Grammar Guidebook Breaks Down English

Basic English Grammar
by
Jack Lavin
Introduction
Beyond getting a passing grade, students rarely know why they are studying English grammar. For the student, English grammar
is mostly an aimless collection of noisy details with no higher structure or purpose; it's no wonder students often yawn at any
mention of the subject. Rather than entangling students in rules, English grammar, if approached as a means to a creative ends,
can help the student express their ideas more clearly, concisely, and eloquently.
How can English grammar be presented such that it might motivate students? One approach is to immediately give students a
"big picture" of grammar instead of only details. Such an approach is taken by this book.
For a big picture of English Grammar, a framework is helpful. The framework used in this book is based on a traditional English
grammar structure that has as its highest element the sentence. Beneath the sentence, the building blocks of sentences such as
clauses, phrases, and words (parts of speech) are positioned. The framework looks like this:
Sentences
Clauses
Phrases
Words
Sophisticated sentences are the gateway to memorable and effective academic and artistic prose, and are not only elements that
writers write, but also elements that listeners hear, readers read, and speakers speak. It follows then, that in order to improve in all
aspects of English, one should study the sentence and its constituent elements. Just as a painter uses a palette of colors to create
great paintings, so a writer or speaker can use a palette of words, phrases, clauses and sentences to create great written and spoken
works; just as the art historian and music theorist can see and hear deeper into a painting or piece of music, so the grammatically
trained reader and listener can see and hear more in a written or spoken work. With this framework and logic, the study of
English Grammar now has a purpose and focus.
This book can serve as a review of English grammar. The book is also useful for students and aspiring professional writers of
fiction and nonfiction and is a bridge to the classic works on English style such as Style: Lessons in Clarity and Grace, by
Williams, and the Elements of Style, by Strunk, which are used by professional writers of English around the world.
Table of Contents
Part 1: Parts of Speech
Verbs
Verbs Exercises
Nouns
Nouns Exercises
Pronouns
Pronouns Exercises
Adjectives
Adverbs
Adjectives and Adverbs Exercises

Prepositions
Prepositions Exercises
Conjoiners (includes conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs,

and relative pronouns)
Conjoiners Exercises
Part 3: Punctuation
Part 2: Sentence Structure
Single-Word Sentence Elements

Predicate
Subject
Predicatives
Direct Object
Indirect Object
Modifiers
Element-Function and Part of Speech Table
Single-Word Elements Exercises

Multi-Word Sentence Elements
Clauses
Phrases
Multi-Word Elements Exercises

Sentence Structure
Sentence Patterns
Sentence Types
Multi-Clause Sentences
Compound Sentences
Complex Sentences
Compound-Complex Sentences
Compound Single-Word Elements
Sentence Structure Exercises
Commas with Compound Sentences
Commas with Complex Sentences in which the

Dependent Clause Comes First Commas
with Introductory Prepositional Phrases
Commas with Introductory Adverbs

Commas in Compound-Complex Sentences
Commas with Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives,
or Adverbs in a Series
Commas with Special Phrases
Semi-Colons
Commas Exercises
Apostrophes
Hyphens and Dashes
Quotation Marks
Colons
Parentheses
Square Brackets
Ellipses
Punctuation Exercises
Part 4: Usage
Run-on Sentences
Comma Splices
Sentence Fragments
Shifts in Verb Tense
Passive Voice
Nominalizations
Sentences Ending in Prepositions
Adjective versus Adverb
That versus Who
Since versus Because
The Gots
And/To Swaps with Infinitives
Part 1: Parts of Speech

Verbs
Verbs show actions and states of being. There are four kinds of main verbs as well as various patterns of auxiliary or helping
verbs. The four kinds of main verbs are: forms of the verb to be, linking verbs, transitive verbs, and intransitive verbs.
Lets look at them in order:
Forms of the Verb to be: all conjugations of to be are verbs. Students tend to forget that to be is a verb because it is not
an action. It is a state of being, but conjugations of to be (am, are, were, will be, will have been, etc) are all verbs.
For example:
I am at school.
John will be home soon.
Ginger is a good spice.
Chelsea has been the champion in past seasons.
Linking Verbs: liking verbs are also easy to forget as being verbs because they are not actions either. Linking verbs link nouns
to other nouns (as in the sentence He became president.), and they link nouns to adjectives (as in the sentence He appears
tall.). The linking verbs can be remembered using the acronym BRASSS-G and in remembering the five senses. Here is the
complete list:
BRASSS-G
to Become
to Remain
to Appear
to Seem
to Stay
to Stand
to Grow
The Five Senses

to look
to sound
to smell
to taste
to feel
Here are a few sentences that use linking verbs:

Eric became team captain.
David sounds like he understands the topic.
Sarah feels bad about what she did.
I am growing tired of this.
Transitive Verbs: transitive verbs are the true action verbs. They are transitive because they require a direct object to make
sense. (Remember that the direct object is the person, place, or thingi.e. noun or pronounthat is the recipient of the action of
the transitive verb.) Here are some examples:
Ryan hit the ball. (ball is the direct object)
Meaghan cooked chili. (chili is the direct object)
The President gave a speech to Congress. (speech is the direct object)
My friend told me a secret. (secret is the direct object)
Basic English Grammar 2
Intransitive Verbs: intransitive verbs are also action verbs, but they do not have direct objects. Often, they are followed in
sentences by prepositional phrases (see the section below on prepositions if you do not know or have forgotten what a
prepositional phrase is.) One way to test to see if the verb is intransitive is to remove these prepositional phrases from the
sentence and then see if the sentence is still complete without the prepositional phrase. For example:
I swim at the rec-center.
I swim [at the rec-center.]
Mary danced with William at the Ball.
I swim.
Mary danced [with William at the Ball.]
Mary danced.
These prepositional phrases are important information, but sentences with intransitive verbs are still complete without them.
A Note on Linking Verbs and Transitive Verbs: it can be a little tricky to tell the difference between linking verbs and
transitive verbs. The main way to tell some of these verbs apart is to look for the direct object and to try to figure out if the verb
is active or is a state of being. For example:
The dog smells bad. (here to smell is a linking verb; to smell is linking the dog with the adjective that describes it and
how it smells)
The dog smells the flowers on the way to work. (here to smell is a transitive verb; The dogs act of smelling is acting on
a direct objectin this case, the flowers)
I am growing tired of this. (am growing links me to tired, which is the state of being that I am becoming)
I am growing plants for my science project. (am growing is acting on the plants; thats what I am doing)
Verbs Exercises 1: in the following sentences, label the underlined verbs as (BE) for forms of to be, (LINK) for linking
verbs, (TRANS) for transitive verbs, and (INTRANS) for intransitive verbs.
1.
The Vikings rowed to the monastery.
2.
The Vikings rowed their ships.
3.
I am happy.
4.
We will have been married for two years.
5.
We were married at the church on the corner.
6.
That seems odd.
7.
Dont hit that table!
8.
Barry has given George his equipment.
9.
That smells bad.
10. That stinks.
Verb Conjugation: to conjugate a verb is to change the form of the verb from its infinitive form (to be, to taste, to throw,
to run, etc) into an inflected form. Inflected forms of verbs tell us information about the state of being or action of the verb.
For example, inflections tell us when the verb happened (past, present, or future tense), how many people were involved (verb
agreement with nouns), whether the state of being or action is complete or not (perfect tenses), the mood of the verb (modals like
must or could), and other functions. Learn to see conjugation of the basic verb as well as the addition of any auxiliary verbs,
or helping verbs. Such clusters of verbs can be labeled as verb phrases.
Below is a partial conjugation of to be. Do not try to memorize it; rather, look at it and appreciate the awesome range of
conjugation that happens with this basic verb, and appreciate how awesome (perhaps even miraculous) it is that our brains
can produce such an overwhelming range of conjugations almost automatically.
Person
First
I
Second
You
Third
He, She, It
First-Plural
We
SimplePresent Past
Present Perfect Past Perfect
Simple Future Future Perfect
am
was
have been
had been
will be
will have been
are
were
have been
had been
will be
will have been
is
was
has been
had been
will be
will have been
are
were
have been
had been
will be
will have been
Third- Plural are
were
have been
had been
will be
will have been
They
Person
First
I
Second
You
Third
He, She, It
First-Plural
We
Third- Plural
They
Conditional Present Conditional Past
Present Progressive
Past Progressive
would be
would have been
am being
was being
would be
would have been
are being
were being
would be
would have been
is being
was being
would be
would have been
are being
are being
would be
would have been
are being
are being
Auxiliary or Helping Verbs: auxiliary or helping verbs are added to the main verb in a verb phrase to change the
time, mood, or state of completion of the verb. Here is a list of the most common auxiliary verbs:
Am
Are
Be
Being
Been
Did
Can
Could
Did
Do
Does
Had
Has
Have
Is
May
Might
Must
Shall
Should
Was
Were
Would
Verbs Exercises 2: in the following sentences, underline the complete verb phrase including main verbs and any auxiliary
verbs. They can be anywhere from one to four words. Then, label the verbs as A (auxiliary) or M (main). What do you notice
about the placement of auxiliaries versus main verbs?
1.
Next month, Sam and Sara will have been married for three years.
2.
I do so like green eggs and ham. I do so like them, Sam-I-am.
3.
You must read this carefully.
4.
They had been sure of their answer. However, they realized that they had been wrong.
5.
You should not eat too much.
Verbs Acting as Nouns and Adjectives: there are three forms of verbs that look like verbs but function as nouns or
adjectives. These are gerunds, infinitives, and participles.
Gerunds are verbs ending in -ing that are not a part of a verb phrase, and they can function as noun or adjectives. For example:
Running is fun. (running is functioning as a noun and is the subject of the sentence)
Running water has a nice sound. (running is functioning as an adjective modifying the word water)
Infinitives: infinitives are simple verbs preceded by to, and they can function as nouns or adjectives. For example:
To know me is to love me. (to know me is actually the subject of this sentence, so to know me is functioning as a noun)
He is a good man to know. (to know is modifying man; so its functioning as an adjective)
Participles: participles are verbs with -ed or -en at the end that are not a part of a verb phrase; they function as
adjectives. Interestingly, they can appear before or after the nouns that they modify. For example:
I have the grades required to get into the program. (required is modifying gradesthis sentence should actually read
that are required thus creating a relative clause, but we leave out that are all the time in spoken and written English)
The required assignment was not completed by the student. (required is modifying assignment; completed is part of the
verb phrase functioning as the predicate)
Verbs Exercises 3: in the following sentences, label the underlined gerunds, infinitives, and participles as (N) if they are
functioning as nouns or (ADJ) if they are functioning as adjectives.
1. Running is a fun sport, but to do it is to experience burning pain, weakened muscles, and a broken will.
2.
Swimming, on the other hand, is enlivening and enlightening, and enlightened people love to swim.
(back to the Table of Contents)
Nouns
There are five types of nouns that we need to review: proper, common, concrete, abstract, and possessive. Most nouns can
also fit into more than one of the above categoriesfor example: John is a proper noun, but John is also a concrete noun.
Proper nouns are recognizable because they are capitalized, or when you are writing, you need to capitalize them. In the
following two sentences, the proper nouns are underlined.
John went to Riverside Park, and then he went to Wal-Mart to meet Tony.
Mark is from Omaha, but he now lives in Tonopah, Nevada.
Common Nouns are recognizable because they are not capitalizednor should you capitalize them in your own writing. In the
following two sentences, common nouns have replaced many of the original proper nouns.
John went to the park, and then he went to the store to meet a friend.
Mark is from one city, but he now lives in a town in a different state.
Concrete versus Abstract Nouns: Concrete nouns are concrete (meaning they can be looked at, touched, tasted, felt with the
hands or skin, heard, smelled, in a literal way); whereas, abstract nouns exist only in the mind and can only be felt in the mind
or heart (i.e. love, justice, truth, beauty, hatred, etc.). In the following four sentences, the concrete nouns are underlined and the
abstract nouns are italicized.
John smelled the rose, and its scent was one of beauty.
The hyena smelled like death.
Heavy Metal music is supposed to sound like metal falling on the ground, or else its no good.
Beauty is truth, truth beauty,that is all/ Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know.
(Keats)
Possessive Nouns are just nouns with an apostrophe + s at the endi.e. cats, cats, Johns, Lucindas, The Yankees, etc.
Nouns Exercises 1: in the following three sentences, underline all of the nouns and label them as (P) for proper or (COM) for
common.
1.
My sister and I went to the store to buy some Pampers and some baby formula for her daughter, Lilly. (five common and
two proper).
2.
People once thought that the Earth was the center of the universe, but people now think that they are the center of
the universe. (six common and one proper).
3.
Bill, Deshawn, Juanito, and I will be swimming in the relay together at the meet this Saturday. (two common and four
proper).
Nouns Exercises 2: in the following two sentences, underline all of the nouns and label them as (CON) for concrete or (A) for
abstract.
1.
Mary said that the truth will set us free, but I think that money would work better. (2 concrete and 1 abstract)
2.
Police officers seek justice; teachers seek knowledge; chefs seek flavor; and librarians seek quiet. (7 concrete and 2 abstract).
Verbs and NounsMore Practice: Underline and label the verbs as (BE) for forms of to be, (LINK) for linking verbs, (TRANS)
for transitive verbs, and (INTRANS) for intransitive verbs. Underline all of the nouns and label them as (P) for proper or (COM) for
common and (CON) for concrete or (A) for abstractyes, every noun will have two labels. Also, dont forget about the functions of
participles, gerunds, and infinitives.
Ex: I have eaten the pizza at DeCelios Pizzeria.
Ex: I have
auxiliary
1.
eaten the
transitive
pizza at
common, concrete
DeCelios Pizzeria.
proper, concrete
Love is a wonderful thing.
2.
The sixteen-year-old driver hit a parked car.
3.
Louis will be the teams best linebacker this year.
4.
Louis trains hard.
5.
She became class president.
6.
She hates the silliness at school.
7.
Willy seems good at Mathematics.
8.
The class appears sleepy.
9.
Jake and Esmeralda cooked dinner for homeless people on Saturday night.
10. Eddie swam at the rec-center.

