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Some of the uses of rivers are, providing water for our daily needs, providing
water for agricultural activities, producing hydro-power by building dams across
rivers and as a medium of transport.
Assignment 1
Prepare a list of the uses of rivers.
Find out the rivers and streams around your locality. Investigate the uses
as well as the problems caused by these rivers and streams.
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River water gets polluted due to human activities such as release of industrial
effluents into these rivers, agriculture, destruction of forests and other consequences
of urbanisation and industrialisation. This is harmful to human as well as to the other
organisms living in the rivers.
Mining of sand from rivers is also a major problem at present. Extensive mining
of sand from rivers causes many problems such as slow erosion of the river bank,
deepening of the river basin, as a result, the springs that provide water to the close by
wells dry up, water bed goes down resulting in sea water flowing in, particularly in
areas close to lagoons, causing accidents to people who use the river for bathing,
washing etc.
Assignment 2
Prepare a list of pollutants which get added to water as a result of urbanisation
and industrialisation. Suggest measures that can be taken to minimise their harmful
effects.
Estuaries
Estuaries are places where the rivers fall in to the sea. (Fig 1.2)
Estuaries contain a mixture of saline and fresh water. It can be observed that the
river broadens out and divides into branches. Examples are Kalu ganga and Mahaweli
ganga. The load of sediment and silt brought down by the river is deposited at or near
the mouth making up triangular deltas (Fig 1.3). The sediment and silt deposited here
prevent the mixing of sea water and fresh water
.
Fig 1.3 - Delta
Estuaries show a greater biodiversity than rivers. Some of the species are fresh
water migrants that move from the river into estuaries, marine species, and are
permanent inhabitants adapted to tolerate low salinity. Many species of fish of
economic importance are common in estuaries. Salmon fish is an example.
For free distribution
Lagoons
Lagoons are coastal bodies of brackish
water without permanent connection to the sea,
but may be connected to the sea during
certain seasons of the year (Fig 1.4). Lagoons
at Negombo and Puttalam are some examples.
Lagoons are separated from the deep sea by
sand dunes.
Lagoons too, like estuaries are rich in biodiversity. They are good fishery grounds
rich in prawns,crabs and small fish.The mangroves in lagoons and estuaries are valuable resource. They significantly reduce sea erosion.
From the above facts, you may have realised that estuaries and lagoons provide
ample employment opportunities.
Let us investigate how the lagoon environment can be protected while using them
for our use.
Since a large amount of fishery resources are obtained from lagoons, their water
should be kept clean and protected from pollution. Due to the development of towns
around estuaries and lagoons, a large amount of industrial and domestic waste gets
released to these water bodies. Further, these unique surroundings attract tourists, as
a result of tourists centres are being established. Therefore it is important to use these
environments optimally. Some of the things that we can do to minimize the effects are;
avoiding distructive methods of fishing.
minimising pollution by mineral oils.
minimising pollution by soaps, detergents, shampoos and other domestic and
industrial effluents being added to water.
Riverine environments
Riverines are the environment found on the two sides of a river. Rivers overflow
during rainy seasons and form flood plains. The soil here is very rich since silt and
other organic sediments collect here. Therefore, in seasons when there is no rain,
these areas are used for cultivation. Also the clay soil found in these areas are used for
the tile and brick industry. Therefore, riverine environments are economically very
useful for human beings.
Inland waters
Natural ponds and lakes belong to this group. These are ecosystems containing
fresh water. Such inland ponds can be seen in the dry zone as well as the wet zone of
Sri Lanka.
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For free distribution
Montane forests
These are found at heights of 900 m.
above sea level. Annual rainfall of about 4000
mm. This area is subjected to strong winds.
Therefore, trees are short and stunted. Trunks
are twisted and gnarled. Top of the trees form
a flat canopy. (Fig 1.9) No stratification can
be seen. Leaves are small. Common plants Fig 1.9 - A profile of montane forest
are wal sapu, veralu, mihiriya and dan
varieties. Tree trunks are moist. Hence, they are covered with lichen, mosses and
epiphytes.
