CONTENTS

Page no.

Abstract
Introduction
Bohrs Atomic model
Hydrogen spectrum
Balmer series
Methods and materials
Apparatus
Experimental procedure
Results
For Red light
Percentage error
For Turquoise light
Percentage error
For Blue light
Percentage error
For Voilet light
Percentage error
Discussion
Balmer lamp
Power supply for Balmer lamp
Notes on operation
Conclusion
Sources of error
Reference
Appendix

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ABSTRACT

The purpose of this experiment is the study of the visible

spectrum of hydrogen atom by means of Balmer lamp that
enables us to perform an important quantitative comparison
between theoretical and experimental results. The purpose of
this experiment is to verify the quantum nature of the Balmer
series, specifically for atomic hydrogen, using sodium as a
calibration source. The calibration of a diffraction grating
spectrometer using a source of known wavelength was made.
The calibrated spectrometer was then used to determine the
wavelengths of lines in the spectra of atomic hydrogen and
other atoms. This was achieved by calibrating a transmission
diffraction grating using a sodium spectral source, whose line
wavelengths were well known. The spectral lines in atomic
hydrogen and helium were then measured and their
corresponding wavelengths calculated using the data obtained
through the calibration. The experimental results yielded an
approximation of the Rydberg constant, R, was found; R 1.09
x 10-7 m-1.
INTRODUCTION

In this experiment we will use a diffraction

gratingopticalspectrometertostudyatomicspectra.we
will use the calibrated spectrometer to observe and
measurethespectrallinesofhydrogen
Background: The diffraction grating provides the simplest and

most accurate method for measuring wavelengths of light. It

consistsofaverylargenumberoffine,equallyspaced,parallel
slits, usually thousands of lines (slits) per centimeter.
Transmissiongratingsareruledonglassandtheunruledareas
transmittheincidentlight.Thisexperimentusesatransmission
grating

replica.


Diffractionreferstothe"bending"ofwavesaroundsharp
edgesorcorners.Theslitsofagratinggiverisetodiffractionand
thediffractedlightinterferessoastosetupinterferencepatterns.
Completeconstructiveinterferenceoccurswhenthephaseorpath
differenceisequaltosomewholenumberofthewavelength.In
generalthegratingequationforconstructivemaximais

m=d sin

where m is called the order of the spectrum, is the

wavelength, d is the spacing between grating lines, and is the
diffraction angle measured with respect to the direction of the
light
incident
on
the
grating.
When the light from a gas discharge tube is observed with a
spectrometer, the colored images of the entrance slit appear as
bright lines separated by dark regions: hence, the name line or
discrete spectra. Each gas emits a particular set of spectral lines
and has its own characteristic spectrum. The discrete lines of a
given spectrum depend on the atomic structure of the atoms and
are due to electron transitions. The line spectrum of hydrogen was
explained by Bohr's theory that describes spectral lines as
resulting from electron transitions between energy levels.
The Bohr model was based on the following assumptions.
The electron in a hydrogen atom travels around the nucleus
in a circular orbit.
The energy of the electron in an orbit is proportional to its
distance from the nucleus. The further the electron is from
the nucleus, the more energy it has.

 Only a limited number of orbits with certain energies are

allowed. In other words, the orbits are quantized.
The only orbits that are allowed are those for which the
angular momentum of the electron is an integral multiple of
Planck's constant divided by 2p.
Light is absorbed when an electron jumps to a higher
energy orbit and emitted when an electron falls into a lower
energy orbit.
The energy of the light emitted or absorbed is exactly equal
to the difference between the energies of the orbits.
HYDROGEN SPECTRUM:

Long before Bohr formulated his theory of

Hydrogen spectrum, Balmer, Lyman and Paschen made
experimental studies of the hydrogen spectrum in the visible,
ultraviolet and infra red regions. They gave an empirical
formula representing
, the wave number of the spectral
v

lines as:

1
1 1 ________(x)
=v =R( 2 2 )

n1 n2
When Hydrogen atom is excited, the electron absorbs the
energy of the exciting agent and jumps into an outer orbit. As an
electron in the outer orbit is unstable, it jumps back into the inner

orbit thereby radiating the difference in the energy of the two

orbits. This energy gives rise to a particular line in the spectrum.
The formulation of various series in the Hydrogen
spectrum is shown by an energy level diagram. The energy
corresponding to n=1 is shown along the lowermost line.

The frequencies of lines in different series remarkably

coincide with the values calculated from Bohrs formula.
However, before that, the line spectrum of hydrogen was
shown to follow the description of Balmer's empirical formula:

1
1 1 R R
=R 2 2 = 2

2 n 4 n

( )

Here, n refers to the principal quantum number of the

initial energy level, and R is Rydberg's constant with a value of R
= 1.097 x 107 m-1.