11. I have nothing but hatred for doing chores.
12. To imagine is a blessed activity.
13. Hank jumped over the catcher and landed on home plate.
14. Lilies and roses are things of beauty.
15. The poison that she should not have used on the weeds killed the flowers.
16. That flower smells good.
17. The rolling car must have had a broken parking brake.
18. The defeated boxer, Sweet Ray, sat in the locker room and cried.
19. The champion, DeMarcus The Hammer Williams, defeated him in the sixth round.
20. You should not eat too much.
Pronouns
Pronouns will be the largest class of words that we study in this review because pronouns can function nominally (meaning
they take the place of nouns) or they can function adjectivally (meaning they modify nouns or pronouns). Every pronoun
requires an antecedent (a specific noun to which the pronoun refers or which it renames). Furthermore, the forms that personal
and possessive pronouns take depend on whether they are functioning as subjects, predicatives, or objects (for definitions and
examples of subject, predicative, and object) see the entries in Part 2 of Advanced English Grammar.
Personal Pronouns: personal pronouns take the place of nouns and function nominally (meaning they take the place of nouns).
They have two cases: the Subjective Case for when the pronoun is the subject or predicate noun in the sentence and the
Objective Case for when the pronoun is the object (i.e. direct object, indirect object, or the object of a preposition). For example:
Subjective Case
I
You
He
She
It
We
They
Objective Case
Me
You
Him
Her
It
Us
Them
In the following four sentences, the personal pronouns in the subjective case are underlined and the personal pronouns in the
objective case are italicized.
You must go to the store with them.
He ate it. (it is the direct object here)
She sent it to him. (it is the direct object and him is the object of the preposition to)
They are with me.
Demonstrative Pronouns: demonstrative pronouns function nominally (meaning they take the place of nouns) or
adjectivally (meaning they modify nouns or pronouns). The root word of demonstrative is demonstrate; you can tell if a
word is a demonstrative pronoun by using your pointer finger to demonstrate the demonstrative pronoun. The list of
demonstrative pronouns is: this, that, these, those. That can also function as a relative pronoun, so use your finger test to
make sure you understand how that is working.
In the following three sentences, the demonstrative pronouns are functioning nominally:
This is my car.
Those are my swimmers.
That wont work with these.
In the following three sentences, the demonstrative pronouns are functioning adjectivally:
This car has been sold.
Those swimmers are on the National Team.
That wrench cant work with these engines.
In the following sentence, that is a relative pronoun. It sets up a dependent clause that modifies the word sandwich:
I ate the sandwich [that she brought me.] (that she brought me is a relative clause; it modifies sandwich by telling
the audience which sandwich the speaker atenotice you cant use the finger test for this one)
For more information on relative pronouns, see the entry Relative Pronouns in the section on Conjoiners.
Indefinite Pronouns: indefinite pronouns do not refer to any particular persons or places or things. They replace nouns
without specifying which noun they replace (esldesk.com). Indefinite pronouns function nominally. The list is:
Singular
Plural
Singular or Plural
another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody,

everyone, everything, little, much, neither, nobody, no one,
nothing, one, other, somebody, someone, something
both, few, many, others, several
all, any, more, most, none, some
For example:
Everybody needs somebody.
Many heard something.

Both lost a few.
When you look up many words in the dictionary, they are actually listed as more than one part of speech. In the following three
sentences, the words look like indefinite pronouns, but they are functioning as adjectives:
She needs some new clothes.
Many people heard other stories.
Both men lost a few dollars.
Possessive Pronoun: possessive pronouns are modifiers. If they are modifying a noun, they function adjectivally, but they can
also function nominally.
Adjectival
Forms
My
Your
His
Her
Our
Their
Nominal Forms
Mine
Yours
His
Hers
Ours
Theirs
The following sentences have examples of possessive pronouns functioning adjectivally and nominally:
My house is next to yours.
Their tree hangs over our fence, but ours is still bigger than theirs.
Mine is fancier than hers, but her coat still cost more than his.
Interrogative Pronouns: interrogative pronouns take the place of nouns in questions. Interrogative has the same root-word as
interrogate; therefore, you can remember interrogative pronouns because they interrogatethey ask questions. The list of
interrogative pronouns is: who, whom, whose, what, and which. Be careful: many of these words can also function as
subordinating conjunctions and relative pronouns, so remember that the word has to appear in an interrogative sentence (a
question) for it to function as an interrogative pronoun.
Reflexive Pronouns: reflexive pronouns function as direct objects when the subject and the direct or indirect object are the
same person or thing, or they are used to add emphasis. They are easily recognizable because they end in -self or -selves. In
the following sentences, the reflexive pronouns are functioning as direct or indirect objects or to add emphasis.
I bought myself a candy bar.
She hit herself.
They did the work themselves. (themselves is also kind of the object of the preposition by or for as in They did the
work for/by themselves. which would mean that in this case themselves should be
italicized as the object of the preposition and the indirect object, but we omit the
prepositions for emphasis)
Pronouns Exercises 1: in the following sentences, label the underlined words as (PS) for personal pronouns in the subjective
case, (PO) for personal pronouns in the objective case, (D) for demonstrative pronouns whether they function adjectivally
or nominally, (I) for indefinite pronouns, (PP) for possessive pronouns in either the adjectival or nominal form, (IN) for
interrogative pronouns, or (R) for reflexive.
1.
I have been looking for her sweater all over that side of the room, but she isnt willing to do anything to help me. I guess
Ill have to do everything myself.
2.
Who gave you the order to destroy my files? Yes, that box of files is mine, and our agreement stated that these files were
to go to their company.
3.
We have to understand that this is not the biggest problem of ours, right now. Likewise, something must be said to
anyone who has the power to fix our problem. Otherwise, even though we will have to fix it, we will be unable to solve
other problems for ourselves.
4.
Which one is that? Is that hers or is it yours?
5.
Oh, its your car? Well, Ill just take myself off of the hood.
Pronouns Exercises 2: in the following sentences, underline and label all pronouns as (PS) for personal pronouns in the
subjective case, (PO) for personal pronouns in the objective case, (D) for demonstrative pronouns whether they function
adjectivally or nominally, (I) for indefinite pronouns, (PP) for possessive pronouns in either the adjectival or nominal
form, (IN) for interrogative pronouns, or (R) for reflexive.
1.
My sister is very nice, but she is not very nice to her math teacher.
2.
Who is she nice to?
3.
That is a very nice car, but this is a Lamborghini.
4.
I cannot afford to buy it myself.
5.
Something must be done about this stuff on my desk.
6.
Whose i-pod is this?
7.
He is going to have to earn that himself.
8.
Both of those are mine.
9.
Several of them have expressed concern that nobody is willing to anything about it.
10. Cant you figure it out yourself?