Some species of monkeys, wild boar, deer, giant squirrel, loris and sambhur, as
well as many species of fish, amphibians, lizards and birds are found here.
Examples of montane forests are Pidurutalagala, Adams Peak, Kikiliyamana,
Knuckles range, Horton plains, Hakgala and Pattipola forest reserve. Most montane
forests are the water catchments for many rivers. Therefore, it is our responsibility to
protect them for the future generations.
Dry mixed evergreen forests
These are also known as monsoon forests.
They are located around 900 m above sea level in
the dry zone. Temperature is more than 30
degrees Celsius (30 oC) with an annual rainfall of
about 1250 - 1900 mm. These are found in the
dry, but not arid areas of the counrtry.
Fig 1.10 - A profile of dry mixed
Animals such as leopards, deer, bear, different species of monkeys, giant squirrels
can be seen. These forests provide a good habitat for elephants. These forests are
found in Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Batticaloa, and Ampara districts.
This ecosystem once had covered most of the dry zone land, but now it is reduced
to a small extent.
If you get an opportunity to travel from Colombo to Badulla by train, you can
observe some of the above environments and note how they change from the low
country to the highlands.
Thorny shrubs and scrublands
These ecosystems are found in
northwest and south east of the
island. Temperature is higher than 34 degrees Celsius (34 o C), and annual
rainfall is below 1250 mm. Therefore, these
are called semi arid areas. Soil is dry and
sandy. Humidity is low. Day time is mostly
sunny.
Plants in these regions are adapted to withstand the environmental conditions prevailing here. Some such adaptations are fleshy leaves, reduced number of leaves,
shiny leaf surface, stems store water, stems become photosynthetic and leaves and
stems posses latex. Some examples of plant types are nawahandi (euphorbia), daluk,
pathok(cactus), komarika(aloe), kaneru, andera, eraminiya. This type of
vegetations can be found in Mannar, Kilinochchi, Mulativu and Hambantota
districts.Wilpattu, Bundala sanctuaries, Madu area, Chundikulam, Madunagala.
Weerawila and Tissa are sanctuaries belonging to this category.
We have already studied about the natural forests of Sri Lanka, we can now
investigate how such ecosystems progressed into the major succession in the above
areas of the country.
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Villus
Fig 1.15 - Thalawa
These are wet grasslands found in the
flood plains of the rivers in the dry zone. In
areas where flooding occurs, villus are
formed in the abandoned ponds, lakes and
large water bodies. Villus are highly fertile
ecosystems.
It is very high in biodiversity and
density, comprising of large mamals such as
elephants, deer, buffalo, leopards and foxes,
Fig 1.16 - A beautiful scenery of a Villu
and birds such as peacocks, jungle fowl,
storks, seru, king fishers and hawks and a large range of fish, amphibians such as frogs
and toads and reptiles like common lizard and snakes.
After the rainy season, the villu areas get filled with water plants and make a
beautiful scene with the encircling forests. (Fig. 1.16) They are a fine attraction for
tourists. The villus filled with fish are a rich fishery resource for the villagers. The most
extensive villus of Sri Lanka are in the Mahaveli flood plains. Villu grasslands are fine
grounds for cattle farming. Examples are the cattle farms of Tamankaduwa.
Wetlands
These are located at a lower level in comparison with the other water bodies.
Water from the surrounding areas flow into these and get collected here. Wetlands
have a high soil water level. Once maximum water has been absorbed, the remaining
water collects and remains as a surface layer of water.
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Provides a habitat
for wild life
Wetlands/Marshes
Removes poisonous
pollutants
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A chena cultivation
A tea estate
An animal farm
A coconut cultivation
A paddy field
A rubber cultivation
Natural environment
In order to get maximum benefit from an agricultural system, a great deal of attention
and commitment is needed. Water and suitable fertilizers have to be provided when
needed. Suitable pest controlling methods should be adopted. If some disease is detected
it must be controlled immediately since the entire crop can be destroyed quickly.
