Bioenergy

Biomelioration:
Harnessing Biomethanation for Energy Generation &

Environment Protection:
Organic
Waste
Bio-Gas
Plant
Methane +
Soil Amendment
1
Sardar Taimur Hyat-Khan. Email: timurhyat@gmail.com web: www.tamir-e-nau.org
Table of Contents:
1.
Introduction: .........................................................................................................6
1.1
Definitions:.........................................................................................................6
1.1.1
Liquid Waste:.............................................................................................6
1.1.2
Biomelioration: .........................................................................................6
1.1.3
Bioenvironmental Management: .............................................................6
1.1.4
Bioremediation:..........................................................................................6
1.1.5
Methanogenesis:.........................................................................................6
1.1.6
Bioaugmentation: ......................................................................................6
1.1.7
Phytoremediation: ....................................................................................6
1.1.8
Bio-Oxidation: ...........................................................................................7
1.1.9
Composting: ..............................................................................................7
1.2
The History of Methane:...................................................................................7
1.3
Reasons for Failures:.........................................................................................8
1.5
Whats Different Now?......................................................................................8
1.5
Advantages & Disadvantages:..........................................................................9
1.5.1
Advantages:................................................................................................9
1.5.2
Disadvantages.............................................................................................9
2.
Liquid Waste:.......................................................................................................10
2.1
Households: .....................................................................................................12
2.2
Service Industries: ..........................................................................................13
2.3
Manufacturing Industry: ...............................................................................13
2.3.1
Waste Stream or Wastes having as Constituents:.................................14
2.3.2
Other Hazardous Waste Streams: .........................................................16
2.4
Hazardous Waste Management:.....................................................................16
2.4.1
Hazardous Waste Characteristics:.........................................................16
2.4.2
Bioaugmentation Treatment Materials:................................................17
3.
Health Issues:.......................................................................................................22
3.1
Major Excreta Related Diseases:....................................................................22
3.2
Excreta Related Diseases and their Characteristics:....................................23
3.3
Survival Time of Pathogens by different Disposal Treatment Conditions. 24
4.
Managing the Use of Water:...............................................................................24
4.1
BACT: ..............................................................................................................24
4.2
The Sustainable Region Initiative (SRI): ......................................................24
4.2.2
Integrated Resource Recovery:..............................................................25
4.2.2
Use Liquid waste as a Resource:............................................................26
4.3
Water Treatment Projects Design Philosophy for Developing Countries:. 28
5.
Biological Treatment:..........................................................................................29
5.5
Wastewater Treatment Plants:.......................................................................30
5.2
Methane:...........................................................................................................30
5.2.1CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O (H = 891 kJ/mol (at standard conditions)). .30
5.3
Methanogenesis:...............................................................................................32
Strains of Methanogens:................................................................................................32
5.4
Thermophillic Digesters:..................................................................................33
5.5
Energy:...............................................................................................................33
5.5.1
Daily Waste and Methane Production by Dairy, Beef:.........................35
2
5.5.2
Waste Methane Contents and Petrol Equivalents:...............................36
5.5.3
Developing Technologies:........................................................................36
5.6
Safety:...............................................................................................................36
5.7
Composition:....................................................................................................36
5.8
Fertilizer and Soil Conditioner:.....................................................................37
5.9
Waste Heat Recovery:.....................................................................................37
5.10 Biochemical Process:.......................................................................................37
5.11 Physical Process:..............................................................................................38
5.12 Alternative Biological Production routes:.....................................................38
6.
Generation Process:.............................................................................................38
6.1
Optimum Conditions for Digester Operation:..............................................38
6.2
System Management: .....................................................................................39
6.2.2
Preferential Degradation of Specific Compounds: ..............................39
6.2.3
Improved Nitrification ...........................................................................39
6.2.4
Other Areas: ............................................................................................39
6.2.6
Method: ....................................................................................................39
6.3
Gas Production. ...............................................................................................40
6.3.1
pH: ............................................................................................................40
6.3.2
Ammonia Concentration: ......................................................................40
6.3.3
Uniform loading:......................................................................................41
6.3.4
Key Consideration:..................................................................................41
6.3.5
Important Issue:.......................................................................................41
6.3.6
Establishment: .........................................................................................42
6.3.7
Suitability of Raw Material:...................................................................42