11. I, myself, am partial to Ring-Dings.
12. Which pigeon should I feed first?
Adjectives
Adjectives are a big word class in terms of the number of adjectives in the English language, but they mostly function the same
way: they modify nouns and pronouns. Syntactically, they almost always come before the noun or they stand alone as predicate
adjectives (as in the sentence I am tall.), so after you have identified the nouns, pronouns, verbs, prepositions, and conjunctions
in a sentence that you are analyzing, look for words that are before nouns and which modify nouns or are standing alone but
which could modify a noun.
Articles: remember that the three English articles (a, an, and the) are adjectives.
Adverbs
Adverbs are another big word class in terms of the number of words in the English language, but they can usually be classified
in one of two ways.
-ly Adverbs: adverbs that end in -ly tell how a verb is done. For example:
I swam poorly.
She sings beautifully.
He passed the ball skillfully.
Journalistic Adverbs: you can spot the journalistic adverbs because they answer: how?, when?, where?, how much?, how
often? a verb is done. For example:
I arrived late for the bus.
You will sit here.
He sent the dog outside.
She occasionally makes it to her appointments on time.
Good versus Well: one of the things English teachers, and other picky grammarians, love to nail people for is the use of
good versus well. Good is an adjective, so it can only modify nouns (That is a good pizza.) Well is an adverb, so it
modifies verbs (You ran well.)
The Mobility of Adverbs: adverbs can be difficult to identify by themselves, so, like adjectives, you should first go through a
sentence and identify all of the nouns, verbs, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and adjectives. Then, any words left over are
probably going to be adverbs. Look at these words and see if they end in -ly or are journalistic adverbsthey will probably be
adverbs.
Syntax and Adverbs: adverbs can show up in just about any place in a sentence. The first two examples that follow are the
better ones and sound more natural, but all four sentences are technically correct:
I have felt sick occasionally.
I have felt occasionally sick.
Occasionally, I have felt sick.
I, occasionally, have felt sick.
Adjectives and Adverbs Exercises 1: in the following sentences, label the underlined words as (AJ) for adjectives or (AV)
for adverbs.
1. That was a big slice of greasy pizza, and my younger sister completely ate all of it.
2.
Is it hot in this room, or am I totally imagining it?
3.
Often, I like to sit in the open air, and quietly read a nice, short poem, and then silently think about it.
4.
Obviously, he is really tall.
Adjectives and Adverbs Exercises 2: Label the following underlined words as adjectives or adverbs.
1.
It was a hot day in Southern Nevada, and I was barely breathing because of the disgustingly high temperatures.
2.
Terry was late to work, but she had enough time to go to Starbucks?
3.
The pampered cat was happy.
4.
The running engine purred with a low, rich sound.
5.
I think that I am going to do well even though this test is long and difficult.
6.
The hardened steel lock was impervious to my weak attempts to break through it.
7.
The end of the Eastern line runs through the depressing little town of Mudhole, Wyoming.
8.
Amazingly, they all scored homeruns in their first at-bats in the final game of the beginners tournament.
9.
They will happily accept whatever drastic measures we offer them.
10. Eventually, you will have to struggle to the top of the rocky mountain to earn your rightful place in this family.
Prepositions
Prepositions are structural words. They put nouns and verbs in their proper places and relationships with other nouns and verbs in
a sentence. Prepositions tell the location of a noun or which noun, when or where a verb is taking place. Prepositions, when used
properly, are always a part of a prepositional phrase that includes the object of the preposition and any modifiers of the object of
the preposition. Prepositional Phrases can function adjectivally (when they tell the location of a noun or tell which noun) or they
can function adverbially (when they tell when or where a verb is taking place.) Prepositions do not really do anything by
themselves; rather, they hold sentences together. The following three sentences contain examples of prepositional phrases in
square brackets, and they are followed by a brief explanation of how the phrase is being used:
The cat [on the fence] would make a good pet.
(The prepositional phrase on the fence is telling where the cat is, so it is adjectival)
The boy [with the black shirt] and the boy [with the blue shirt] are my sons. (The
two prepositional phrases are telling which boys, so it is adjectival)
My sister will be [at school] [at 9:00am.]

(The prepositional phrase at school tells where the verb will be will happen and at 9:00am tells when the
verb will be will happen, so it is adverbial)
The Object of the Preposition: the object of the preposition will always be a noun or a pronoun, and it is the word modified by
the preposition. In the following sentences the prepositions are italicized, modifiers of the object of the prepositions are
underlined and the OBJECTS OF PREPOSITIONS are in all capital letters:
The cat on the FENCE would make a good pet.
The boy with the black SHIRT and the boy with the blue SHIRT are my sons.
My sister will be at SCHOOL at 9:00AM.
The Mobility of Prepositional Phrases: prepositional phrases, like adverbs, are highly mobile within a sentence; they can
be moved around in surprising ways. For example:
Anything is possible [with love.] [With love,] anything is possible.
I have to go to the store [at noon.] [At noon,] I have to go the store.
Note: only Yoda can use sentences like: [At noon,] [to the store] I must go. But he can move X-Wings with his mind
Here is a fairly comprehensive list of the English prepositions:
aboard
about
above
absent
according to
across
after
against
ahead of
along
alongside
amid
amidst
among
around
as
as far as
as well as
at
atop
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
between
by
by means of
despite
down
due to
during
except
far from
following
for
from
in
in addition to
in case of
in front of
in place of
in spite of
inside
inside of
instead of
in to (into)
like
mid
minus
near
near to
next
next to
notwithstanding
of
off
on
on account of
on behalf of
on top of
on to (onto)
opposite
out of
outside
outside of
owing to
over
past
plus
prior to
regarding
round
save
since
than
through
throughout
till
times
to
toward
under
underneath
until
up
upon
with
with regards to
within
without
Prepositions Exercises 1: in the following sentences, circle the preposition (use your list here and do not forget that there are
multi-word) prepositions, draw an arrow to the object of the preposition, and then put brackets around the complete
prepositional phrase.
1. I ran to the park at the end of the street.
2. At that time, I was so in love with her that I lost my head in her beauty.
3. Meet me in front of the school.
4. I am writing in regards to your former employee.
Prepositions Exercises 2: Circle all of the prepositions in the following sentences and draw arrows from the preposition to the
object of each preposition. Then, place brackets around every prepositional phrase.
1.
At the top of the hill, you will find a sack of mail.
2.
Im wearing my luckiest pair of trousers.
3.
The house on the left beyond the top of the hill across from the red house was sold.
4.
The farmers hid in the storm cellar when the tornado came.
5.
Bill and James were in the office when they smelled the smoke in the attic.
6.
Erika climbed on top of the car and held on to the luggage rack.
7.
Next to the toaster is the switch for the garbage disposal.
8.
The man in the green coat is the Calculus teacher at my school.
9.
Of all of the men I know, he is the kindest.
10. Can you win at your opponents home field?

Conjoiners (Conjunctions, Conjunctive Adverbs, and Relative Pronouns)

As you can tell by some of the terms in the parentheses above, this heading includes words that belong more properly in the
adverbs or pronouns categories, but it may be more helpful to consider these words as a group. Conjoiners join. They join subsentence groups of words (like phrases and clauses [and such]) to other sub-sentence elements. Like prepositions, conjoiners are
structural words that do not mean much by themselves but which are incredibly important for joining things, actions, and
modifiers to other things, actions, and modifiers within a sentence.
Coordinating Conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions join together subjects, predicatives, and objects to form compound
subjects, predicatives, or objects, or they join together independent clauses (WITH A COMMA) to form compound
sentences. For example:
Mike and Sarah are married.
(Compound Subject)
Mike is tall and skinny.
(Compound Predicate Adjective)
Sara is a mother and a doctor.
(Compound Predicate Noun)
Mike gave Sarah and her sister matching shirts.
(Compound Indirect Object)
Sarah cooked meatloaf and turkey.
(Compound Direct Object)
Sarah is a doctor, and Mike is a teacher.
(Compound Sentence)
Correlative Conjunctions: correlative conjunctions work in pairs to create compounds with strong emphasis. The pairs are:
both and, (n)either (n)or, and not (only) but (also)... For example:
Both Shari and Duane are coming to the party.
Neither Shari nor Duane are happy with the partys location.
Not only are Shari and Duane unhappy but David is too.
Subordinating Conjunctions: subordinating conjunctions set up subordinate clauses, which are a form of dependent
clauses. For the rest of this part of speech review, the term dependent clause will be used for simplicity.
(Lets look at phrases and clauses for a moment): phrases are sub-sentence elements that have a subject, predicate, or object
but are missing a subject, and/or a predicate, and/or an object; under no circumstances can a phrase be a complete sentence on its
own. Clauses have a subject and a predicate and an object if it is necessary. Independent clauses can stand alone as complete
sentences (I threw the ball. is an independent clause), and sometimes sentences are made up of two independent clauses (I
threw the ball, but you did not catch it. has two independent clauses). Dependent Clauses cannot stand alone as complete
sentences, but if the subordinating conjunction is dropped from a dependent clause, it can become an independent clause. For
example:
I went to the store [because I was out of bread.] --CAN BECOME-- I went to the store. I was out of bread.
independent clause
dependent clause
Here is the list of subordinating conjunctions:

Time
After
Before
When
While
Since
Until
Cause and Effect

Because
Since
Now that
As
In order that
So
Opposition
Although
Though
Even though
Whereas
While
Condition
If
Unless
Only if
Whether or not
Even if
In case
Here are some sentences with subordinating conjunctions. Notice that if the [dependent clause] comes first, there has to be a
comma before the independent, main clause begins:
I have loved her [since we were young.]
[When I awoke,] I heard the rain on the roof.

[Whether or not you like it,] grammar is important.
You will understand grammar [only if you study it.]

Yes, you can start a sentence with because, but if you do, you must use a comma between the dependent and
independent clauses. However, additionally, you must not start a sentence with but or and, or an English teacher will
stab you with a red or green pen
Conjunctive Adverbs: conjunctive adverbs function just like correlative conjunctions in some situations, and in others, they act
as transitional devices between sentences. Here are their three functions: they transition between sentences as the first word in the
sentence, they transition from one sentence to another by referring back to the previous sentence from some point within the
interior of the sentence, and they join two independent clauses with the help of a semi-colon and a comma. Here is the list:
Afterwards
Also
Consequently
However
Indeed
Likewise
Moreover
Nevertheless
Nonetheless
Otherwise
Similarly
Still
Therefore
Here are some examples of the functions listed above:

Transitioning between sentences as the first word in the sentence
I like steaks. However, I cannot stand pork chops.
I like beef, lettuce, and tomato. Therefore, I like hamburgers.
I like McDonalds. Also, I like Burger King.
(DONT FORGET THE COMMAS! Notice that these sentences are just like starting sentences with but, so, and and,
but your English teacher likes thesetheyre a strange bunch, those English teachers)
Referring back to the previous sentence from some point within the interior of the sentence
I like beef. I cannot, however, eat pork chops.
I like beef, lettuce, and tomato. I therefore like hamburgers.
I like McDonalds. I also like Burger. -OR- I like McDonalds. I like Burger King also.
(Comma usage on these ones is a little more nuanced. If you are putting the conjunctive adverb between the subject and
predicate, you generally do not need a comma or commas; however, if you are jamming that conjunctive adverb into
the predicate somewhere between the auxiliary verb(s) and the main verb, you will need a pair of commas to bracket
the conjunctive adverb; finally, if the conjunctive adverb is at the end of the sentence, you will not need a comma.)
Joining two independent clauses with the help of a semi-colon and a comma
I like beef; however, I hate pork chops.
I like beef, lettuce, and tomato; therefore, I like hamburgers.
I like In-n-Out; also, I like Wendys.
Relative Pronouns: relative pronouns set up relative clauses. Relative clauses function adjectivally to give more
information about a noun or they function as nouns. Here is the list: which, that, who, when, why, whose. Note that some
of these words can also be interrogative pronouns, but in this situation, these words are not being used to form questions.
Here are some examples of sentences with relative clauses set up by relative pronouns:
I took the coat [that belongs to my sister.] (that is setting up the clause that adjectivally modifies the coat)
The coat [that belongs to my sister] is green.