If the same crop is grown continuously the harvest will get reduced. Hence methods
such as crop rotation and multi-crop agriculture have to be practised.
Assignment - 5
Grow some crop that you like in your home garden. Prepare a small plot for
this or grow it in a pot. Maintain a diary about how it was maintained till it started
bearing fruit.
For free distribution
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Insufficient
light
Lack of space
Insufficient
ventilation
Damage due to
sudden fires
Unorganised
urban
settlements
Diseases rising to
epidemic level
Flooding
during rain
Improper sewage
disposal
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As a remedy for the above problems, plans are being drawn to build better planned
housing complexes. Accordingly, high rise flats are planned so that maximum use is
made of the existing land unlike in the unorganized settlements such as the slums.
Therefore, our motto for tomorrow should be planned cities.
Assignment - 7
Construct a model of a planned settlement using throw away materials.
In planning the above model make use of the criteria given below:
1. Making optimum use of the land
2. Sufficient light and ventilation
3. Adequate sanitary facilities
4. Road ways and water supply
5. Recreation and sports facilities
6. Safety and protection
7. Other daily requirements
From the discussion so far, you should be now able to understand how to make
optimum use of agricultural, industrial and human settlements productively and
scientifically.
It is very important to manage these human settlements in a proper manner,
in order to minimize the harms to the natural environments and to get the
maximum utilization of these settlements.
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1.3.1 Snakes
Snakes rank high among poisonous animals in Sri Lanka. Snakes are reptiles who
are legless, hence creep along the ground. They are carnivorous sometimes feeding on
prey which are much larger than its mouth. Their mouth and jaws are specially adapted
for this purpose. The lower jaw consisting of two halves is fastened by an elastic
ligament which can stretch enabling the mouth to be opened wide to admit large prey
into the mouth. Before the prey is taken into the mouth it is often paralysed by the
venom secreted by the poison glands.
Poison glands are modified
salivary glands and their ducts open
at the base of the two canine teeth
on either side of the mouth. This
poison is sent out by a canal and
injected into the body of the prey
by the canine teeth, which are called
fangs. Poison fangs are found only
in poisonous snakes.
poison gland
nasal opening
poison duct
teeth
tongue
sheath of teeth
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Snake poison or venom is a protein solution. It contains enzymes and water. These
affect the nervous system or blood of the prey. Hence it helps to paralyse the prey as
well as in digestion.
Do you know?
The anti-venom vaccine that is given to snake bite victims is also used to prepare
drugs for leprosy, asthma and measles.
Ninety six species of snakes have been recorded in Sri Lanka. Among these only
five species are highly poisonous.
They are; i) Cobra
ii) Two species of kraits
iii) Two species of vipers
Features and habits of the above snakes.
1. Cobra (Nagaya)
Fig 1. 23
Fig 1. 24
Table 1.1
Body features
1. Shape of head
2. Nature of scales
3. Tail
Vipers
Triangular
Small
Short, blunt
Now let us find out about the mildly poisonous and non-poisonous types of snakes.
Mildly poisonous and non-poisonous snakes
Several species are mildly poisonous, and the symptoms of their stings are festering
around the wound, severe pain and swelling. This situation persists for a few days. It
may affect the kidneys but is not fatal. Eg. polong thelissa, mukalang thelissa, pala
polanga.
Do you know ?
Deaths due to the venom of Merrems hump
nosed viper have been reported. Although
considered as a highly poisonous species, it is a
mildly poisonous, nocturnal type.
Fig 1. 28 - Merrems hump nosed viper
Certain other species such as Cat snake (Mapila), Mal Karawala, Ahatulla have
very lightly poisonous venom. They cause a slight pain, slight swelling which wears out
after a few hours.
Non-poisonous snakes
In Sri Lanka, there are 59 species of non-poisonous snakes. The myth that Snakes
are poisonous makes people destroy any snake they meet. Therefore, it is important
to be able to identify the non-poisonous types. Even the non-poisonous types are
carnivorous. Some of them such as python, rat-snake and checkered keel ball swallow
their whole prey.
