Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Educational Management
Administration & Leadership
2015, Vol. 43(5) 673692
The Author(s) 2014
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DOI: 10.1177/1741143214535742
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Abstract
This paper attempts to identify leadership practices and qualities of school teachers as they
engaged in effecting change initiated by a curriculum reform in Hong Kong. Based on interview data
of teachers from nine schools, this paper shows how teacher leadership manifested itself in
schools. Three approaches to teacher leadership were identified, each delineating how teacher
leaders approached the implementation task as a compliance exercise, an adaptive exercise, or as
a capacity building exercise. This paper confirms that different levels of teacherleader engagement
in professional enquiries constitute different teacher leadership practices, which have differential
impacts on teaching and learning practices and the effectiveness of school improvement efforts.
Implications for developing teacher leadership in schools are discussed.
Keywords
Teacher leadership, curriculum reform, secondary school, Hong Kong
Introduction
Conventional understanding of school leadership has perceived the role of the principal to be the
primary source of educational expertise and the leadership function in the school to be residing
primarily with the principal. In recent years, there has been a change in leadership thinking from
an emphasis on one-person leadership to recognition of the potential of shared leadership
(Fletcher and Kaufer, 2003; Jackson, 2000; Katzenmeyer and Moller, 2009; Lambert,
2002; Marks and Printy, 2003). In school organizations, one of the manifestations of shared leadership is the development of teacher leadership (Muijs and Harris, 2003). There has been an
increasing recognition that the well of teacher talents provides a powerful knowledge base for
driving change and bringing about improvement in schools (Fullan, 2007; Murphy, 2005).
Since the 1980s, teachers have been consistently expected to take on the role of leaders in
educational improvement (Lieberman and Friedrich, 2010; York-Barr and Duke, 2004).
Corresponding author:
Edith Lai, Faculty of Education, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
Email: elai@cuhk.edu.hk
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In Hong Kong, the most recent reform of the senior secondary curriculum has been an important
priority in the educational development of the territory (Education and Manpower Bureau, 2005).
Implemented in 2009, the new senior secondary curriculum aims to provide a broad, balanced and
diversified curriculum to promote students whole-person development and to develop their lifelong
learning capabilities. The changes are unprecedented and wide-scale, spanning across all key learning areas, and they are likely to affect learning and teaching and the organizational conditions of
schools in a profound manner. The reform initiatives call for teachers active participation and collaboration in making curricular and pedagogical decisions to provide quality learning for students.
Review of the teacher leadership literature shows that little is known about how teacher leadership
manifests itself in action (Muijs and Harris, 2006). In particular, such investigation is scarce in Asian
societies. Only a few studies on teacher leadership have been undertaken locally (e.g. Law et al.,
2007, 2010). This gap in the research leads to the focus of this paper, which sets out to examine how
teacher leaders interact with other teachers around curricular and pedagogical problems in professional enquiries to bring about change in schools, and to characterize different levels of teacher
leader engagement in professional enquiries. These objectives are researched in terms of two
questions: how do teacher leaders interact with other teachers around curricular and pedagogical
problems in professional enquiries to implement the new senior secondary curriculum? and what
are the different levels of teacherleader engagement in such professional enquiries? In addressing the above questions, this paper argues that different levels of teacherleader engagement in
professional enquiries constitute different teacher leadership practices, which will have differential
impacts on teaching and learning practices and the effectiveness of school improvement efforts.
This paper contributes to the literature by advancing a typology of teacher leadership approaches,
which will stimulate local and international discussions on thinking about teacher leadership.
Theoretical contexts
Teacher leadership is not a new concept. Teachers have long been considered leaders in classrooms, where they enjoy high levels of autonomy in making instructional decisions and initiating
activities. In recent years, new understandings of teacher leadership captured in the idea of teacher
leadership beyond the classroom have gained prominence. It is generally believed that education
reform initiatives of the 1980s, which called for teachers active participation in school development and governance, have been nurturing grounds for an expanded view of teacher leadership
(Murphy, 2005; York-Barr and Duke, 2004). The shift of emphasis from teacher leadership within
the classroom to teacher leadership beyond the classroom suggests that teacher leadership roles are
no longer confined within classroom walls, and that teacher expertise has been increasingly recognized as an important part of schools collective power that should be more fully capitalized on to
bring about educational improvement.