MGM Mirage, [whose offices are behind the Mirage], is a very successful company.
I like broccoli, [which is good because it is healthy.]
I told her [why we cannot date anymore] and [that it is all my parents fault], but the fact [that she talked bad about me]
didnt help either.
A Note on Restrictive Versus Non-Restrictive Clauses: if a relative clause is really important and the sentence that you are
writing cannot possibly live without that relative clause, use the word that as your relative pronoun setting up the relative
clause. Relative clauses beginning with that are considered restrictive clauses. Relative clauses beginning with
which should have a comma or a pair of bracketing commas. Relative clauses beginning with which are considered
non-restrictive clauses and are not interpreted as being as strong or as important as restrictive clauses. For example:
These are the directions [that I have been given.]
These are the directions [,which I have been given.] (the comma-pause in the second sentence decreases the emphasis of that
relative clause)
Conjoiners Exercises 1: for each of the following exercises, you will be given a conjoiner inside of parentheses and two
independent clauses. Use the conjoiner with the two independent clauses to make one sentence. Be sure to consider what type
of conjoiner you have. Finally, do not forget any necessary commas or semi-colon and comma combinations.
1.
(so) I was hungry. I went to the store.
2.
(moreover) I was wet. I was angry about being locked out of the house.
3.
(that) This is the skateboard. This skateboard belonged to Tony Hawk. (you will have to omit this and skateboard
from the second clause in your
conjoined sentence)
4.
(after) I washed my hands. I went to the bathroom. (put the first sentence in as the first clause)
5.
(after) I washed my hands. I went to the bathroom. (put the second sentence in as the first clause; remember the comma)
6.
(who) He is the man. He washes my windows at the office. (omit he from your conjoined sentence)
7.
(likewise) I like cats. I like children.
Conjoiners Exercises 2: Combine the following sentences using the conjoiners given in parentheses. Dont forget commas when you
use coordinating conjunctions or when dependent clauses come first, and dont forget semi-colons and commas when you use
conjunctive adverbs.
1.
(and) I want to go to the movies. I want to throw popcorn at the screen.
2.
(so) It is raining. Our softball game is cancelled.
3.
(or) You can do this test. You can fail the class.
4.
(yet) She is beautiful. She is my friends sister.
5.
(but) He can shoot. He cant dribble.
6.
(while) I waited in the car. She went into the bank. (the first sentence should be the first clause in the combo)
7.
(while) I waited in the car. She went into the bank. (the second sentence should be the first clause in the combo)
8.
(because) I want a new X-Box. I am going to sell my old PS2. (the first sentence should be the first clause in the combo)
9.
(even if) I wont marry you. You are rich. (the first sentence should be the first clause in the combo)
10. (even though) He is handsome. He is kind. (the first sentence should be the first clause in the combo)
11. (additionally) I want to graduate. I want to go to college.
12. (however) My teacher is nice. He gives too much work.
13. (therefore) I am lazy. I dont do my work.
14. (likewise) She works hard. She is talented.
15. (moreover) He is highly skilled. He is passionate about his work.
Part 2: Sentence Elements and Sentence Structure

Now that you understand how words function by themselves and in relation to other words, we can begin to look at the anatomy
of sentences. Sentences are made up of various individual elements like subjects, predicates, and objects as well as multi-word,
sub-sentence-length elements like phrases and clauses. Together, these individual and multi-word elements form the structure of
a sentence in the same way that sets of bones (elements) make up the skeletons (sentences) of all the various animals in the
world. Indeed, these elements can, and are, combined in the almost unlimited number of ways that make our speech and writing
acts individually unique.
Once again, mastery of these concepts will allow you to write longer, more complicated sentences and to punctuate those
sentences in a way that gives your writing a unique voice with clarity, rhythm, and precision.
Single-Word Elements
Predicates: the predicate is the most important element in a sentence, for it is the central verb in the sentence, and it shows the
action or state of being that is at the core of the meaning of the sentence. Without an action or a state of being, there is no reason
to speak or to write. Predicates can be to be, linking, transitive, or intransitive verbs. Here are some examples of predicates:
I am at the park. (predicate is a form of to be)
I grew weary of the play. (predicate is a linking verb)
I look tired. (predicate is a linking verb)
I threw the ball. (predicate is a transitive verb with ball as the direct object)
I bought my sister a sweater. (predicate is a transitive verb with sister as the indirect object and sweater as the direct
object)
I ran to the park. (predicate is an intransitive verb; to the park is an optional prepositional phrase)
Subjects: the subject is the person, place, or thing that is in the state of being or is doing the action in the sentence. Subjects are
always nouns, pronouns, gerunds, infinitives, or participles. When analyzing a sentence, it is usually best to find the predicate,
and then ask yourself: who or what is in this state of being or is doing this action? The answer to that question is the subject of
the sentence. For example:
George was tired. (George is in a state of being)
George became tired. (George is linked to tired)
George ate pancakes. (George actively did something (transitive verb) to something/somebody (direct object))
George threw Archie the ball. (George actively did something (transitive verb) to something (direct object) to/for
something (indirect object))
George jumped into the pool. (George did something (intransitive verb))
Predicative: Predicate Adjectives: predicate adjectives are a part of sentences in which the predicate is a form of the verb
to be or a linking verb. In these types of sentences, the predicate is used to show how the subject and the predicate adjective
are equivalent. For example:
She is tired. (she and tired are equivalent via the predicateis)
She appears tired. (she and tired are equivalent via the predicateappears)
Predicative: Predicate Nouns: predicate nouns do basically the same thing as predicate adjectives; theyre just nouns instead
of adjectives. For example:
He is the champion. (he and champion are equivalent via the predicateis)
He remains the champion. (he and champion are equivalent via the predicateremains)
Direct Objects: direct objects are a part of sentences in which the predicate is a transitive verb. Transitive means to go across
or to pass over from one thing to the other. The action (the predicate) of the subject goes over onto the direct object. For
example:
John has spiked the ball. (John has acted upon the ball)
John eats chicken wings. (John acts upon the chicken wings)
John hit the car. (John acted on the car)
John will take the test. (John will act on the test)
Indirect Objects: indirect objects are the person, place, or thing to whom/which or for whom/which the action of the
transitive verb is done. In other words, the transitive verb acts on the direct object to/for the indirect object. For example:
I brought my wife a dozen roses. (I brought the roses (direct object) and I brought them to/for my wife (indirect object))
I gave my house a new coat of paint. (I gave the coat (direct objectof paint is a modifying prepositional phrase) to
my house (indirect object))
A note about the mobility of indirect objects: indirect objects can sometimes be hard to spot because they can move around in
sentences. Basically, they exist as the objects of prepositions even though we often omit these prepositions. When you analyze
sentences and you have left over parts that youre not sure about, test them to see if they are indirect objects; youll know if they
are because you can add to or for to the indirect object and you can move that prepositional phrase around the sentence. For
example:
I brought my sister a sandwich. (for is omitted and should be between brought and mysister is the indirect object)
I brought a sandwich for my sister. (this is the same sentence as the one above)
For my sister, I brought a sandwich. (This sentence is awkward, but it is technically correct)
Modifiers: any other word in a sentence that is not a predicate, subject, predicative, or some kind of object is a modifier. Any one of
the single-word elements can be modified, so when you are analyzing sentences: first identify the part of speech of every word in the
sentence, then identify (in this order) your predicate, subject, predicatives/direct objects, and indirect objects; youll
then be left with modifiers. Some modifiers are single-word elements (the tall treetall modifies tree or quickly ran/ran
quicklyquickly modifies ran) , and some modifiers are multi-word elements like some of the phrases and clauses below.
Once you understand these multi-word modifiers in the next section of Part 2, you will be able to correctly identify all of your
modifiers.
Element-Function AND Part of Speech: here is a table showing the relationship between sentence elements and parts of speech.
As you can see, every element in a sentence is fulfilled by a defined set of words from set parts of speech or by certain multiword, sub-sentence length elements. Dont try to memorize this, but do try to notice general trends and patterns:
Function within the Sentence
Subject
Parts of Speech That Can Fulfill the Function

Nouns
Pronouns
Personal (Subjective Case)
Demonstrative
Indefinite
Interrogative
Possessive Case
Gerunds (-ing verbs not acting as verbs)
Infinitives (to + verb not acting as verbs)
Participles (-ed verbs not acting as verbs)
Predicate
Verbs
Forms of to be
Linking Verbs (i.e.: BRASSS-G and The Five Senses)
Intransitive (doesnt require a direct object to make sense)
Transitive (requires a direct object to make sense)
Predicatives/Compliments
(i.e.: Predicate Adjective
and Predicate Noun)
Predicate Adjectives have to be adjectives

Predicate Nouns have to be nouns or any class of pronoun
Predicate Nouns can also be participles (-ed verbs not acting as verbs) in rare cases
Modifiers of Subjects
Adjectives
Prepositional Phrases
Pronouns
Possessive
Demonstrative
Indefinite
Other Nouns
Appositive Phrases
Relative Clauses
Restrictive and Non-Restrictive Clauses
Gerunds (-ing verbs not acting as verbs)
Participles (-ed verbs not acting as verbs)
Modifiers of Predicates
Adverbs
Prepositional Phrases
Adverbial Phrases
Modifiers of Objects
The same as Modifiers of Subjects
Modifiers of
Predicatives/Compiments
The same as Modifiers of Subjects
Conjoiners, Phrase Makers

and Clause Makers
Conjunctions
Conjunctive Adverbs
Relative Pronouns
Prepositions
Subordinating Conjunctions
Single-Word Elements Exercises 1: in the following sentences, underline and label the complete predicate (main verb along with
any auxiliary/ helping verbs) using (P), the subject (S), predicate adjectives (PA) or predicate nouns (PN) if there are any, direct
objects (DO) and indirect objects (IO) if there are any. Remember: every sentence will have a subject and a predicate, but predicatives
and direct/indirect objects may or may not be there depending on the type of predicate in the sentence.
1.
William sold Jerry his old stereo.
2.
Monica has gone to the park.
3.
Lucretia rode to Dragonridge Lake.
4.
He appears sleepy.
5.
Lamar is the best debater in the state.
6.
Lee will become faster someday.
7.
Hank looked Betty in the eye.
8.
She will have been at the park for an hour.
9.
My English teacher is a genius.
10. That tuna fish smells bad.