6.3.8
Percentage of Solids:................................................................................42
6.3.9
Temperature of Operating Cycle:..........................................................42
6.4
Digester Construction Requirements:...........................................................42
6.5.1
Insulating: ................................................................................................42
6.4.2
Stirring: ...................................................................................................42
6.5
Digester Innovations:.......................................................................................43
6.5.1
Corn Cob Digesters..................................................................................43
6.5.2
Energy Dome............................................................................................44
7.
Makeen Qatil Makanoon Kay........................................................................44
7.1
Standing on the Outside, Looking In:............................................................45
7.2
Present Trends:................................................................................................45
7.2.1
Israaf:....................................................................................................45
7.2.2
Eco-Disaster:............................................................................................45
7.2.3
Unaesthetic:..............................................................................................45
7.2.4
Un-Scientific:............................................................................................45
7.2.5
Expensive:.................................................................................................45
7.2.6
Non-Traditional:......................................................................................45
7.2.7
Site-Orientation:......................................................................................46
7.2.8
Energy Conservation:..............................................................................46
7.2.9
Thermal Characteristics:........................................................................46
7.2.10
Earth Shelter:...........................................................................................47
7.2.11
Roof:..........................................................................................................47
3
7.2.12
Walls:........................................................................................................47
7.2.13
Floors:.......................................................................................................47
7.2.14
Basements:................................................................................................47
7.2.18
Prevailing Adobe Homes:........................................................................48
7.2.19
Geodesic Dome Construction:................................................................48
7.2.20
Weather/ Climate Orientation:...............................................................49
7.2.21
Location:...................................................................................................49
7.2.22
Summary:.................................................................................................49
7.3
Concept: ...........................................................................................................49
7.3.1
Effort: .......................................................................................................50
7.3.2
Other Uses: ..............................................................................................50
7.3.3
The Design: ..............................................................................................50
7.3.4
Culture: ....................................................................................................50
7.3.5
Structure: .................................................................................................50
7.3.6
Designing and Trials: ..............................................................................51
8.
Size of the Plant:..................................................................................................51
8.1
Sizing a Bio Gas Plant.....................................................................................51
8.2
Summary..........................................................................................................52
8.3
Double Stage: ..................................................................................................53
9.
Residual Products: ..............................................................................................54
9.1
Class A Sludge: ................................................................................................54
9.1.1
Composting the Digestate:......................................................................55
9.2
Gas Contamination and Contaminants: .......................................................55
9.3
Purification of Landfill and Digester Gas: ...................................................57
9.3.1
Gas Scrubbing Technologies:..................................................................58
10.
Determining the Feasibility of Methane Production:.......................................61
11.
Conclusion:...........................................................................................................63
Table of Tables:
Table 1: Sewage Capacity....................................................................................................5
Table 2: History of Methane................................................................................................6
Table 3: Reasons of Failure.................................................................................................7
Table 4: What's Different Now!...........................................................................................7
Table 5:Advantages..............................................................................................................8
Table 6: Disadvantages........................................................................................................8
Table 7: Sewage Statistics..................................................................................................10
Table 8: Liquid Waste Sources...........................................................................................11
Table 9: Food Group Disposal via Sink/ Sewer.................................................................12
Table 10: Leather Industry Effluent Analysis....................................................................12
Table 11: Industrial Hazardous Liquid Waste Categories..................................................13
Table 12: Industrial Waste Constituents............................................................................13
Table 13: Explosives Waste Constituents..........................................................................16
Table 14: Explosives Waste Degradation Products...........................................................17
Table 15: Bioaugmentation Treatment Materials...............................................................17
Table 16:Proposed Bioremediation Process......................................................................18
Table 17: Major Excreta Related Diseases........................................................................22
Table 18: Excreta Related Diseases & Characteristics......................................................22
4
Table 19:Pathogen Survival Times by Disposal/ Treatment..............................................23