BALMER SERIES:

Balmer series of spectral lines is produced when

&

= 3, 4, 5,..etc. by equation (x)

n2

n1

=2

-1
1
1 1
=1.09737 103 2 2 A

2 n
This series lies in the visible (or optical) region. The

( )

wavelength of the first member of Balmer series is:

First member:
In this case

n1

=2&

=3

n2

1
1 1
=1.09737 103 2 2

2 3

A-1

( )

= 656.28 nm
Limiting member:
The wavelength of the limiting member can be calculated
by putting
=

n2

In this case

n1

=2&

n2

1
1 1
=1.09737 103 2 2

A-1

=364.5nm

In this experiment, the hydrogen line spectrum will be

observed and the experimental measurements of wavelengths will
be compared to those predicted by Balmer's equation.
The wavelengths of the spectral lines observable with the
Balmer lamp are indicated as:

Sr.#

Line

Wavelength(nm)

Colour

656.28

Red

486.13

Turquoise

To

find

H
H

particular
=gSin

434.05

Blue

410.17

violet

wavelength,

use

the

relation:

Where

1 d
=tan ( )
f3

& g: Grating constant= 1.67 10-6m-1

(for a diffraction grating of 600 lines/mm)
if care is taken to ensure that the light enters the grating
with normal incidence, the wavelength of spectral line is given by
the familiar relation

m=d sin
Where d is the spacing of the slits in the grating, m is the
order of the diffracted wavelength, and is the angle through
which the wavelength has been deviated. A set of Balmer lines
originating from various energy levels is schematically shown in
fig.

Fig: Balmer lines originating from different energy levels of

Hydrogen atom.
A schematic arrangement for the first three diffraction
orders of the Hydrogen spectrum is illustrated in the fig:

Fig: Schematic diagram showing first three orders of the hydrogen

spectrum.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Apparatus:

Balmer lamp
Power supply of Balmer lamp
Small optical bench
Bench clamp
Adjustable slit
Holder with spring clips
Copy of Rowland grating(600 lines/mm)
Translucent screen
Multi clamps
Lenses f=100mm and f=50mm

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Make fine adjustment focus of the Balmer lamp to the slit,

focus 0th and 1st interference order on the translucent screen.
Open the slit until a reasonable compromise between
brightness and separation (resolution) of the lines is
obtained.

Determine the spacing on the screen between the 0 th and 1st

interference order of the hydrogen lines of H ,

and

Evaluation: Based on the 1st interference order it applies:

For f3 the measured spacing between the convergent lens
f=100mm and the translucent screen should be entered, as
due to manufacturing tolerances the measured spacing lensto screen should be around 95mm. Grating constant
g=1.6710-6m.
Determining the wavelengths of H,
and
lines.

10

Fig: hydrogen spectrum obtained from the experiment.

RESULTS
FOR RED LIGHT

Distance of red line from right = 1.80cm

Distance of red line from left = 1.75cm
Average distance = dr = 1.80+1.75

= 1.775cm

f3 = spacing between the convergent lens and translucent screen = 4.2cm

As,
Here,

So,
From
Where,

= gSin

1 d
=tan ( )
f3

1.775
)=
0.42cm) = 22.78o
4.2
1
tan
1
=tan

= gSin

g = 1.67 10-6 m-1

= (1.67 10-6 m-1)sin(22.78o)
= 6.46 10-7 m = 646.61nm

PERCENTAGE ERROR

Actual value of wavelength of red colour = 656.28nm

Observed value of wavelength of red colour = 646.61nm

Actual valueObserved value 100

Actual value
Percentage error = 656.28646.61
= 9.67
100
100
656.28
656.28
Percentage error =

Percentage error =

1.47

FOR TURQUOISE LIGHT

Distance of turquoise line from right = 1.40cm

Distance of turquoise line from left = 1.40cm

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Average distance = dt = 1.40+1.40

= 1.40cm

f3 = spacing between the convergent lens and translucent screen = 4.2cm

As,

= gSin

Here,

1 d
=tan ( )
f3

So,
From
Where,

1.40
)=
0.33cm) = 18.26o
4.2
1
tan
1
=tan

= gSin

g = 1.67 10-6 m-1

= (1.67 10-6 m-1)sin(18.26o)
= 5.2326 10-7 m = 523.26nm

PERCENTAGE ERROR

Actual value of wavelength of turquoise colour = 486.13nm

Observed value of wavelength of turquoise colour = 523.26nm

Actual valueObserved value 100

Actual value
Percentage error = 486.13523.26
= 37.13
100
100
486.13
486.13
Percentage error =

7.63

FOR BLUE LIGHT

Distance of blue line from right = 1.30cm

Distance of blue line from left = 1.20cm
Average distance = db = 1.30+1.20

= 1.25cm

f3 = spacing between the convergent lens and translucent screen = 4.2cm

12

As,

= gSin

Here,

1 d
=tan ( )
f3

So,
From
Where,

1.25
)=
0.29cm) = 16.17o
4.2
1
tan
1
=tan

= gSin

g = 1.67 10-6 m-1

= (1.67 10-6 m-1)sin(16.17o)
= 4.6507 10-7 m = 465.07nm

PERCENTAGE ERROR

Actual value of wavelength of blue colour = 434.05nm

Observed value of wavelength of blue colour = 465.07nm

Actual valueObserved value 100

Actual value
Percentage error = 434.05465.07
= 31.02
100
100
434.05
656.28
Percentage error =

7.14

FOR VOILET LIGHT

Distance of voilet line from right = 1.10cm

Distance of voilet line from left = 1.15cm
Average distance = dv = 1.10+1.15

= 1.125cm

f3 = spacing between the convergent lens and translucent screen = 4.2cm

As,
Here,

So,
From
Where,

13

= gSin

1 d
=tan ( )
f3

1.125
)=
0.26cm) = 14.57o
4.2
1
tan
1
=tan

= gSin

g = 1.67 10-6 m-1

= (1.67 10-6 m-1)sin(14.57o)

= 4.2010 10-7 m = 420.10nm

PERCENTAGE ERROR

Actual value of wavelength of voilet colour = 410.17nm

Observed value of wavelength of voilet colour = 420.10nm

Actual valueObserved value 100

Actual value
Percentage error = 410.17420.10
= 9.93
100
100
410.17
410.17
Percentage error =

2.42

So our result gives:

Line
d (cm)
H

H
H
H

(degree)

(nm)

1.775

22.78

646.61

1.40

18.26

523.26

1.25

16.17

465.07

1.125

14.57

420.10

DISCUSSION
BALMER LAMP

The Balmer lamp is an a.c. operated filled gas discharge

tube filled with water vapors. The sealed tube is supplied by a
water bound in hygroscopic material. The water molecule are split
up by the electron discharge in atomic hydrogen and hydroxyl
group. A high temperature resistant capillary inside the lamp

14

forces the discharge into a narrow space where a high

concentration of atomic hydrogen is responsible for intensive
Balmer spectrum.
POWER SUPPLY FOR THE BALMER LAMP

The power supply consist of power supply unit operated

from the a.c. main and the Balmer lamp holder which is
firmly connected with this unit. The high voltage required
to operate the Balmer lamp is produced in high voltage
power supply by means of a constant current transformer.
The high voltage cable from the power supply unit ends at
a distributor box are used for two purposes:
As fixture for Balmer lamp
As feed through for high voltage connections.
NOTES ON OPERATION

To ensure study operation of Balmer lamp, a certain operating

temperature is requires (approx. 55 oc measured at the
aluminum socket). if immediately upon switching on the
operating temperature is too low, discharges outside the
capillary may occur causing a unsteady light. Steady discharge
conditions will be reached after an operating time of approx.
10-15
minutes.
If a high ambient temperatures the operating
temperature become too high (higher than approx. 70oc,
measured at the aluminum socket), it may be possible that the
lamp goes out after a longer time or operation. In this case
lamp can be normally operated again after it has cooled down.
If after a long time op operation the hot Balmer lamp should
not ignite immediately after being switched off and
immediately switched on again, wait until it has cooled down.
The lamp should only be operated in vertical position, with
aluminum socket downward. In other operating position, the
light will become unsteady after some minute or will even go
out.
At initial operation, beside a strong Balmer spectrum also a
band like background will appear. This background will

15

disappear after approx. 1 hours operation. The oxygen lines in

red and green spectral region which are very weak compared
to Balmer lines will remain.
CONCLUSION

The results obtained from the experiment gave approximate

values of wavelengths of the Hydrogen Balmer lines, 646.61nm,
523.26nm, 465.07nm, 420.10nm.
The known values of the
Hydrogen Balmer lines 656.28nm, 486.13nm, 434.05nm,
410.17nm respectively. which just falls within the experimental
uncertainty giving us an accurate result.
The values of the wavelengths of the Hydrogen Balmer
lines were found to be,
Balmer line

Measured
value (nm)

True Value
(nm)

646.61

656.28

1.47

523.26

486.13

7.63

465.07

434.05

7.14

420.10

410.17

2.42

H
H
H

Percentage
error

These values fall relatively close to the true values although

they fall outside of the errors.
The values for the Hydrogen Balmer series also gave rise to
an approximation of the Rydberg constant, R R = 1.09 x 10 7 m-1
The actual value of R is given as, R = 1.097 x 10 7 m-1 so the
experimental measurement was an accurate approximation.

16

SOURCES OF ERROR

Instrument resolution
Failure to calibrate or check zero of instrument
Failure to account for a factor
Environmental factors
Instrument drift
REFERENCE

The American Institute of Physics Handbook (12th edition)

Introduction to the Structure of Matter, JJ Brehm & WJ Mullin,
Wiley (inside cover)
The American Institute of Physics Handbook (12th edition)
Course Manual
Wikipedia

APPENDIX

Grating constant:
In this formula is the angle of emergence (called deviation, D, for
the prism) at which a wavelength will be bright, d is the distance between
slits (note that d = 1 / N if N, called the grating constant, is the number of
lines per unit length) and n is the "order number", a positive integer (n = 1, 2,
3, ...) ...

Diffraction Grating:
Diffraction grating is optical device used to learn the different
wavelengths or colors contained in a beam of light. The device usually
consists of thousands of narrow, closely spaced parallel slits (or
grooves).
Spectrum:

The spectrum is the group of colors that a ray of light can be

separated into including red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet:
the colors can be seen in a rainbow.

Slit:
A long narrow cut or opening.

X___________________________________________________

M. Usman Mustafa

17

Group 5 (Leader)