Single-Word Elements Exercises 2: Follow the instructions for Single-Word Exercises 1.
1.
She appears tired.
2.
William bought Jennifer a new ring.
3.
He became President after a recount.
4.
They are not nice.
5.
Dave hit the wall.
6.
We are the best team around.
7.
Linda seems caring.
8.
Mike, John, and David are at the store.

1.
Shelley ate my sandwich.
2.
Jerry is at the foul line.
3.
Louis became an actor in college
4.
Those smell delicious.
5.
Those are delicious.
6.
Jerry will be the best player.
7.
Lance rode in the Tour de France.
8.
Brenda bought me Guitar Hero.

1.
They have been successful.
2.
Our friend is a dentist.
3.
The swimmers dove into the pool.
4.
Laura sold her house to the city.
5.
This soup tastes good.
6.
He became a graduate student.
7.
I am at school.
8.
She hit the wall with her car.
Multi-Word Elements
Clauses: clauses are multi-word elements that contain a subject and a predicate as well as any necessary objects or modifiers.
Independent Clauses: independent clauses are independentthey can stand on their own as complete sentences. Sentences can
be made up of one independent clause (simple sentences) or multiple independent clauses (compound, complex, and compoundcomplex sentences). For example:
I have a red hat. I have red suspenders. (two simple sentences; each one is made up of an independent clause)
I have a red hat, and I have red suspenders. (compound sentence made up of two independent clauses joined by a comma and
a coordinating conjunction)
I have a red hat; likewise, I have red suspenders. (compound sentence made up of two independent clauses joined by a semicolon, a conjunctive adverb, and a comma)
Dependent Clauses: dependent clauses are dependentthey cannot stand on their own as complete sentences. Sentences must
include an independent clause; dependent clauses are optional, but important modifiers of the independent clause. Dependent
clauses can function nominally (they can act like nouns), adjectivally (the can act like adjectives), or adverbially (they can act
like adverbs). Furthermore, dependent clauses are generally formed using subordinating conjunctions (these are called
subordinate clauses) or relative pronouns (these are called relative clauses). For example:
Nominal Subordinate Clauses
What Ive told you is the truth. (what Ive told you is the subject of this sentence)
How this has happened has been the subject of much debate. (how this has happened is the subject of this sentence)
I dont know if he can swim. (if he can swim is the direct object of know)
Adjectival Subordinate Clauses OR Pronominal Relative Clauses: there is not much distinction between the two.
That is the woman who I helped across the street. (who I helped across the street modifies/renames woman)
The dog that bit me was captured by the police. (that bit me modifies/renames dog)
Adverbial Subordinate Clauses
I ate your sandwich because I was hungry. (because I was hungry modifies ate adverbially by telling why I ate
your sandwich)
Because I was hungry, I ate your sandwich. (this is the same sentence as the one above; notice that this subordinate clause
is mobile; notice the comma)
I went to the concert after I finished my homework. (after I finished my homework adverbially modifies went by
telling when I went to the concert)
After I finished my homework, I went to the concert. (same deal)
Restrictive Clauses versus Non-Restrictive Clauses: see above.
Phrases: phrases are multi-word elements that lack something: a predicate, subject, direct object, or more than one of these. They can
never stand alone and are either multi-word elements or modifiers.
Verb Phrases: the term verb phrase is a handy way to say complete predicate along with any adverbial modifiers. The
complete predicate includes any auxiliary or helping verbs. For more information and examples, see above.
Noun Phrases: this term refers to any noun/pronoun along with any modifiers. After you review sentence diagramming below,
you will learn to see nouns and their modifiers. Noun phrases include all of the modifiers that go underneath the noun in a
diagram (whether that noun functions as a subject, predicate noun, or some kind of object.)
Prepositional Phrases: for information and examples, see above.
Appositive Phrases: appositive phrases are pronominal, and they rename and modify nouns by giving more information about
them. They must be bracketed by commas. For example:
My brother, Bill, is a firefighter. (Bill is the appositive phrasenotice the commas)
Bill, my brother, is a firefighter. (this is the same sentence, but we can swap appositive phrases for their antecedents depending
on what we want to emphasizethe first sentence emphasizes brother the second
emphasizes Bill)
Multi-Word Elements Exercises 1: in the following sentences, label the underlined sections as (IC) for independent clauses, (DC)
for dependent clauses, (PP) prepositional phrases, or (AP) for appositive phrases. Extra spacing has been inserted to help you see the
breaks between elements.
1. The principal of our school ,Mr. Linkweather, attended the University of Indiana, which is a very prestigious school of
education.
2. Because I dont eat meat, I have to eat tofu in order to get enough protein in my diet.
3. The King of East Spedonia , Rupert the III, had to give up his throne because of his armys loss to Rupert the IV of West
Spedoinia.
4. How I will get to the bank is anyones guess.
5.
I went to the bank, and then, I bought some coffee.
6. When I arrived at the bank, I found out that it was closed.

7.
When I got to the bank, I found out that it was closed.
8.
He who dies with the most toys wins.
9.
I gave my toys to children who need them more than I do.
10. When there is lightening is not a good time to go swimming.

Sentence Structure: the next step in this review is to look at whole sentences and combinations of sentences. As you may have
noticed, this review has gone from the small parts of sentence grammar towards the large
th
Sentence Patterns: the following list of sentence patterns comes from Martha Kollns Understanding English Grammar, 4 ed.
As a part of this review, we will learn how to diagram the first eight patterns from Kollns textbook. Diagramming sentences will
help us to visualize the relationship between sentence elements in an effort to better understand sentence structures. Here are the
first eight patterns. The recipes given for these sentences only include the necessary parts of the sentence, and anything else
you see in these sentences is an optional modifier, phrase, or clause:
Types I-III: The to be Sentences
Type I: Subject + Predicate (to be) + Adverb/Adverbial Prepositional Phrase*
*Note: Prepositional Phrases and Adverbs are usually optional modifiers, but in this case, one of them is required. Without the
adverb in the sentences You are here. or You are at school. the sentences would read you are which is not a complete
sentence.
Type I Sentences: Diagram the sentences below:
1. She is late.
2.
He is at the park.
3.
He is on the bus.
4.
She is timely.
Hint: the next five have more than one prepositional phrase:
5. He is at the park by his house.
6.
She is in the car in the garage.
7.
She is near the top of the mountain.
8.
He is across the street with her.
Now, lets change the tense of the verb and add some helping verbs; the helping verbs go into the predicate slot with the main verb.
9. He has been at the pool.
10. She went to the beach.
11. He is going to the store with her.
12. She has been going across town to school.
Finally, lets add some adjectives to both the subject and the object of the preposition. Remember: articles function as adjectives.
13. The red dog is in the backyard.
14. She has been at the other high school.

15. The purple car is in the drainage ditch.
16. The fast swimmer is in lane four by the old champion.
Type II: Subject + Predicate (to be) + Predicate Adjective
Type III: Subject + Predicate (to be) + Predicate Noun
Type II and III Sentences: Diagram the sentences below.

First, the Type IIs:
1. He is short.
2.
She is tall.
3.
The black cat used to be white.
4.
The former mayor had been honest.
5.
The current, chaotic mayor is dishonest.
Second, the Type IIIs:

6. George is king.
7.
Juan is the quarterback.
8.
Sarah is the queen of Green Valley.
9.
My crazy uncle used to be a very good mechanic.
10. My neighbor has been a teacher at the university for twelve years.
Something else, possessive pronouns and possessive nouns function as adjectives. The following set has Types I through III.
11. My sister is nice.
12. His brother is a big, fat guy.
13. Nancys mother used to be in a band.
14. My dogs teeth are white.
15. Your cats fur is nappy.
Finally, you can use prepositional phrases to modify subjects.

16. The cat on the fence is a good pet.
17. The cat on the ground by the fence was hungry.
18. The cat under my house is hungry.
Types IV-V: The Linking Verb Sentences
Type IV: Subject + Predicate (Linking Verb) + Predicate Adjective
Type V: Subject + Predicate (Linking Verb) + Predicate Noun
Type IV and V Sentences: Diagram the sentences below.

Linking verbs are very similar to forms of the verb to be and sentence types IV and V basically mirror types II and III. T here are
two categories of linking verbs:
The Five Senses
BRASSS-G
- to look
- to Become
- to smell
- to Remain
- to taste
- to Appear
- to feel
- to Seem
- to sound
- to Stand
- to Stay
- to Grow
Below is a set of sentences which are all type IV or V.
1. I remained calm.
2.
My dog smells bad.
3.
The northern wind feels cold.
4.
My sisters friend seems cute.
5.
Your haircut looks like a red rooster.
6.
I have grown fond of the girl with the pretty brown eyes.
7.
The burgers at Burger King taste really, really good at four in the morning.
8.
The student next to Sandra feels ill.
9.
That sounds good.
10. The car by the wall appears stalled.

Identify the following sentences only by type I-V.
11. I am number one.
12. The king of Siberia has been mistaken.
13. The queen became an empress.

14. The king is on the throne.
15. The king seems competent.
Types VII-VIII: The Transitive and Intransitive Verb Sentences or The Active Verbs
Type VI: The Intransitive Verb Sentence: Subject + Predicate (Intransitive)*
*Note: unlike sentence type I, any adverbs or prepositional phrases in this sentence are completely optional. We can write a
sentence like I swam. When we add in adverbs like quickly or in the ocean, we have sentences like I swam quickly. or I
swam in the ocean. Those adverbial modifiers are important, but they are not structurally required for a complete sentence.
Type VII: Subject + Predicate (Transitive Verb) + Direct Object
Type VIII: Subject + Predicate (Transitive Verb) + Indirect Object + Direct Object
Type VI-VIII Sentences: Diagram the sentences below.