A review of the teacher leadership literature shows that there is a lack of a clear, agreed-upon
definition of teacher leadership. Based on a review of studies that examine teacher leadership (see
the collection of studies in York-Barr and Duke (2004)), York-Barr and Duke (2004: 287288) put
forward an integrated definition of teacher leadership as the process by which teachers, individually or collectively, influence their colleagues, principals, and other members of school communities to improve teaching and learning practices with the aim of increased student learning and
achievement. This definition highlights important facets of the concept.
First, teacher leadership can be individually or collectively based. This property is in line with
the distinction made between formal and informal teacher leadership in the literature (e.g. Danielson,
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2007; Muijs and Harris, 2007; Murphy, 2005; York-Barr and Duke, 2004). The general thrust of
various authors distinctions has been to conceptualize formal teacher leadership as role-based
and informal teacher leadership as community-based (Murphy, 2005). More specifically, formal
teacher leaders gain their legitimacy through assigned roles or positions (e.g. department chairs,
team leaders, mentor teachers), whereas informal teacher leaders gain their influence through earning
respect from students and colleagues through their expertise and practice (e.g. teachers taking the
initiative to solve instructional problems, model new instructional strategies or articulate visions for
improvement). Murphy (2005) highlighted formal teacher leadership as a planned, competitive
and individualistic enterprise focusing predominantly on administrative activities and managerial
functions; and informal teacher leadership as an emergent, collaborative and collective enterprise
focusing predominantly on issues related to learning and teaching.
Second, teacher leadership is transformational in nature. Burns (1978) distinguished between a
transactional approach and a transformational approach to leadership. Transactional leadership
focuses on maintaining the schools systems and structures to attain effectiveness, whereas transformational leadership focuses on changing the culture of the school and developing its capacity to innovate
to bring about school improvement (Day et al., 2000). In practice, teacher leaders aim at improving
the instructional and cultural environments of schools through inspiring others in the school community
to work in professional collaborative relationships to improve teaching and learning practices.
Third, teacher leadership functions in communities of practice. As Wenger (1998: 7) pointed
out, when people congregate in virtual spaces and develop shared ways of pursuing their common
interests, communities of practice come into being. When teachers lead, they engage colleagues
and other members of a school community in examining individual and collective teaching practices and the schools programs and policies, and in making decisions with the aim of improved
educational practices and student learning (OHair and Reitzug, 1997). Such joint enquiries have
been found to be central to teacher leadership work (Lambert, 2002; Murphy, 2005).
Fourth, teacher leadership supports school development at different levels. At the student level,
the ultimate goal of teacher leadership is to promote student learning, which is to be achieved
through improved teaching and learning practices. At the teacher level, teacher leadership has been
found to be closely linked to teacher development. Poekert (2012) found that teacher leadership is
both a cause and outcome of teacher development. More specifically, development of teacher leadership requires effective teacher development, and teacher leadership creates opportunities for
teacher learning and development for both teacher leaders and their colleagues. At the school level,
the collective fund of improved teacher knowledge, skills and dispositions constitutes the schools
overall capacity. York-Barr and Duke (2004) described similar development foci of teacher leadership work, namely individual development, collaboration or team development, and organizational development. Muijs and Harris (2003) reviewed research studies investigating the
relationship between teacher leadership and student, teacher and other school outcomes, and concluded that evidence from the literature points towards beneficial effects of teacher leadership on
students, teachers and schools (see the collection of studies in Muijs and Harris (2003)).
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One of the early conceptualizations of teacher leadership was put forward by Moller and Katzenmeyer (1996: 5), who pointed out that teachers assume leadership responsibilities, when they interact
with other adults in the school community around school reform efforts, encourage others to improve
their professional practice, or learn together with their school colleagues. In the Teachers as Leaders
Framework proposed by Crowther et al. (2009), teacher leadership work comprises six elements: (1)
conveying conviction about a better world; (2) facilitating communities of learning; (3) striving for
pedagogical excellence; (4) confronting barriers in the schools culture and structures; (5) translating
ideas into sustainable systems of action; and (6) nurturing a culture of success. These six elements,
together with 16 associated descriptors, are intended to capture how teacher leaders exercise influence
in their school communities. In a study aimed at illuminating the different ways in which teacher leadership manifests itself in schools, Muijs and Harris (2007: 113) operationalized teacher leadership as
increased teacher participation in decision-making, and opportunities for teachers to take initiative
and lead school improvement. Further, in a study on how teachers learn to exercise informal leadership in the schools and districts where they work, Hunzicker (2012) developed a conceptual framework
for studying informal teacher leadership based on Danielsons (2007) framework for teaching. In this
framework, informal teacher leadership is described by three components, namely participating in a
professional community, growing and developing professionally, and showing professionalism, and
their respective associated elements. Locally, Law et al. (2010) identified the key characteristics of
effective teacher leadership development activities, which highlight the important qualities of teacher
leadership work as: (1) being problem-based, focusing on student learning enhancement; (2) taking
place in learning-centred communities where members learn through interaction as equals, collaboration and participation in decision-making processes; (3) involving social interaction that is open and
reflective in nature; (4) enquiry-based; and (5) aimed at bringing about sustained cultural change and
lifelong learning.