Assignment - 8
Get information from your elders about the various ideas they have about snakes.
Using books and other resources (teachers) identify the myths from the above
information and prepare a booklet.
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Keep our environments clean - There are many piles of rubbish around us. Left
over food is part of the rubbish. Rats and toads gather around these in search of
food. Snakes chase after these prey and get into rubbish heaps for this reason.
Avoid collecting piles of used newspapers, books etc. Snakes also like all other
reptiles prefer warmth. The warmth inside piles of newspapers etc. may attract
snakes.
Clean up old termite hills, rat holes around your house for they can attract snakes.
Do not pile up left over bricks, tiles in your back garden. They provide the necessary
warmth and protection for snakes.
Use correct protective gear when walking around places where snakes may be
found. When walking around in the night carry a torch and wear protective boots.
When walking on grass or shrubs, make a noise on the ground or beat the ground
with a stick. Although snakes have little hearing they are extremely sensitive to
vibrations on the ground. Therefore, snakes creep away from such places for their
own protection.
Do not touch snakes or insult them.
Wash the wound well with soap and water. Cover with a clean piece of cloth (to
prevent bacterial infection).
If the bite is in the foot, do not move it, lift the victim when taking him to hospital.
wasp
hornet
Centipede
Scorpion
bee
Tarantula
Fig 1. 29
Wasps, hornets and bees are herbivores feeding on plant nectar. Therefore, their
poison is only for protection. They introduce poison into our bodies with their sting
placed at the posterior end of their body. When they sting the darts of the sting remain
in the body of the victim.
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Bee poison is not fatal, but wasps and hornets poison may be fairly lethal, sometime
may even cause death. As soon as a bee stings, removing the darts from the wound
can relieve the pain.
Wasps and bees collect honey in their hives. As long as we do not disturb them,
they do no harm us. By trying to collect honey from these hives, people get attacked
by these bees and wasps. Further, in order to chase them away, people try to destroy
their colonies and get attacked by these insects.
Centipede is a carnivorous animal. Centipedes have poisons stings to anesthetise
the prey as well as for their own protection. They remain inactive during the day, hiding
under stones or rotting leaves and become active in the night. So, most people get
stung by centipedes at night time.
Scorpion too is carnivorous. It is a solitary, nocturnal arthropod. It remains inactive
during the day under rotting logs of trees, rubbish heaps and stones. Poison is sent out
by a sting at the end of the tail. It too helps to anaesthetise the prey, to digest it, as well
as for protection. When man becomes a challenge they may sting them too.
Tarantula is a highly poisonous arthropod. The most poisonous forms have hairs
on their body. They can be found on coconut trees, palm trees etc. A special feature
about spiders is their habit of moving towards a danger.
Assignment - 9
Find out about traditional remedial methods in your town/village for stings by
poisonous Arthropods
In order to prevent or minimise harm from poisonous animal we need to
understand their habits and life activities.
Assignment - 10
Construct a poster showing the ways of preventing or minimising harm from
poisonous snakes and arthropods.
The poisonous animals which we mentioned above seem to be harmful to man,
but we cannot forget their environmental importance.
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Number of pests are kept under control by being eaten by snakes, tarantulas and
centipedes.
Number of rats, frogs, lizards and small snakes are kept under control by poisonous
snakes eating them.
Insects such as bees and wasps help in pollination of flowers which is important
for producing fruits.
So, it is clear that all the poisonous animals we have learnt up to now are part of a
food chain. They also contribute to increase the bio-diversity in our environment.
So, by destroying such animals we do a lot of harm to our environment. You may
by now understand the importance of protecting ourselves from them while considering
them as our eco-friends.
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1
2
3
What is the message or order conveyed by each of the above symbols?
They are stated below;
1. Bus stop
2. Pedestrian crossing for children ahead
3. Hospital
Just like you, any person in any corner of the rest of the world too, will
understand the above message exactly the same way as you.
Man has been used symbols to communicate information in the past too. These
symbols were unique to each country, nationality, different groups and different areas.