First, the Type VIs
1.
She ran.
2.
He fell.
3.
He fell off the ladder.
4.
She ran away from the dogs.
5.
My neighbor from downstairs swims in the lake.
6.
My old car drove like a slug.
7.
Your hair shines in the moonlight.
The next set is Type VIIs:

8.
Barry threw the ball.
9.
David ate the pizza.
10. John cooked the steak.

11. My next-door neighbor hit my car.
12. My best friends sister flies airplanes.

13. My next-door neighbor hit my car with a baseball. (this prep phrase is adverbialit tells how the verb was done)
14. My best friends sister flies airplanes in the Air Force. (this prep phrase is adverbialit tells how the verb was done)
The last set is Type VIIIs; they have Indirect Objects. Remember: an Indirect Object indicates to whom/what or for whom/what the
action was done.
15. Barry threw Tim the ball.
16. David cooked John a pizza.
17. Barry threw the ball to Tim.
18. David cooked a pizza for John.
19. Sarah gave her car a new coat of paint.
Sentence Types: There are four types of sentence in English: declarative, imperative, interrogative, and exclamatory. Declarative
sentences make simple sentences (declarative sentences declarei.e. they tell). Imperative has the same root word as emperor; thus,
you can remember that imperative sentences give commands like emperors give commands. Also, imperative sentences often lack a subject.
Interrogative has the same root as interrogateas in to interrogate prisonerstherefore, interrogative sentences ask questions.
Structurally, interrogative sentences almost always contain interrogative pronouns. Exclamatory as the same root word as exclaim
which means to scream or cry out loudly. Exclamatory sentences end with exclamation marks because they are screamed or cried out
loudly. Here are some examples:
The cat is loud. (declarative)

Catch that cat. (imperative; the subject is youi.e. you kill that cat.)
Who caught that cat? (interrogative; notice the interrogative pronoun)
My cat is gone! OR The cat is gone! (exclamatory sentences rely on the intent of the speaker to determine if they are
declarative or exclamatory)
Multi-Clause Sentences: all eight of the patterns above are single-clause sentences. Sentences can also be composed of more than
one clause. For example:
Compound Sentences: as mentioned above, a compound sentence is a sentence made up of two or more independent
clauses. For example:
Compound Sentences Formed with a Comma and a Coordinating Conjunction
I went to the store, and I went to the movies.
independent clause
independent clause
Billie called Hank, so Hank called him back.

independent clause
independent clause
I wanted Mexican food, but I went to Chinese food instead.

independent clause
independent clause
Compound Sentences Formed with Semi-Colons

Note: compound sentences can technically be formed with just semi-colons without conjunctive adverbs and commas, but
they tend to feel choppy and jammed together; therefore, the conjunctive adverb and comma are a very good idea from the
standpoint of readability and style.
I went to the store; I went to the movies.
independent clause
independent clause
I went to the store; also, I went to the movies.

independent clause
independent clause
Billie called Hank; thus, Hank called him back.

independent clause
independent clause
I wanted Mexican food; however, I went to Chinese food.

independent clause
independent clause
Complex Sentences: complex sentences contain a dependent and an independent clauseusually with a
subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun. For example:
[Because of the rain,] I stayed inside.
dependent clause
independent clause
[When I got to the park,] I saw that the tennis courts were full.
dependent clause
independent clause
I only realized the book was late [after I arrived at the library.]
independent clause
dependent clause
We will go to the playoffs [only if we win our last game.]

independent clause
dependent clause
Luke hasnt felt well [since he started eating sausage for breakfast.]
independent clause
dependent clause
Compound-Complex Sentences: compound-complex sentences have two or more independent clauses and one or
more dependent clauses. For example:
I went to the store, and then, I went to the park [after I got the text message from Carrie.]
independent clause
independent clause
dependent clause
[If I want to go to UNLV,] I have to earn a 3.00 GPA, and I have to take the SAT.
dependent clause
independent clause
independent clause
Paul went to class [after he dropped of his sister,] but he was still on time.
independent clause
dependent clause
independent clause
Compounded Single-Word Elements: single word elements in a sentence can also be compounded. You can have compound
subjects, compound predicates, compound predicatives, and compound objects. Make sure you are aware of the difference
between a compound sentence formed with a coordinating conjunction and a compound direct objectone requires a comma and
the other doesnt. For example:
Sarah and Bill are at the park. (compound subject)
Bill bought and sold the car in the same day. (compound predicate)
Bill is tall and lean. (compound predicate adjective).
Sarah became a teacher and a mother in the same week. (compound predicate noun)
Sarah baked brownies and a pie for the picnic. (compound direct object)
Bill acquired a piano for his wife and children. (compound indirect object)
Bill acquired a piano, and Sarah baked deserts. (compound sentence)

Sentence Structure Exercises 1: Label the following ten sentences as Type I-VIII. There is one of each with two repeats; also, many
of the sentences have optional modifiers, phrases, and clauses. Identify your predicate, subject, and then any predicatives or objects.
Use a good method, and youll get the right answer:
1.
Type ___: I purchased a Play Station for my daughter.
2.
Type ___: Larry is at the public library with his friend, Luke.
3.
Type ___: Bill felt sick after the Super Buffet.
4.
Type ___: At my house, we only watch television on the weekends.
5.
Type ___: When the car broke down, my brother was angry.
6.
Type ___: My brother is a mechanic at the dealership.
7.
Type ___: Barry became a surgeon after he turned 50 years old.
8.
Type ___: Michael Phelps swam with some dolphins and won. (this one has a compound predicate)
9.
Type ___: After the party, we drove home safely. (drove doesnt have a direct object)
10. Type ___: In order to win at ping pong, you must have fast hands. (have is transitive)
Sentence Structure Exercises 2: for the following sentences, identify whether the sentence is simple (S), compound (COMP),
complex (COMPL), or compound-complex (C-C):
1.
_____: I went to the store because we were out of milk.
2.
_____: I went to the store to buy some milk.
3.
_____: Because we were out of milk, I went to the store, and then I bought some.
4.
_____: I went to the store, and I bought some milk.
5.
_____: Brenda and I were married in Seattle.
6.
_____: I wanted to go to Jamaica on our honeymoon, but she convinced me to go to Victoria, B.C.
7.
_____: If we would have gone to Jamaica, it would have cost too much money.
8.
_____:This high school is the best because of its students, but the teachers are good too.
Part 3: Punctuation
Now that you have reviewed the parts of speech and the structures of sentences, you can finally take a look at punctuation.
Students often overlook punctuation in their own writing, which seriously damages the quality of their writing. Consider
punctuation very carefully when you are writing and editing your work. Punctuation is at least as important to meaning as the
words that the writer chooses. It enhances clarity and gives it rhythm and voice.
End Punctuation: student writers who are past level B1 generally do not struggle with end punctuation unless they struggle with
run-on sentences or sentence fragments. Therefore, it is outside of the scope of this review. Follow these blue hyperlinks to the
sections on run-ons and fragments in Part 4, Usage. As a brief review, remember that declarative and
imperative sentences end with periods, interrogative sentences end with question marks, and exclamatory sentences end
with exclamation marks.
The Comma: the comma is the most misused, abused, and ignored piece of punctuation in writing. Furthermore, students
generally do not pay attention to commas when they read. Pay close attention to the following list of uses for the comma, and
your writing, and reading, should improve:
Commas with Compound Sentences
In order to correctly use commas with compound sentences that are formed by a coordinating conjunction, you will need to
know the difference between a compound sentence and a sentence that has a compound single-word element (like a compound
subject for instance). Review the highlighted terms above if you do not remember what they are. Here are some examples:
I went to the park, and I played some basketball. (two independent clauses joined by a comma and the conjunction and)
Jerry wants pizza, but Jillian wants to go for Chinese food. (two independent clauses joined by a comma and the conjunction
but)
Will has lost, or he has left the tournament for other reasons. (two independent clauses joined by a comma and
the conjunction or)
Will and Jerry went to the tournament in Jerrys car. (Will and Jerry is a compound subject, so there is no comma)
Commas with Complex Sentences in which the Dependent Clause Comes First
In order to correctly use commas with complex sentences in which the dependent clause comes first, you will need to understand
complex sentences and the difference between dependent and independent clauses, so review those if your knowledge is shaky.
Furthermore, you will have to be able to identify the end of the dependent clause and the beginning of the independent clause.
The independent clause will always begin at a noun phrase, so review the noun and verb phrase under the heading Phrases in
Part 2 of the review. Here are some examples:
Because I was late for school, I had to sign a tardy lockout slip. (I is the beginning of the independent clause)
While Sam was at the pool, his little sister broke his guitar. (the independent clause begins with his, which modifies the
subject of the independent clauseSamthe noun phrase for
the independent clause is his little sister)
After the end of the game, the players shook hands. (the players is the noun phrase that starts the independent clause)
Note: if the dependent clause comes after the independent clause, you do not need a comma. Students will sometimes write
the following, incorrect sentence:
My best friend bought a sandwich, because he forgot his lunch. (that comma is misused)
Commas with Introductory Prepositional Phrases

If a sentence starts with a prepositional phrase, there needs to be a comma between the object of the preposition for that phrase
and the noun phrase that begins the main clause. For example:
At our home field, we can beat the Wolverines.
With a little more help from our passing game, we can beat the Wolverines. (there are actually two prepositional phrases
at the beginning of this one)
On top of the bridge, the jumper looked into the water far below. (remember that on top of is a multi-word preposition)
Commas with Introductory Conjunctive Adverbs, Order Words, and Other Adverbs
Review conjunctive adverbs if necessary. Order words (like: first, second, next, last, etc) and other adverbs (like: here, there,
now, then, etc) also require a comma between the word and the beginning of the main clause. For example:
Also, my sister had to run.
Therefore, she was tired.
First, we went to the park.
Then, we had pizza.
Afterwards, we went to Sarahs house.
There, we watched a movie.
Finally, we went home.
Commas in Compound-Complex Sentences

When you write compound-complex sentences where the complex sentence comes after the independent clause, use commas
in the same way you would use them if you were writing complex sentences. For example:
Miranda had ballet lessons, and when she finished with the lessons, she had to do her homework.
(the first comma is to separate the first independent clause from the second independent-dependent clause pair; the
second comma separates the dependent clause from the independent clause)
Miranda attends school at Vanderburg ES, but when she was in preschool, she attended Kiddie
Academy. (this sentence follows the same structural pattern as the first one)
Note: read the example sentences for the five sections above as they are writtenbe sure to pause at the commas. Then, re-read
the sentences without pausing at the commas. Notice how mushy and confusing the sentences sound without the commas, and
notice how the sentences do not make as much sense without them. Often, high school readers struggle to read writers who use
longer sentences because they do not read the punctuation.
Commas with Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, or Adverbs in a Series

When you have two or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs in a series, use a comma to separate them. For example:
Fried chicken, pizza, and burritos are my favorite foods. (nouns in a series)
Jake ran, jumped, and dunked with astonishing quickness. (verbs in a series; all three verbs are the predicate in this Type
VI sentence)
Mary is courteous, kind, and caring. (adjectives in a series; they are functioning as the predicate adjective)
Bill is a strong, conscientious leader. (here, strong and conscientious are adjectives modifying leader)
Note: try to read these sentences without reading the commas; once again, the meaning of the sentence is not as clear
without them.
Commas with Special Phrases