Taken together, the above conceptualizations suggest that teacher leadership consists of three
major acts, namely teacher participation in educational improvement endeavours, teacher learning
in communities of practice and teacher influence beyond the classroom. Based on the five conceptualizations of teacher leadership described above, the act of participating in educational improvement endeavours can be understood as comprising practices such as: interacting with other school
members around school reform efforts, striving for pedagogical excellence, confronting barriers in
the schools culture and structures, translating ideas into actions, participating in decision-making,
taking the initiative and leading school improvement. The act of learning together in communities
of practice comprises practices such as learning together with colleagues, collaborating with colleagues, facilitating communities of learning, growing and developing professionally and being
enquiry-based. The act of extending influence beyond the classroom comprises practices such
as encouraging others to improve their professional practice, nurturing a culture of success and
demonstrating professionalism.
What is it about the activities identified above that constitutes leadership rather than collaborative development activities in which teachers have long participated, such as curriculum development activities in which teachers work collaboratively to develop school-based subject curricula?
In a recent review of the teacher leadership literature, Muijs and Harris (2003: 439) found empowerment and agency to be at the core of the concept of teacher leadership.
The conceptualization of teacher leadership as teacher empowerment has been frequently highlighted
in the literature (e.g. Boles and Troen, 1996; Childs-Bowen et al., 2000; Danielson, 2006; Kahrs, 1996;
Lieberman and Friedrich, 2010). Pearce and Conger (2003) contended that empowerment, which
emphasizes the decentralization of power, is a necessary but not sufficient condition for the development
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of shared leadership and that, for shared leadership to happen, it also requires that the empowered individuals or collectives be actively engaged in the leadership process. Teacher empowerment entails the
sharing of power by principals with their schools teachers, which gives teachers legitimacy to take on
leadership roles and to participate in the leadership process, such as initiating new practices and mobilizing other teachers to join them with the goal of improved teaching and learning practices.
The concept of human agency has been widely discussed in the literature (Campbell, 2012;
Priestley et al., 2012). According to Campbell (2012: 183), the state of agency enables individuals
to make free or independent choices, to engage in autonomous actions, and to exercise judgment in
the interests of others and oneself. In terms of capacity for agency, teacher leaders can be distinguished
from other teachers by their display of high capacity for agency in particular situations. Two notable
examples of teacher leaders agentic activities are taking decisions and initiating activities, which are
central to the operational definition of teacher leadership put forward by Muijs and Harris (2007).
Taken further, teacher leaders capacity for agency is in part constituted by their expertise or knowledge. Many writers of teacher leadership have characterized teacher leaders as expert teachers or
accomplished teachers (e.g. Crowther et al., 2009; Muijs and Harris, 2003). Tsui (2009) found that
expert teachers engage in exploration and experimentation in teaching and learning, in problematizing
the unproblematic, and in tasks that challenge teachers to extend their competence.
Empowerment and agency are two distinctive qualities of teacher leadership, which distinguish
teacher leadership activities from teacher collaborative development activities.
A major review of teacher leadership research shows that studies have largely focused on characteristics of teacher leaders, the type of work they do and conditions that support their work; and that
leadership from formal teacher leadership positions has received most research attention (see the collection of studies in York-Barr and Duke, 2004). A more recent review of teacher leadership research
undertaken by Poekert (2012) echoes most of the findings reported in the York-Barr and Duke (2004)
review. An important focus in existing teacher leadership research has been to fill the knowledge gap in
how teacher leaders exercise leadership to make an impact on teaching and learning practices.
