadership and psychological capital on followers trust and performance. Australian Journal of Basic and
Applied Sciences, 5, 658-667.
Zhu, W., May, D. R., & Avolio, B. J. (2004). The impact of ethical leadership behavior on
employee outcomes: The roles of psychological empowerment and authenticity. Journal of
Leadership & Organizational Studies, 11, 16-26.
Zhu, W., Newman, A., Miao, Q., & Hooke, A. (2013). Revisiting the mediating role of trust
in transformational leadership effects: Do different types of trust make a difference?
Leadership Quarterly, 24, 94-105.
Downloaded from jab.sagepub.com at Universiti Utara Malaysia on March 25, 2016