Use commas to denote appositive phrases and phrases that interrupt the flow of the sentence (interrupters). For example:
My best friend, Mikey, is the captain of the team. (appositive phrase)
Mikey is their most important player, their quarterback. (also an appositive phrase)
The story, which was the best that Ive ever read, was assigned to Mr. Jones class. (interrupter: non-restrictive clause
separating the subject and predicate)
My brother, who is better than me at chess, won the tournament. (interrupter: relative clause separating the subject and
predicate)
My sister, with the help of her coach, was able to complete the routine. (interrupter: prepositional phrase separating
the subject and predicate)
Commas in Other Situations

Use commas when writing about cities, states, and countries: I live in Henderson, Nevada. OR. I live Victoria, B.C., Canada.
th
th
Use commas when writing dates: I was born on March 16 , 1977. OR. December 9 , 2000, was a very special day.
Semi-Colons: semi-colons are used to join two independent clauses or when you have items in a series that will also require
commas to make sense. For example:
I ate too many cookies; therefore, I need to go for a walk. (semi-colon conjoining independent clauses)
My friends are: Billy, the plumber; Joe, the electrician; Hank, the teacher; and Rex, the mechanic.
(notice that the commas denote appositive phrases renaming the men, so the semi-colons are needed to separate
the men in the list)
Commas and Semicolons Exercises

Commas in Compound Sentences Joined with a Coordinating Conjunction: Insert commas as needed in the following sentences.
1.
I ate the pizza but not the breadsticks.
2.
I had to go to the store so I took my moms car.
3.
Cliff and Derek will be at school by 8:00am or they wont be coming today.
4.
I want to buy a car yet I refuse to get a job.
5.
The Wolverines and the Bulldogs are playing today at Dawson field unless it snows.
6.
The school year is too long and I think we should shorten it.
7.
The wind was cold but I had a warm coat so it wasnt that bad.
8.
I want sushi and Chinese food for dinner.
9.
Sarah and Janelle have class together for studying purposes.
10. Diego wants to go to the University of Utah for the Engineering program.
Commas with Complex Sentences: Insert commas as needed.
1.
Because of the drought the price of wheat rose substantially.
2.
The weather improved when the wind changed direction.
3.
Even though the weather improved it was too late to save the wheat crops.
4.
If the weather is not better next season the region could experience severe food shortages.
5.
Even if the weather improves dramatically next year wheat prices are expected to remain high.
6.
Governments throughout the region are expected to subsidize wheat farmers to keep the prices low even though their
economies will struggle because of the drought.
7.
Whether or not their economies are bad they must help their people.
8.
Unless the United Nations comes through with massive aid for these countries their economies will struggle for a long time.
9.
Since the beginning of the drought many farmers have responded by planting more drought resistant plants like beans.
10. This change in planting will help somewhat because beans are equally as nutritious as wheat.
Semicolons and Commas in Compound Sentences Joined by a Conjunctive Adverb: Insert semicolons and commas as needed.
1.
(afterwards) Jerry and Sandra went to the dance. They went to dinner.
2.
(however) Barry went to Harvard. He really wanted to go to Princeton.
3.
(consequently) I need money. Im going to get a job.
4.
(similarly) Jane likes Math. She likes Physics.
5.
(nevertheless) I was disappointed in the Governors decision. I must keep working for the state.
6.
(therefore) It was raining. The game was canceled.
7.
(moreover) Ming plays for the Titans. He is their best player.
8.
(likewise) Glen is a sports fan. He loves to play sports.
9.
(indeed) They are very talented singers. They are the best in the choir.
10. (still) I feel like giving up. I want to get an A on this test.
Commas with Compound-Complex Sentences: Insert commas and semicolons as needed.
1.
I would like to go to the movies however because Im broke Ill have to stay home.
2.
Due to the thunderstorm the flights are cancelled and the hotels are full. (two commas and one semicolon)
3.
Even though he is six inches taller than you and you cannot beat him you should try your hardest otherwise you could play
dirty. (three commas and one semicolon)
4.
Whenever we go to the city we always go out for breakfast afterwards and then we go home and take naps while we
watch football. (two commas)
5.
You need to get a job so before you go shopping for cars you should go to Target and fill out an application. (two commas)
6.
Due to the state of the schools gym the floors will have to be resurfaced however they wont be done until after the
season starts so the team will have to practice at the rec-center. (three commas and one semicolon)
Commas with Introductory Elements: Insert commas as needed.
1.
Also I want to go to the movies.
2.
On the other hand my sister cannot tell her right from her left.
3.
For example I like to swim.
4.
Casca hates Caesar. Similarly Cassius is jealous of Caesar.
5.
However you slice it pizza is tasty.
6.
However Mexican food is my favorite.
7.
Immediately I called my best friend to share the news.
8.
Therefore you cannot go out tonight.
9.
Besides you forgot to do your History project.
10. In other words you are brilliant.

11. On top of the refrigerator I found an extra box of cereal.
12. At 7-11 you can buy a Coka Cola.
13. In the middle of the park I became lost.
14. Behind the couch Mike found the remote.
15. At 8:30 Sarah left the party.
Apostrophes: apostrophes are also often forgotten. Apostrophes form possessive nouns and contractions. They are an easy piece
of punctuation to use, but students often forget them when they are editing. The best way to look for places where you may have
forgotten an apostrophe is to look for any place where there are two nouns in a row where the first noun ends with an s.
Contractions are even easier; just look for them. Here are some examples:
My sisters cat is soft. (sisters is a singular possessive noun)
My sisters cat is soft. (sisters means that I have more than one sister and that the cat belongs to all of them)
My sisters cats are soft. (here all of my sisters possess one or more cats, and they are all dead)
I cant eat tonight because of all these cats all over the house. (cant is a contraction of can and not)
Note: words that have a different spelling between their singular and plural forms (like: man/men, woman/women) and
words that do not take an -s when pluralized (like: people, deer, moose) take an apostrophe + -si.e. mooses, peoples,
mens, etc.
Hyphens: hyphens are used to form compound nouns, compound adjectives, or to add prefixes and suffixes to words. For
example:
My cousin is a bow-hunter. (compound noun)
Your sister is super-pretty. (compound adjective or an adjective with a prefix attached)
Thats my ex-friend. (noun with a prefix attached)
Dashes: the dash is a double-hyphen. It is used to indicate a break in thought; therefore, pairs of dashes can function like
parentheses or brackets. For example:
I think that we should (break in thought)
I like to eat chickenwhich is my favorite meatat Applebees. (dashes indicating an interrupting break in thought)
Quotation Marks: quotation marks are used to report other peoples words (written or spoken), terms used ironically, or to
use words as objects in a sentence. For example:
He said, I will not eat that fish. (other peoples words)
According to Smith, the key to economic disproportionality is heavy social integration (Smith 34). (other peoples words)
Billy told me he agreed with Sarah, but I know she disagreed. (agreed is being used ironically or in a non-standard
way; you can spot these because if someone was saying
this, they would do that annoying thing with their
fingers known as air-quotes)
Noun is an important term in grammar. (noun signifies that noun is a word working as an object separately from
the concept of nouni.e. a person, place, or thing)
Colons: colons are used to introduce a lengthy list of terms or to indicate a break between an introductory phrase and an
example or in presenting block quote citations. Colon usage is somewhat a matter of style. For example:
I ate apples, pears, and peaches. (this is correct)
I ate: apples, pears, and peaches. (this is correct but unnecessary)
The team included: Jerry, Joe, Reggie, Kim, Hank, Lizbeth, Regina, Maria, Shawn, and Bob. (this list is definitely long
enough to need a colon)
Parentheses: parentheses indicate a break in thought, nonessential information, or a citation. For example:
I went to the store (which was a big mistake) to get some soda. (break in thought)
I went to the store to get some soda (that was a big mistake). (nonessential information)
Smith claims, deregulation led to the downfall of Enron (12).
Square Brackets: square brackets are used to add to, edit, or clarify information in quotations. This is especially helpful when
you are citing sources. For example:
According to Smith, the forces it [economic deregulation] unleashes are incalculable (Smith 12).
Williams claims that: Steinbeck wrote the novel [during his dark period] between 1932 and 1936 (A Critical
Companion to Steinbeck 46).
Ellipses: ellipses are a series of three periods () that are used to indicate that material has been taken out of a direct quotation
when you are citing. They are generally unnecessary at the beginnings or ends of quotations. For example:
Smith claims that: Economic deregulationin its primal form was a good thing (Smith 2).
Williams argues for: further justifications for Steinbecks gloomy writingcoupled with his fears of failure lead to
his writing The Pearl (Williams 79).
Punctuation exercises: add commas, apostrophes, and semi-colons to the following sentences as needed.
1.
Larry and Matilda went to Lorenzi the park down the street and afterwards they went to Murphys to get dinner.
2.
I cannot stand the Bengals likewise I dislike the Browns. I guess I just dont like Ohios football teams.
3.
When I get off work do you want to go to a movie like The Bourne Supremacy with me?
4.
Hank laughed at Billy but because of what Billy said he had it coming.
5.
At the end of your shift return your keys to the office.
6.
Also I would like you to perform a system scan on your terminal before you go home which will make sure your computers
operating system Windows B12 is properly functioning for tomorrows morning shift.
7.
If you cant use commas you will struggle with reading but more importantly your readers will struggle to read your writing.
8.
Commas add voice to your writing.
9.
You musnt rely on your word processor to fix your writing and if you have trouble punctuating review this guide more or
see your teacher for extra practice materials.
10. Havent you noticed how poorly these sentences read or have you not been paying attention?
Part 4: Usage
Usage is the final part of this review because usage straddles the line between issues of grammatical correctness and matters of style.
Therefore, this section of the review will go from issues of correctness (like run-ons and comma splices) to matters of style (like the gots).
Where this review deals with stylistic issues, this will be stated explicitly. Where this review deals with issues of technical, grammatical
correctness, the topic will be presented factually in the same tone as the entries listed in the previous three sections.
Master these topics and techniques, and your writing will begin to have a clearer voice, a more active flow, and will reflect
the maturity that you are developing as a writer.
Run-on Sentences: if you think about it, there is really no such thing as a run-on sentence; rather, what we call run-on sentences
are really collections of dependent and independent clauses along with various phrases that are piled together without adequate
punctuation and/or conjoiners. Nevertheless, the term run-on gives us a convenient way to identify these types of sentences. If
you have struggled with run-ons in the past, what you really need to do is study the six kinds of comma usage and the use of semicolons, which are presented in Part 3 of this review, and you need to study the different types of clauses and phrases. Finally,
look at shortening your sentences. There is nothing wrong with a short sentence. Too many short sentences in a row can feel
choppy, but sentences that are consistently longeven if they are well-punctuatedcan confuse your audience. If you find
yourself writing the tenth, fifteenth, twentieth word in the sentence, think to yourself: should I break all of this up into smaller
sentences?
Comma Splices: comma splices are one form of what we call run-on sentences, and they can be a common, persistent problem
for some student writers. Comma splices occur when two, or more, independent clauses are joined by only a comma and no
conjunctions. For example:
I went to the park, I went to the library. (this sentence needs and or the comma should be omitted and the word then
inserted)
I like cheese, Tim likes it, Jerry does too. (this sentence contains three independent clauses, and it should have the
conjunctions but and and added)
I dont like grammar, therefore I write bad. (this sentence needs a semi-colon between the two independent clauseswhere
the comma is now, and it needs a comma after the conjunctive adverb
therefore. Also, the word bad should be poorly)
Sentence Fragments: sentence fragments are incomplete sentences. They lack a key sentence element like a subject, predicate,
or direct object. Student writers often compose sentence fragments because they start a sentence with an extremely long
prepositional phrase or dependent clause, which makes them feel like they have a complete sentence because the collection of
words is so long. If you have had a problem with fragments in the past, make sure you review the terms linked in blue in this
paragraph, and study the following examples. Issues like run-ons, splices, and fragments are a big part of why we need to review
our grammar. Here are some examples:
By the end of the second act in which Horatio and Hamlet have both seen the ghost and Hamlet has confronted
Gertrude about Claudius.
(this is really just a long cluster of prepositional phraseslets look at it again)
[By the end] [of the second act] [in which Horatio and Hamlet have both seen the ghost and Hamlet has confronted Gertrude]
[about Claudius.]
(see, its just four prepositional phrases)
Because of the importance of third-quarter profit margins to the security of long-term financial operations.
(this is just a long dependent clause)
John threw to Barry. (threw what? wheres the direct object?)
Shifts in Verb Tense: verb tense, or conjugation, refers to the way verbs along with their auxiliary verbs are structured to show
time, completion, and/or mood. Student writers will occasionally shift tense for no good or apparent reason. Sometimes, it is
appropriate to change tense, but writers should use conjoiners or transitions to signal that a change is occurring. Also, writers will
sometimes change verb mood for no apparent reason. Understanding verb conjugation will help you ensure that you conjugate
your verbs properly and that you maintain consistency in tense. For example:
When Beowulf went to fight Grendels mother in the underground lair, he is not afraid of her strength. (the
dependent clause is past tense went and the independent clause is present tense is)
Beowulf had gone to destroy Grendels mother, and he does, but he brought back Grendels head as a trophy.
(the first clause is past perfect tensehad gone, the second clause is present tensedoes, and the third clause
is simple past tensebrought)
Beowulf is the strongest of the Geats, and he could have ruled the world.
(is and could have ruled are present tense and conditional past tense respectively)
Passive Voice: the passive voice occurs when a sentence with a transitive-verb predicate is reversed so that the direct
object becomes the subject, and the subject becomes the object of a preposition. For example:
The rock was thrown by Timmy.
You can see that the subject in this sentence, the rock, is really the direct object; Timmy should be the subject, and Timmy threw
the rock. The sentence should read Timmy threw the rock. Notice how that sentence contains fewer words and is more direct.
Also, the verb is more active because it has its direct object after the transitive verb. This kind of voice is called the active voice.
Here are a few more examples:
The car was hit by the bus. (passive voice)
The bus hit the car. (active voice)
The pizza was eaten by the JV team. (passive voice)