Against this background, this paper is contextualized within the informal type of teacher leadership, focusing on how classroom teachers enact leadership through interacting with other teachers
around curricular and pedagogical problems in professional enquiries in the process of implementing
a new curriculum in schools. This paper contributes to the literature by providing evidence of teacher
leadership in action and suggesting a typology of teacher leadership practices in schools. The findings provide further suggestions for capitalizing on teacher resources in a context of change.
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Data collection
A focus group interview is an interview with a small group of people on a specific topic (Patton,
2002: 385). Punch (2005) described a focus group interview as a particular type of group interview.
Focus group interviews are distinguished from group interviews by their nature of being focused.
Patton (2002: 388) pointed out that the power of focus groups resides in their being focused.
More specifically, in focus group interviews the topics being discussed are specific and narrowly
targeted, the participants have similar backgrounds, the researchers facilitation is directed to keeping responses on-target, the interactions among participants take place around specific topics and
the use of time is carefully monitored (Patton, 2002).
Focus group interviews were adopted to collect the practices of teacher leaders as they interacted
with other teachers around curricular and pedagogical problems in professional enquiries to bring
about change. Focus group interviews are an effective means of understanding peoples thoughts, perceptions and meanings. Conducted in group situations, focus group interviews afford the opportunity
for multiple interactions among all participants in the group (Krueger, 1994: 100), which can stimulate people in making explicit their views, perceptions, motives and reasons (Punch, 2005: 171) and
enhance data quality through checks and balances provided by the participants on each other (Patton,
2002). The object is to gain a rich description of teachers leadership practices and an in-depth understanding of teachers thoughts, perceptions and meanings underpinning their leadership work.
In each school, participating teachers attended a focus group interview to have a focused and indepth discussion of their leadership work. These interviews took place in the second semester of
the first-year implementation of the new senior secondary curriculum when schools had gone
through the first eight months of the implementation process. The structure of the interview was
given by the following themes: curriculum planning, learning and teaching strategies, catering for
learner diversity, internal assessment strategies, managing change, student learning in the new
senior secondary curriculum and critical issues, schools needs and concerns.
Before beginning each interview, the interviewer explained clearly to the participants that the
interview was not evaluative and that the aim was to find out what teachers did to help other teachers improve teaching and learning practices to bring about change in schools. During the interviews, the participants were very often asked to clarify their answers, to give the interviewer a
deeper understanding of teachers leadership practices. All interviews lasted more than one hour.
They were audio-taped and later transcribed.
Data analysis
Data were analysed using the Miles and Huberman framework for qualitative data analysis (Miles
and Huberman, 1994). The authors engaged in three concurrent activities that constantly interacted
with each other to shape the data analysis: data reduction, data display and conclusion drawing.
This study investigates the leadership practices of informal teacher leaders. These teacher leaders are classroom teachers who do not hold formal positional roles, yet on their own initiative they
work with colleagues to respond to school needs or opportunities for improving teaching and learning (Danielson, 2006). A synthesized view of teacher leadership, based on the work of Moller and
Katzenmeyer (1996), Crowther et al. (2009), Muijs and Harris (2007), Danielson (2007) and Law
et al. (2010), which encompasses the three major acts of teacher leadership (namely participating
in educational improvement endeavours, learning together in communities of practice and extending influence beyond the classroom), was brought in as a sensitizer to inform the data analysis. In
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addition, Muijs and Harris (2007: 115) operational definition of teacher leadership as involvement in decision making and ability to initiate activities, which encompasses two major agentic
activities of teacher leaders, was brought in as a sensitizer in the data analysis.
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In School 9, two teachers of the English Language subject team saw the need to develop schoolbased schemes of work for the three elective modules (Learning English through Short Stories,
Learning English through Social Issues and Learning English through Workplace Communication) to be offered. They took the initiative to attend professional development courses conducted
by the Education Bureau of Hong Kong SAR government on topics related to curriculum planning,
pedagogy and assessment for the elective module Learning English through Short Stories. Based
on the materials they had collected from different sources, including textbooks from different publishers, they developed a preliminary scheme of work for the Short Stories module. They presented the scheme of work to colleagues in the English Language subject team, received their
feedback, revised the scheme and made the revised version available to their colleagues. Throughout the process, they emphasized that it was important to follow closely the curriculum framework
laid down by the Education Bureau.
In another example, in School 7, three teachers from the Chinese Language subject team recognized the need to learn about the rationale, design principles and content of the three elective modules to be offered. They took the initiative to attend professional development courses conducted
by the Education Bureau. On returning to their school, they held a meeting to share the information
with their colleagues who would be teaching elective modules and to make suggestions to them on
how to approach the elective modules in lesson planning and delivery. The three teachers emphasized the importance of following the official guidelines closely when designing and implementing
elective modules in the Chinese language.
In the face of change, teacher leaders tended to adhere to curriculum options found to be suitable or feasible, and chose to drop those found to be opposing this.
For example, in planning the elective module curriculum, a Biology teacher in School 1 saw the
constraints in offering students a free choice of elective modules, considering the availability of
teacher expertise and students ability levels. She took the initiative to study the curriculum
requirements of the four available elective modules (Human Physiology, Applied Ecology,
Microorganism and Humans and Biotechnology). She proposed to the subject team that elective
module offering be bundled and that only Human Physiology and Applied Ecology be offered,
and the other two be dropped, as she found the contents of these modules more life-related and
students would find them easier to handle.
In another example, a Biology teacher in School 4 volunteered to look into the possibility of
offering the elective modules Microorganism and Humans and Biotechnology. Based on a
rough calculation of the costs of setting up laboratories for these two modules, he suggested to the
subject team that it was not financially viable to do so.
It costs at least $100,000 to set up a microbiology laboratory. It is even more expensive to set up a biotechnology lab where equipment will cost a few thousands to ten thousands. We cannot afford to buy a
full set of equipment for each student. (School 4, Biology Teacher)
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had difficulty following the packed curriculum. He initiated a discussion on the issue at a subject
team meeting and put forward his views. Diverse views were received at the meeting. While some
teachers shared his views, others were concerned that the content that was not covered would be
asked in the public examination. The issue was resolved by giving individual teachers the autonomy to decide whether to cover selected topics or all the topics.
In School 9, a Liberal Studies teacher recognized that academically weak students had difficulty
applying what they had learned in research methods classes in developing research plans for their
Independent Enquiry Studies (IES) (a research component of the Liberal Studies curriculum) projects. This teacher raised the problem she had encountered in teaching IES with other IES teachers
and involved them in a discussion on how to address the problem. Collectively, these teachers
came to a decision that they would limit the teaching of research methods to a few common ones
to help students acquire basic research skills necessary for pursuing IES in the subject.
Teacher learning
Among these teacher leaders, attending professional development courses provided by the Education Bureau was the dominant mode of teacher development. Generally, they expressed a view that
attending these government-run courses was a must to understand the requirements and implementation procedures of their respective new senior secondary subject curricula.
Teacher influence
These teacher leaders were found to rely heavily on curricular and pedagogical guidance provided
by external sources of expertise. This observation is supported by the following findings.
First, as mentioned earlier, these teacher leaders emphasized the importance of attending
government-run professional development courses, with the aim of understanding the official
version of the what and how of the curriculum reform.
Second, these teacher leaders relied heavily on textbooks for curricular and pedagogical
guidance, as exemplified by the view expressed by a teacher leader from School 7.
The curriculum guide provides only a brief outline of contents. And then the textbooks from different
publishers are problematic. They show differential treatments of the contents. Some textbooks treat
some topics in much greater depth than others. In that case, we are not sure how far we should go
in those topics or when we should stop. (School 7, Chinese History Teacher)
Third, these teacher leaders always made strong demands for straight answers from government
officials on what should be done and how things should be done in the implementation process, as
exemplified by the view expressed by a teacher leader from School 3.
People from the Education Bureau came to our school to demonstrate classroom teaching. We asked
them questions but they did not give us straight answers. Instead they told us to choose our own teaching materials. I really find it ridiculous. Also, we asked them how to grade students work. They gave
us very vague answers. It seems they have not finalized the details before asking us to implement the
change. (School 3, Chemistry Teacher)
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Second, teacher leaders changed the organization of the timetable. For example, in School 5, a
Religious Education teacher saw the need to introduce experiential learning to students earlier in
their junior secondary studies to prepare them for further work in the subject at the senior secondary level. In doing so, she put forward students experiential learning experience.
Third, teacher leaders changed the organization of people. For example, in School 5, a Mathematics
teacher who taught two classes of very different ability levels felt strongly that students had to be
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screened before they could be admitted to advanced studies in the two elective modules. He proposed
to the subject team that only students who had attained good results in the general Mathematics curriculum could be allowed to enrol in the two elective modules. The proposed enrolment arrangement
was endorsed by teachers in the subject team and subsequently put in place in the school.
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to work with different classmates. To make sure that students produced original work in their individual laboratory reports, teachers would pay close attention to the collaborative components in their
laboratory work, to guard against the possibility of plagiarism.
Teacher learning
Apart from enrolling in government-run professional development courses and postgraduate-level
courses offered by local universities, these teacher leaders learned through participating in communities of practice within their schools.
For example, in School 9, a teacher leader from the Liberal Studies subject team reported that
she and other teachers on the team attained mutual understanding through frequent exchanges
amongst themselves on views of Liberal Studies teaching, choice of social issues to be used in
teaching and ways of achieving standardized assessment practices. Another teacher leader from
the Chinese Language subject team found that the opportunity to engage in frequent exchanges
with other teachers on the team about problems encountered in teaching and areas in need of
improvement, formally when they met in collaborative lesson planning sessions or informally during school days, had helped her advance her professional knowledge and practices.
In another example, in School 4, a teacher leader from the Chinese Language subject team
shared what she had learned in external professional development courses with her team members
and offered her views on curriculum planning. Another teacher leader from the Liberal Studies
subject team reported that he had developed strong working relationships with other teachers on
the team and that he had learned through collaborating with others in planning lessons, developing
teaching materials and sharing teaching resources.
In a further example, in School 5, a teacher leader from the Chinese Language subject team
reported that she and other teachers had developed a strong team and they often worked together
to find ways to help students deal with difficult content and to deal with problems caused by
increased workload and insufficient lesson time. Another teacher leader from the English Language subject team reported that she had learned through collaborating with other teachers on the
team in planning lessons and developing teaching materials.
Teacher influence
These teacher leaders extended their influence beyond the classroom through teacher collaboration
that took place within schools. Teacher collaboration was most prominent at the subject level, in
which teachers of the same subjects worked collaboratively to plan their new senior secondary subject curricula, to standardize assessment practices, and to address the issue of increased learner
diversity. Through these joint activities, these teacher leaders interacted with fellow teachers to
identify and clarify their teaching problems, seek out information needed to deal with the problems, propose and implement solutions, evaluate implemented solutions, and come up with
improved responses to their teaching problems.
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teacher leaders tended to adjust curricular structures and pedagogical practices to facilitate student
learning and delivery of the new curriculum. These teacher leaders also recognized the value of learning through interaction in communities of practice, and they reached out to their colleagues in their
professional development efforts. There is evidence that these teacher leaders and other teachers
advanced their professional knowledge and practices when they interacted with each other in communities of practice. In addition, it was found that teacher collaboration was a prominent feature. In such
joint activities, these teacher leaders and other teachers worked with, learned from, supported and
influenced each other to improve curricular and pedagogical practices. These teacher leadership practices are characteristic of an adapting approach, in which implementation work was treated as an adaptive exercise aimed at achieving the planned goals within existing structures and systems.
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teaching of weak classes. The subject team decided to put forward a proposal to the school management
on the arrangement of co-teaching to provide more learner support to classes of weaker students.
In another example, in five schools (Schools 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5), teachers saw the following problem: a lack of internal expertise tended to limit the offering of elective subjects. They took the initiative to explore with their schools the possibility of soliciting the assistance of external service
providers in running classes, including drama classes for an elective module in English Language
and classes on examination-taking skills, thus increasing the opportunities for students to learn.
In a further example, teachers in four schools (Schools 1, 5, 6 and 9) perceived the problem of insufficient lesson time. They took the initiative to explore with other teachers the possibility of running
supplementary lessons after school, at weekends and during long holidays. In doing so, they worked
to extend the school day and school year to increase time resources for delivering the curriculum.
In the above examples, teacher leaders perceived possibilities in how human and time resources
could be re-deployed and turned those possibilities into valuable resources to support teaching and
learning.
Teacher learning
Apart from recognizing the powerful potential for advancing teacher learning brought by
teachers participation in communities of practice in their own school contexts, these teacher
leaders were notable for their efforts in seeking and exploiting external resources to support
teacher learning.
For example, in School 1, some Liberal Studies teachers found that they needed to equip
themselves with the knowledge and skills for implementing IES (which is intended to be a
self-directed experience for students). They took the initiative to participate in district workshops, where they shared their schools experience in implementing IES and listened to sharing
by Liberal Studies teachers from other schools in the district. They also participated in a simulation activity in which they took on the role of students in formulating research questions and
developing research plans for their IES projects. These teachers found that the activity had given
them a first-hand experience in going through the major steps in doing IES projects, which
enabled them to see students difficulties in a different light. On returning to their school, these
teachers worked together to develop lesson plans for teaching IES based on their experience in
the district workshops. They tried out their plans in their own classrooms, made their plans available to other Liberal Studies teachers who had not attended the district workshops and encouraged them to try out the plans in their IES teaching, and invited teachers feedback for refining
the plans. Through these exchanges that took place both inside and outside the school, these Liberal Studies teacher leaders and other Liberal Studies teachers of the school developed a better
understanding of the implementation of IES.
In another example, in School 2, some Liberal Studies teachers found participation in school development projects to be a venue for advancing professional knowledge and practices. They took the initiative to join a government-funded school-support project in which blocks of time were set aside for
these teachers to come together to plan the subject curriculum and to develop instructional plans and
materials collaboratively, with the support of external curriculum or subject specialists. During the
course of the project, these teachers presented to other Liberal Studies teachers for comment their
interim project outputs, which included curriculum plans and instructional plans and materials. The
final project outputs were also made available to teachers in the Liberal Studies subject team.
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Teacher influence
These teacher leaders extended their influence beyond their schools through networking with teachers from other schools. In these extended professional networks, these teacher leaders and others
engaged in enquiries around common curricular and pedagogical problems to find improved
responses to these problems. For instance, the data show that Liberal Studies teachers had been generally concerned about the planning and delivery of IES. In Schools 1 and 2, these concerns provided
the driving force for Liberal Studies teacher leaders to join district professional networks, in which
they clarified the problems related to the implementation of IES, shared their own implementation
experiences and listened to others success experiences. In these extended professional networks,
teachers engaged in extensive exchanges of experiences, ideas and resources, and appropriated relevant resources to formulate action plans to address problems in their own school contexts.
Discussion
The analysis of data shows that teachers leadership practices can be captured in three approaches
that represent increasing sophistication in teachers participation in curricular and pedagogical
decision-making, their professional development efforts and their efforts in extending teacher
influence for school improvement. Table 1 presents a summary of the characteristics of the three
teacher leadership approaches, which shows that the level of teacherleader engagement in the
three major acts of teacher leadership (that is, teacher participation, teacher learning and teacher
influence) differs among the three approaches.
The typology of different teacher leadership approaches adds to the literature in two major ways.
First, the typology is based on a synthesized view of teacher leadership that tries to encompass
the components and elements of major conceptualizations of teacher leadership advanced in the
literature (including Crowther et al., 2009; Hunzicker, 2012; Moller and Katzenmeyer, 1996; Law
et al., 2010; Muijs and Harris, 2007). Using this synthesized view of teacher leadership as a theoretical lens, the present study generated findings that tend to extend our understanding of teacher
leadership practices. For instance, a seldom discussed aspect of teacher participation was revealed
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Adapting approach
Capacitating approach
in the analysis of data. By looking into the different ways in which teacher leaders participated in
educational improvement endeavours, the present study shows that capacitating teacher leaders
confronted contextual constraints by exploring and exploiting new possibilities in and around the
school contexts to support school improvement.
Second, the typology offers a different perspective on teacher leadership practices. In a recent
study on teacher leadership in action, Muijs and Harris (2007) examined the extent of teacher
involvement in decision-making and in initiating activities, and proposed three types of teacher
leadership. Developed teacher leadership is characterized by the involvement of all teachers in
decision-making in the school and strong support for teacher initiative. In the school exhibiting
emergent teacher leadership, there is clear management support for teacher leadership and teacher
initiative, but the degree of teacher involvement in decision-making was limited, with decisionmaking being made mainly at the senior management and middle-manager levels. In the school
exhibiting restricted teacher leadership, teacher leadership was supported as a concept but it was
not actually practised, with the leadership function residing primarily in the senior management
team. The present study differs by examining teacher leadership practices in a context of curriculum change, focusing on what teacher leaders actually did to respond to demands arising from a
curriculum reform. The typology that represents increasing sophistication in teacher participation,
teacher learning and teacher influence offers a different perspective on teacher leadership in action
in a context of educational change, and forms the basis for developing an encompassing conceptual
framework for understanding teacher leadership practices.
Apart from the above, the typology carries a deeper theoretical meaning, which tends to echo
with Honig and Hatchs (2004) notion of coherence. Honig and Hatch (2004) distinguished
between objective and interactive coherence, delineating a static and dynamic view of alignment between external requirements and school policies and practices in a context of education
policy change, respectively. These authors contended that the view of coherence as an objective
outcome is inadequate to address the problem of policy incoherence. The view of coherence as
an interactive process that requires multiple actors both internal and external to schools to work
in interaction to continually craft or negotiate the fit between external demands and schools
own goals and strategies (Honig and Hatch, 2004: 17) offers a powerful conceptual framework
689
for understanding coherence. It takes into account the political and subjective realities (Honig
and Hatch, 2004: 17) of policy implementation that involve the interaction of multiple actors both
internal and external to schools around the pursuit of some school improvement goals.
In the present study, complying teacher leadership practices that focus on meeting the reform
requirements and rely heavily on external guidance for curricular and pedagogical improvement
exhibit characteristics of an objective view of alignment. In contrast, adapting and capacitating
teacher leadership practices exhibit characteristics of an interactive view of alignment. Teacher
leaders adopting the adapting approach make organizational changes to provide favourable school
conditions for student learning and the delivery of the new curriculum, and advance professional
knowledge and practices in communities of practice within the school. The capacitating approach
is distinguished by teacher leaders strong initiative to explore and exploit contextual possibilities
within and beyond the school to support curricular and pedagogical improvement and their engagement in learning in wider communities of practices beyond the school. In both the adapting and
capacitating approaches, there is evidence that teacher leaders interacted with the schools organizational structures, shared values and expectations, and principles of organizing knowledge to
shape the alignment between external demands and the schools internal circumstances. Apparently, interactive teacher leadership practices are more likely to provide a facilitative organizational context for implementing educational change and achieving school improvement goals.
690
At the core of teacher influence is the recognition that teachers intellectual and personal
resources have a unique position in the development of school capacity. Opportunities for teachers
to release their talents and leadership capacity develop the schools capacity to innovate. Murphy
(2005) identified four major elements of communities of practice (namely opportunities for teachers
to co-plan activities, share knowledge and discuss openly, solve problems cooperatively and share
information), which will contribute to teacher development and the development of shared ownership of school reform efforts and collective responsibility towards the achievement of reform goals.
These two outcomes are foundational to the development of teacher influence beyond the classroom.
In view of the great potential of teacher collaboration in communities of practice for teacher learning
and growth, there is a critical need for the creation of systematic, context-sensitive programmes
aimed at supporting teacher learning and acting in communities of practice in schools.
To conclude, the present study reveals the leadership practices and qualities of school
teachers as they engaged in effecting change initiated by a curriculum reform in Hong Kong.
The findings show that teacher leadership practices that are collectively based, aimed at
improving the schools instructional and cultural environments, functioning in communities
of practice, and aimed at supporting school development at different levels (the student,
teacher and school levels) should provide a facilitative organizational context for the implementation of educational change.
The findings of the present study raise further questions, such as: What are the factors explaining the differential manifestations of teacher leadership? What are the contextual conditions that
support the occurrence of complying, adapting and capacitating approaches to teacher leadership?
How does teacher leadership function in communities of practice to bring about improved educational practices and student learning? How do teachers find their preparedness to take on the role of
teacher leaders? The authors look forward to seeing these questions addressed.
Acknowledgments
The research reported in this study was supported by a grant from the Education Bureau of Hong Kong SAR
government. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this paper are those of the
authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Education Bureau.
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Author biographies
Edith Lai is an assistant professor in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Faculty of
Education, The Chinese University of Hong Kong. Her research interest focuses on teacher
leadership, teacher learning, mentoring, and curriculum change and implementation.
Derek Cheung is a professor in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Faculty of Education, The Chinese University of Hong Kong. His research interest focuses on curriculum development, science education and measurement of affective learning outcomes.