Communication among people of different countries have become closer, due to current
trends in globalisation.
Therefore there is a need for developing these symbols according to
international standards to be acceptable to any citizen in any part of the world. This
enables any person in any country, nationality, whether literate or illiterate to understand
the messages given by these symbols.
Assignment - 11
Note the symbols indicated in various places and in labels of various packed
goods and write them down.
Try to understand the messages that are communicated by these symbols.
There is a need to understand and act according to the various messages given by
symbols in our dealings with places delivering services and goods, dealing with
equipment, travelling to foreign countries and seeking employment in various institutions.
Therefore, it is important to be knowledgeable about these symbols.
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In this chapter, let us consider some common symbols used in scientific laboratories, factories, medical field and in communicating weather information.
1.4.1
Examine table 1.2 showing some symbols used in laboratories and the messages
conveyed by each of the symbols.
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Symbol
Highly inflammable.
Toxic. (These substances can kill. They may act when you
swallow them, or breathe them in or absorb them through your
skin).
Irritant (These substances are not corrosive but can cause
reddening or blistering of skin).
Eye wash (If some chemical enters the eye, a place for washing
the eye).
Emergency shower (A place for washing the body if a chemical
comes in contact with the body or in case of burns).
Assignment - 12
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1.4.2
The symbols used in factories help to ensure the protection of the workers of the
factory as well as visitors coming from outside. In addition they also give a direction
towards the orderly maintenance of the factory. Some such symbols and the message
conveyed by each is given in the table below. (Table 1.3)
Table 1.3 - Some symbols associated with factories
Symbol
Message / Order
No smoking
No entry
Do not touch
No eating or drinking
Wear protectors
1.4.3
Symbol
Weather Information
Clear sky (night)
Sunny
Light rain shower (day)
Drizzle
Heavy rain
Thunder storm
Heavy snow
Do you know
Meteologists use certain symbols of International standard to record and map
out information regarding the weather.
Indicated below are some such symbols.
Symbol
Weather information
Light showers expected
Normal or heavy rain
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Symbol
Exercises
(1) Students of Grade 8 joined a field trip to observe different types of ecosystems. Given below is a report prepared by them regarding the different
habitats.
Observations
Eco system
Observations
Ecosystems
Select the suitable ecosystem that fits the description from those given below:
Montane forest, Tropical rain forest, Wet Patana, Dry Patana, Damana, Villu,
Thorny shrubs and woods, Talawa, Dry mixed evergreen forests, inland waters,
lagoons.
For free distribution
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(2) When we travel along the main roads in Sri lanka, we come across more
cultivated areas than natural forest areas.
I. Name the most common types of trees used for re forestation in the
Talawe grasslands in the low country wet zone.
II. What type of plants have been selected for reforestation in the up
country areas?
III. A single brown - plant hopper (Keedawa) infecting a paddy field can
destroy the entire field, but an insect infectation to a tree in a natural forest
will not destroy the entire forest. Give a scientific explanation for the above
phenomenon.
(3) State the factors that should be concerned as Sri lankans when constructing
an industrial environment.
(4) Read the following statements by several students on observing a serpent in
the school premises.
I. It is wrong to let it go, because there is a saying that Anyone who lets
a poisonous snake get away is a fool.
II. All snakes are not poisonous - so let us let him stay
III. Snakes hover aound the school because of the rubbish heaps we collect.
IV. Let us knock the ground with a stick. Then it will go.
V. Even if the snake is poisonous, it has a significant environmental value.
State briefly, your ideas about each of the above statements.
(5) Identify the given symbols and answer the following questions.
b
a
c
I. Write in order, the message given by each of the above symbols.
II. Write down one location where each of the above symbols should be
exhibited.
III. In a place where the symbol a is exhibited, there is a heap of broken
articles strewn around. Explain briefly the hazards that can be caused by this.
IV. What are things you should not do in a location where b is exhibited.
V. Sometimes indicating messages by symbols is more effective than by
writing - Give your ideas in favour of this statement.
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