The JV team ate the pizza. (active voice)
There is nothing grammatically wrong with the passive voice, but verbs in the passive voice are not as active because they read
more like forms of to be, which is a state of being rather than an action.
Notice that by lawyers, politicians, young people who could get in trouble, and other people who are likely to try to evade
the truth use the passive voice the most often. Lets go back to Timmy and that rock:
Timmy threw the rock. (active voice, and Timmy is responsible and will probably get into trouble)
The rock was thrown by Timmy. (passive voice, and because the rock is the subject, it almost seems like its the rocks fault
because we view subjects as the agents of predicatesi.e. the rock was the active agent,
so its the rocks fault)
The rock was thrown. (passive voice; now, this is even better because this is a complete sentence, and its not a lie. That rock
was thrown, no doubt about it. Timmy likes this sentence because he has disappeared. Timmys mom
can say What happened to the car window? and Timmy can say A rock was thrown. and hes not
lying at all!)
Whenever possible, use the active voice; your writing will be stronger and clearer to your audience. Unless, of course, like
Timmy, you want to confuse your audienceor you want your audience to be confused by your writing
Nominalizations: nominalizations occur when we use verbs as nouns. The English language allows us to change the part of
speech of words by adding suffixes. For example, to explore becomes exploration or to demolish becomes demolition.
Nominalizations occur when we take a good active verb like to demolish and we turn it into a noun, demolition, and then we
use a predicate that is a form of to be. For example:
The demolition of the building was our first step. (nominalization, and this is a Type III sentence which doesnt have
an active predicate)
We demolished the building as our first step. (notice how this is a nice, active Type VII sentence)
Evaluation of the teams defense is our top priority. (nominalization and a Type III sentence again)
We must evaluate the teams defense. (active, Type VII sentence)
Once again, there is nothing grammatically incorrect about nominalizations, but they make writing bloated and stuffy,
which is why bloated, stuffy writers and speakers use them, but you dont want to sound like a bloated, stuffy tool;
you want to sound like a young, focused, energetic, and direct writer.
Sentences Ending in Prepositions: sentences should not end in prepositions. Prepositions require objects to function properly
because they are conjoiners. A writer would never end a sentence with a coordinating conjunctionI went to the park and.
This sentence would drive an audience mad because they would ask the writer: and what? Prepositions are the same way.
They require the object of the preposition to function. The following sentences are incorrect because they end with prepositions:
That dog is messed up.
I would rather have dinner by myself than with.
Where are you at?
I want to come by and hang out.
Note: American English is full of phrases that take a preposition like messed up, hang out, and knocked down. When
writing or speaking casually, ending a sentence with a preposition is not really a big dealeven your English teacher does it
but when you are writing or speaking in a formal situation, these types of phrases are not as sophisticated or proper as the
situation requires. It is acceptable to wear jeansjust not to a wedding Therefore, this usage issue is not one of correctness
but one of style. The above sentences are acceptable in casual situations, but in a formal situation, like a school writing
assignment, these sentences should read:
That dog is injured.
Where are you?
I would rather have dinner by myself than with
I want to go there and spend some time/do

something/play X-box/etc.
you/her/him/etc.
Adjective versus Adverb: adjectives modify nouns and pronouns; adverbs modify verbs. Using adjectives to modify verbs is
technically incorrect and horribly bad style. One of the first things that mark a speaker or writer as uneducated is the use of
adjectives to modify verbs. Again this is a matter of correctness and style. For example:
I did good on the test. (oh, do you mean that you did well on the test?)
The bear ran away fast. (oh, you mean that the bear ran quickly)
I did bad on the test. (yes, you must have done poorlyespecially if it was a written exam)
That versus Who: that and who are both relative pronouns, but that should modify places, things, or animals and
who should modify people. For example:
Mary is the lady that lives downstairs. -versus- Mary is the lady who lives downstairs. (the second sentence just sounds
better)
Larry that lives across the street is an architect. -versus- Larry, who lives across the street, is an architect.
Note: some writers of style manuals say that this is an unnecessary rule, but it does matter, and who, when dealing with people,
sounds better.
Since versus Because: since versus because is another case of style more than correctness. Since deals with matters of
time, and because deals with matters of causalityi.e. this causes that. They are both subordinating conjunctions, and since
technically can work in matters of causality, but it is more precise and stylistically appealing to use since only in matters of
time. For example:
Since I was in elementary school, I have always had a problem with fractions. (here since is related to time)
Since it was raining outside, we had to cancel baseball practice. (here, it would be much better to write because, as in
Because it was raining outside because the rain is
the cause of the cancellation)
We had to eat sandwiches for dinner since we were out of steaks. (No! because we were out of steaks)
One would not ever say/write: Because I was in elementary school, I have always had a problem with fractions.
(as if having attended elementary school is the cause of ones mathematical shortcomings)
The Gots: the gots is the most terrible disease currently plaguing American Englisheven your English teacher suffers
bouts of the gots at times. The gots is a writing and speaking disease in which the verbs to be, to become, to have, to
receive, to acquire, and others all become to get. It is a disease of laziness and lack of specificity, and it gets us, oops, I
mean, it attacks us all. For example:
I got mad. -NO- I became angry.
I got hurt. -NO- I was hurt.
I got a new X-box for my birthday. -NO- I received a new X-box. -OR- I was given a new X-box.
I got my materials. -NO- I have my materials.
Watch out for the gots; theyll get you..I mean, theyll infect you
And/To Swaps with Infinitives: when we are speaking casually, Americans have the tendency to slur the word to when using
infinitives. We say things like: I have to trynget my grades up so I can goout this weekend. This slurring of infinitives causes many
student writers to think that the above sentence should be written: I have to try and get my grades up, so I can go out this
weekend. This is an understandable, although ugly, mistake. Look at two more examples:
I have to go and check out a library book. ------ I have to go to check out a library book.
I want to try and win the game. ------ I want to try to win the game.
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Basic English Grammar

Adjectives and Adverbs Exercises

Conjoiners (includes conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs,

Part 2: Sentence Structure

Single-Word Sentence Elements

Single-Word Elements Exercises

Multi-Word Elements Exercises

Compound Single-Word Elements

Sentence Structure Exercises

Commas with Compound Sentences

Commas with Complex Sentences in which the

Commas with Introductory Adverbs

Commas with Special Phrases

Hyphens and Dashes

Part 1: Parts of Speech

The Five Senses

Here are a few sentences that use linking verbs:

Basic English Grammar 2

I swim [at the rec-center.]

Mary danced with William at the Ball.

Mary danced [with William at the Ball.]

The Vikings rowed to the monastery.

The Vikings rowed their ships.

We will have been married for two years.

We were married at the church on the corner.

That seems odd.

Dont hit that table!

Barry has given George his equipment.

That smells bad.

10. That stinks.

Basic English Grammar 3

Present Perfect Past Perfect

Simple Future Future Perfect

will have been

will have been

will have been

will have been

Third- Plural are

will have been

Conditional Present Conditional Past

would have been

would have been

would have been

would have been

would have been

I do so like green eggs and ham. I do so like them, Sam-I-am.

You must read this carefully.

You should not eat too much.

Basic English Grammar 4

(back to the Table of Contents)

Basic English Grammar 5

Love is a wonderful thing.

The sixteen-year-old driver hit a parked car.

Louis will be the teams best linebacker this year.

Louis trains hard.

She became class president.

She hates the silliness at school.

Willy seems good at Mathematics.

The class appears sleepy.

10. Eddie swam at the rec-center.

Basic English Grammar 6

Basic English Grammar 7

another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody,