Radiometry and Photometry: Units and Conversion Factors

Jurgen R. Meyer-Arendt

Although often colorful and of historical interest, some radiometric and photometric units are redundant
and illogical. The essential units are few in number. These, together with their definitions and conversion factors, are presented here.

The following outline is concerned with definitions,

symbols, units, and conversion factors as they occur,
The
and are helpful, in radiometry and photometry.
situation here is more complex than in other areas of
this is for several reasons. Sometimes,
optics;
different terms are used for identical quantities. Certain terms such as candlepower are ill-conceived.
Others like nox, phot, glim, skot or scot (identical),
bril and brill (different), helios, lumerg, pharos, stilb,
talbot, and blondel may merely delight the historian.

The impending-we hope-general conversion to the

mks system, which should more properly now be referred to as SI, presents us with a unique opportunity
for simplifying some of the basic definitions and units,
although a solution fully satisfying to all may never be
found. The term SI stands for Systbme Interna-

tional-International

System of Units-adopted by the

Eleventh General Conference on Weights and Measures held 11-20 October 1960 in Paris, France, to

which the United States has been a party. In this

paper, only SI units are used, but their relationship to
other units is also shown.
Close cooperation of committees of the International
Commission on Illumination, the International Organi-

zation for Standardization, the International Electrotechnical Commission, and the SUN Commission of
the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics
has resulted in the development of a set of terms and
symbols that is receiving acceptance throughout the
entire world. The symbols in the U. S. A. Standard
Letter Symbols for Illuminating Engineering (USAS

Y10.18-1967) are consistent with the international

agreements that have been reached to date.

These

symbols have been used throughout this paper and

also are summarized in Table I. The symbols,
terms, and notations are also consistent with USAS Z7.
1-1967. Any difference in wording between the definitions in this paper and those in Y10.18-1967 and
Z7.1-1967 does not imply any difference in meaning.
The outstanding features of the symbols used in
Standard Y10.18-1967 are (1) the use of the same set of
symbols for radiometric and photometric quantities,
with the proviso that when there is need to differen-

tiate these quantities subscripts e and v, respectively,

will be used, and (2) the use of a subscript X to designate a spectral concentration and (X)in parentheses to
designate a function of wavelength. In some of the
following equations, and when otherwise obvious, subscripts e and v have been omitted.
Radiant Energy Qe is energy traveling in the form of
electromagnetic waves. The term radiation, although
widely in use, is deprecated because words that end in
-ion should be reserved for processes rather than quan-

tities.
The unit of radiant energy is the joule, J.
Radiant Energy Density we is radiant energy per unit
volume,
W = bQ/v.

Unit:

joule/meter3 , J

Radiant Power

ke,

m-3 .

also called radiant flux, is the ra-

diant energy transferred per unit time, i.e., the time

The author is with Pacific University, Forest Grove, Oregon
97116.
Received 26 October 1967.
This paper was written at the request of the Editor after three or

four shorterpapers on units and nomenclature had been submitted

for publication.

The author was asked to consolidate these other

papers and try to summarize the preferred units.

This paper does

not constitute an official report of a nomenclature committee, but

neverthelessit was widely circulatedin draft form and represents a

reasonableconsensus.

rate of flow of radiant energy:

0 = Qlbt.
Radiant power is measured in the same units as power
in general. Since power = work/time, and work ( =
potential energy) = force X distance, the unit of power
is
1 joule_

1soe=

1 second

1 watt,

W = J s-

October 1968 / Vol. 7, No. 10 / APPLIED OPTICS 2081

Table I.

Radiometric and Photometric Symbols and Units

Symbol
Radiant

Name of unit

Abbreviation of unit

energy

Qe

joule

Luminous energy
Radiant energy density
Luminous energy density

Q"
we
w.

talbot
joule/meter3
talbot/meter 3

J m-<
lm s m-3

Radiant

power (radiant flux)

0e

watt

Luminous power (luminous flux)

Luminous efficacy

0v
K

lumen
lumen/watt

lm
Im W-

Luminous efficiency

Radiant intensity
Luminous intensity

I,

Radiant

Ie

exitance

Me

Luminous exitance
Radiance
Spectral radiance
Luminance
Irradiance
Spectral irradiance

Ml'

Le
Lex
L,
Ee

Ex
Ev

Illuminance

watt/steradian
candela

W sr-'
cd (Im sr-1 )

watt/meter

W m-2

lumen/meter 2
watt/meter 2 -steradian
watt/meter 2 -steradian-nanometer
candela/meter 2
watt/meter 2
watt/meter 2 -nanometer
lumen/meter 2 (lux)

Spectral Radiant Power ox is the radiant power per

unit wavelength interval at wavelength , bo/-X, measured in units of watts/nm.

The mere specification that certain electromagnetic
energy occurs in the visible region of the spectrum says
nothing about the visual effectiveness of that energy.
A blue lamp, for instance, may emit the same radiant
power (in watts) in the visible region as a green lamp,

but the latter will appear brighter because the eye is

more sensitive to green light than to blue light.

In the visible region of the spectrum, radiant energy

lm m-2
W m- 2 sr-'
W m- 2 sr-' nm
cd m-2
W m-2
W m- 2 nm-

im m-2 .

At 555 nm, 1 m is equivalent to 0.00147 ( 1/680)

W; or 1 W, at 555 nm, is equal to 680 m.
In order to use this conversion anywhere else in the

visible spectrum, the proper luminous efficiencymust

be included. For example, the luminous efficiency at
600 nm is 0.63; thus, 1 W of monochromatic light at
that wavelength equals (0.63) (680) = 428 lm; or 1 lm
is equal to 0.00147/0.63 = 0.00233 W. If the source
is not monochromatic, integration is needed.

Outside of the visible part of the spectrum, there can

by definition be no light.

Therefore, the terms, units,

is frequently evaluated with respect to its capacity to

evoke the sensation of brightness. One should always
bear in mind the fundamental difference between radio-

and quantities of photometry do not apply there.

metric and photometric terms. Radiometric terms

ric term luminous energy Q, the product of luminous

apply anywhere in the electromagnetic spectrum.

Photometric terms apply to the visible part of the spectrum only, and if we want to convert radiometric
values into photometric values, and vice versa, we have

to take into account the relative visibility of the light

of the particular wavelength involved. The resulting
curve (Fig. 1) is called the luminous efficiency curve and

the ratio of any photometric unit to its radiometric

equivalent is called the luminous efficacyK. The peak
at 555 nm, the wavelength to which the eye is most
sensitive, is the point of maximum visibility or-preferably-the
maximum value of luminous efficacy for
photopic vision.
Luminous Power 0,.

Photometric

Since radiant energy is the product of radiant power

and time, there should also be a unit for the photometpower and time. This unit is the talbot (1 talbot = 1
lumen-second).
One lumen, hence, is the luminous
power of 1 talbot per second.

Luminous Efficiency V and Luminous Efficacy K.

The term efficiency as applied to visible light has a
meaning similar to that which it has when it is applied
to a machine-it has a maximum value of 1.0 and is
dimensionless. The term efficacy as applied to visible
1.0

U
as
4
U.
U.

terms all have

the adjective luminous. Thus, instead of radiant

power we now have luminous power (luminous flux).
The unit of luminous power is the lumen, m. One
lumen is defined as the luminous power emitted (within
a unit solid angle) by a point source of luminous intensity (defined below) of one candela. In other words, a
point source that radiates uniformly in all directions
with a luminous intensity of 1 candela emits a total of
47r lm.
2082 APPLIED OPTICS / Vol. 7, No. 10 / October 1968

0.5

400

50

600

700nm

WAVELENGTH

Fig. 1. CIE spectral luminous efficiency curve, showing sensitivityof the human eye to different wavelengths of radiant energy.

light is expressed as the quotient of luminous power

(output) to power consumed (input) and has the unit of
lumen per watt, lm W- 1.

This may take two forms: radiant exitance Me, with

the unit watt/meter2 , W m-2 , and luminous exitance
M,, with the unit lumen/meter2 , m m-2.

Radiant Intensity e is defined as the radiant power

proceeding from a point source per unit solid angle in
the direction considered,

Radiance Le is defined as the radiant power that

leaves a surface per unit solid angle and unit projected
area of that surface,

I = a/a.

Solid angles are measured in units of steradian, sr. A

unit solid angle, or 1 sr, is defined as the solid angle subtended at the center of a sphere with a radius R = 1
meter by an area of one square meter on its surface.
2
Therefore, since the surface of a sphere is Ao = 4rR ,
4
the total solid angle about a point is w = 7r sr. For
an element of surface dA, which subtends a small solid
angle at a point at distance D from the element of surface, the solid angle is
2
do = dA cosO/D ,

where a is the angle between the normal to the surface

and the direction D.

Unit: watt per steradian, W sr-'.

Luminous Intensity I,,. The equivalent psychophysical term for radiant intensity is luminous intensity.
Here, as in all luminous quantities, lumen takes the
place of watt. The candela, the unit of luminous intensity, is equal to 1 lumen of luminous power per
unit solid angle; thus, 1 candela = 1 lumen/steradian,
(Luminous intensity has sometimes been
lm sr-'.
called candlepower, a name that is misleading since intensity is not power.)
General Conference on
Unit: The Thirteenth
Weights and Measures in October 1967 adopted this
definition of the unit of luminous intensity, the candela,
cd: The candela is the luminous intensity, in the direction
of the normal, of a full radiator (blackbody) surface
1/600,000 square meter in area, at the temperature of
20420 K or
solidification of platinum-approximately
per
newtons
101,325
of
pressure
a
17690C-under
square meter.
Exitance M is defined as the radiant power per unit
area leaving a surface,
M = 60/6A.

Table II.

Number of multiplied by
equals number

( 0)/(A

bX coso) =

I/(aA

coso).

(Note: The term intensity is restricted to a point source,

while radiance also applies to an extended source. In
practice, the finite extent of a source is sometimes neglected if its diameter is less than about 1/20 of the dis-

tance to the irradiated surface.)

The term coso, in which 0 is the angle between the
normal to 6A and the direction of view transforms area
2
-A to projected area. If the amount of flux 6 k that
in
all dibw
angle
solid
in
bA
area
of
element
an
leaves
rections is proportional to cosO, the surface is said to
obey Lambert's law and is often referred to as a Lambertian, or perfectly diffuse radiating (or reflecting or
transmitting) surface. Because the projected area is
also proportional to coso, the radiance of such a perfectly diffuse surface is independent of the direction of
view.
Unit: watt per square meter and steradian, W m-2

sr-'.
Spectral Radiance Lx is the power emitted per unit
projected source area and unit solid angle and unit
wavelength band. It can be expressed in units of

W m- 2 sr- nm-.

Luminance L, is the photometric term corresponding

to radiance. Its unit is candela per square meter, cd
m- 2 (sometimes called nit).
There exist numerous other units of luminance, but
considering the rigor in using cd m- 2 and the advantages of avoiding some decimals or 7rfactors, most of
these are not really essential:
2
2
2
Stilb, candela/cm , cd cm- , equal to 10,000 cd/M , 929.02
2
cd/ft , ir lamberts, or 2.919 X 103 ft-lamberts.

Apostilb (international), equal to 0.1 millilambert, 10-4 lambert,

2
2
2
1 blondel, (1/7r) cd m- , 0.3183 cd m- , 0.00003183 cd/cm , or
(1I/7r) 10O-4stilb.

Conversion Factors for Units of Luminance

cd/m a
(nit)

cd/cm2
(stilb)

cd/ft 2

cd/in2

apostilb
(blondel)

millilambert

footlambert

1
0.0001
0.0929
0.000645
3.1416
0.31416
0.2919

10,000
1
929
6.452
31,416
3141.6
2919

10.764
0.001076
1
0.00694
33.82
3.382
3.1416

1550
0.155
144
1
4869
486.9
452.4

0.3183
0.00003183
0.02957
0.0002054
1
0.1
0.0929

3.183
0.0003183
0.2957
0.002054
10
1
0.929

3.426
0.0003426
0.3183
0.002211
10.764
1.0764
1

of

cd/M2 (nit)a
cd/cm2 (stilb)
cd/ft 2
cd/in2
apostilb (blondel)
millilambert
foot-lambert

a SI unit. The name nit is not in widespread use.

October 1968 / Vol. 7, No. 10 / APPLIED OPTICS 2083

Table IlIl. Conversion Factors for Units of Illuminance

Number of
multiplied by -,,
equals number

Footcandles

lm/m 2
(lux)a

0.0929

lm/m2 (lux)a

10.764

Phot
Milliphot

0.00108
1.076

aSI unit.

929
10,000

0.0001
0.1

1
1,000

Mr

, 0.001076 phot,

phot

The same argument also applies to meter-candle (equal to lux

or lm/m2 ), 10-4 phot, 0.092902foot-candles, lm/ft 2 , and to milecandle, lm/mile2.

0.929

Troland, previously called photon [sic], unit of retinal illuminance, produced by luminance of 1 cd m-2 if the apparent cross
section of the entrance pupil of the eye, corrected for the StilesCrawford effect, is 1 mm2.

Milli-

Phot

of

Foot-candles

Foot-candle, lm/ft 2 , equal to 10.763910lm

lm/cm 2 ; or 1.076 milliphot.

10

0.001
1

The symbol for lux is lx.

Apostilb (German Hefner candle), equal to 0.09 millilambert.

Blondel, equal to (1/7r) [= 0.3183] cd m-' or 0.02957 cd ft- 2 .

Skot, unit of luminance for rod vision, equal to 10-3 apostilb or

The brightness of a surface is not the same as either

irradiance or illuminance. Rather, it can be a function
of illuminance and reflectivity.
Irradiation, and likewise illumination, are processes
of exposing an object to electromagnetic energy for a
given length of time.

3.2 X 10-4 cd m-2.

Lambert,
cd cm

1000 millilambert, equal to (1/7r) cd cm'2, 0.3183

, (1/7r) 104 cm m'2, 3.18 stilb, or 9.29 X 102 ft-lambert.

Millilambert,

equal to 10 apostilb or 0.0003183 cd cm- 2, roughly

equal to 1 ft-lambert.
Microlambert, 0.001 millilambert.
Foot-lambert, equal to 1/7r candle/ft2, 1 lm/ft2, 3.4263 cd m- 2 ,
3.4263 X 10-4 stilb, or 1.1 X 10-3 lambert.
(Table II).

Glim, equal to 10-3 foot-lambert.

Candela/ft2 and candela/inch2 are also deprecated.

Irradiance e is defined as radiant power incident

upon a surface per unit area,

E= 0/bA.
The magnitude of irradiance from a point source follows
the inverse square law: E = I/D , where D is the dis-

tance.
Unit: watts per square meter, W m-2.

Spectral Irradiance E is the power incident per unit

area and per unit wavelength interval, with the unit
W m-2 nm-.
Illuminance E, is the luminous power per unit area
incident on a surface. It is measured in units of lumen/m, Im m-2. The SI name of this unit is lux.
(See Table III.)
Not rigorous in this context are:
W/cm2,
Nox, equal to 10-3 lm/m2 ,
Phot or centimeter-candle, equal to lm/cm 2 , 104 lm/m2, or 929
footcandles.
Foot-candle. This is a rather unfortunate term which seems to
indicate that the luminous intensity in candles is to be multiplied
by a distance, rather than indicating that the unit is defined as the
illuminance

of a surface at a unit distance from a point source of

luminous intensity equal to one candela.

2084 APPLIED OPTICS / Vol. 7, No. 10 / October 1968

If radiant energy is incident on an element of surface

at an energy flow rate 0, and is reflected by the element of surface at a rate Or,the ratio 0kr/0Ois called the
reflectance of the surface. In general, this ratio depends
on the wavelength and state of polarization of the incident energy, and the direction of incidence.
I would like to acknowledge contributions, suggestions, and criticisms from a great many individuals
and organizations. Among these were L. E. Barbrow,

NBS, Washington, D.C.; L. M. Biberman, IDA, Arlington, Va.; \ar. Bodner, Lockheed, Burbank, Calif.;
E. Dews, RAND Corp., Santa Monica, Calif.; R. H.
Ginsberg, Hughes Aircraft, Culver City, Calif.; J. N.
Howard, AFCRL, Bedford, Mass.; D. B. Judd, NBS,
Washington, D.C.; W. M. Lyle, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada; A. G. McNish, NBS, Washington, D. C.; J. C. Richmond, NBS, Washington, D.C.;
C. S. Williams, Texas Instruments, Dallas, Tex.; and

Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N.Y.

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12 July 1960.

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