Table 20: Best Available Control Technology (BACT) 3Rs..............................................23
Table 21: Overarching Principles......................................................................................24
Table 22: Sustainability Principles....................................................................................24
Table 23: Design Philosophy Indicators............................................................................26
Table 24: Technology Imperatives.....................................................................................27
Table 25: Conditions for High Quality Water Production.................................................27
Table 26:Methane Combustion Process Equations............................................................29
Table 27: Use & Consumption of Biogas..........................................................................33
Table 28: Dry Manure Methane Production......................................................................34
Table 29: Waste Methane Contents & Petrol Equivalents.................................................34
Table 30: Methane Composition & %...............................................................................35
Table 31: Ammonia Concentration Effect on Methane Production...................................39
Table 32:C:N Ratios...........................................................................................................40
Table 33: Orientation Factors............................................................................................44
Table 34: Energy Conservation..........................................................................................45
Table 35: Current Adobe Construction Climatic Adaptation Advantages.........................46
Table 36: Current Adobe Construction Climatic Adaptation Disadvantages....................47
Table 37: Gedesic Dome Construction Advantages..........................................................47
Table 38: Advantages of Proposed Construction...............................................................48
Table 39: Methane Production Residual Products.............................................................52
Table 40: Digestate Composting Advantages....................................................................53
Table 41: Gas Purification Reasons...................................................................................56
Table 42: Purification Process...........................................................................................58
Table 43: PSA Scrubbing Advantages...............................................................................59
Table of Figures:
Figure 1: Gas Street Lamp.................................................................................................8
Figure 2: Geodesic Digesters.............................................................................................9
Figure 3: Green House Gasses.........................................................................................10
Figure 4: Liquid Waste.....................................................................................................10
Figure 5: Sewerage Systems Components.......................................................................12
Figure 6: Treatment Perspective......................................................................................20
Figure 7: Sustainable Resource Initiative........................................................................27
Figure 8: Wastewater Treatment Stages...........................................................................30
Figure 9: Biochemical Process........................................................................................37
Figure 10: pH Effects.........................................................................................................40
Figure 11: Stirrer................................................................................................................43
Figure 12: Geodesic Dome Bamboo Frame......................................................................44
Figure 13: Sizing a Digester..............................................................................................51
Figure 14: Flow Chart Waste Disposal..............................................................................53
Figure 15: Large Scale Composting..................................................................................55
Figure 16: Digester Gas Contents......................................................................................55
Figure 17: Wet Scrubbing..................................................................................................58
Figure 18: PSA Cycle.......................................................................................................59
Figure 19: PSA..................................................................................................................59
Figure 20: Moving Towards the Future.............................................................................63
5
1.
Introduction: Sewage infiltration into groundwater has made most of the worlds
potable water undrinkable, unless immediate and emergency measures are taken to
restore the environment and stop pollution, we will be unable to meet Pakistans water
demands in the near future. It is estimated that a community of 10,000 people generate
40-acre inches of sewage effluent per day which is equivalent of 1 million gallons of
wastewater. The prime objective of this presentation is to promote sustainable Liquid
Waste Management Systems that support Green House Gas (GHG) emission reduction
through The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).
Table 1: Sewage Capacity
#
Numbers
Effluent
Energy
1 1 person
100 gallons pd/
1.46 acre inches pa
2 25 persons
2,500 gallons pd
8 kWhrs pd
3 Manure of 1 cow
3 kWhrs pd
It takes 2.4 kWhrs to light one 100 W bulb for 24 hrs.
1.1
Definitions:
1.1.1 Liquid Waste: Waste water from the community, including faecal matter, urine,
household and commercial waste water that contains human waste but does not include
stormwater.
i.
Sewage/ Blackwater: Waste discharged from the human body into a
toilet, and the water used for flushing the discharge.
ii.
Sullage/ Greywater: Wastewater from a bath, basin, kitchen, laundry or
shower.
iii.
Liquid Trade Waste: All liquid waste other than sewage of a domestic
nature.
iv.
Hazardous Liquid Waste: Waste material that, when improperly
handled, can cause substantial harm to human health and safety or to the
environment. It is generated primarily by chemical production,
manufacturing, and other industrial activities.
1.1.2 Biomelioration: Biological amelioration or using Biological means to improve or
rectify existing harmful conditions.
1.1.3 Bioenvironmental Management: The attempt to minimize the impact on the
environment of Natural Resource exploitation can be termed as Bioenvironmental
Management.
1.1.4 Bioremediation: A more cost effective method of remediation as compared to
incineration or physical and chemical remediation methods
1.1.5 Methanogenesis: Or Biomethanation is the formation of methane by microbes
known as methanogens.
1.1.6 Bioaugmentation: The addition of non-toxic and non-pathogenic
microorganisms, species of live bacteria suspended in a liquid medium that are
non-offensive to humans, animals, plants and all types of aquaculture.
1.1.7 Phytoremediation: The use of plants to remove environmental pollutants from
sites contaminated with inorganic and organic wastes. A form of ecological
engineering that has proven effective as well as relatively inexpensive and holds
great promise as a low-cost remedial approach.
1.1.8 Bio-Oxidation: The process of agitation or vertical drop of water to induce
oxidation through aeration.
6
1.1.9
Composting: Process by which organic materials are biodegraded by

microorganisms, resulting in the production of inorganic/organic byproducts and
energy in the form of heat, carbon-dioxide and water.
1.2 The History of Methane:

Table 2: History of Methane
10th Century BC
16th Century
17th Century
Used to heat water in Assyria

Used to heat water in Persia
Flammable gases found to be emitted from decaying organic
matter
Methane discovered and isolated by Alessandro Volta.
Relationship between the amount of decaying organic matter and
the amount of flammable gas produced demonstrated.
Methane produced via controlled anaerobic digestion of cattle
manure
First digestion plant built in Bombay
Biogas recovered from a sewage treatment plant in England fueled
street lamps. The technology was developed in Exeter, where a
septic tank was used to generate gas for the sewer destructor lamp,
a type of gas lighting.
The first dual-purpose tank for both sedimentation and sludge
treatment was installed in Hampton, England. 1930s Developments in microbiology identified the anaerobic bacteria
and conditions needed to promote methane production
Energy crisis renewed interest in AD
Lack of understanding and overconfidence resulted in numerous
failures
China, India and Thailand reported 50% failure rates
Failures of farm digesters in U.S. approached 80%
1776-1778
1808
1859
1895
1904
1970s
1970s - 80s
Figure 1Gas Street Lamp
1.3 Reasons for Failures:

Table 3: Reasons of Failure
Inadequate operator training.
7
2
Management failures.
3
Benefits oversold.
4
Operations too small to justify digester.
5
High costs of Infrastructure.
6
Excessive operating costs.
7
Unreliable market for biogas.
8
Impurity of Gas produced.
9
Lack of appropriate microbial inoculation.
10 Prevailing Contractor System.
1.5 Whats Different Now?
Table 4: What's Different Now!
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Improved designs and better understanding of O&M requirements.

Cogeneration to raise volume of Methane captured.
High prices for liquid fuel & natural gas.
Market evolving for biogas energy.
Microbe culture in Laboratories.
Methods of scrubbing gas produced along-with valuable by-products evolved.
Possibility of deploying Multi-Use, Integrated Plant to address different problems
simultaneously.
Revolutionary; New; Low-cost; Low-Carbon; Super-Insulated; Disaster-Proof
Construction developed in Pakistan.
System of CDM/ Carbon Credits created.
Figure 2 Geodesic Digesters
Anaerobic Digester:
Aerobic Digester:
1.5 Advantages & Disadvantages:

1.5.1 Advantages:
8
Table 5:Advantages
#
1
2
ITEM
The odor potential of a well digested waste is considerably reduced.
Sanitary Aspects: The breeding of flies and mosquitoes is eliminated as the digestion
proceeds in the absence of oxygen.
3 Efficient Use of Waste Material: Refuse, that is otherwise a problem to dispose, is put
to highly economic use.
4 Anaerobic digestion reduces loss of nitrogen from 18.5 % to 1.0 % when compared to
the conventional handling of farmyard manure. Carbon loss is reduced from 33 % to
7.3 %. Phosphorus, potassium and calcium are not lost at all.
5 Digested waste has slightly less fertilizer value than non-digested waste, but it is more
readily available to plants. It is simply converted to a more useful form.
6 If concentrated and compressed, it can also be used in vehicle transportation.
Compressed biogas is becoming widely used in Sweden, Switzerland, and Germany. A
biogas-powered train has been in service in Sweden since 2005. Biogas also powers
automobiles, in 2007, an estimated 12,000 vehicles were being fueled with upgraded
biogas worldwide, mostly in Europe.
1.5.2 Disadvantages.
Table 6: Disadvantages
#
1
2
3
5
6
ITEM
A methane digester is large and expensive. The expense stems from the fact that it
must be well-insulated, air-tight and supplied a source of heat. The size of a
conventional digester is equal to 15-20 times the daily waste volume produced, or
more if the waste is diluted before digestion. The volume of waste that must be
disposed of increases accordingly if dilution water is used.
A very high level of management is required.
A methane digester can be extremely sensitive to environmental changes, and a
biological upset may take months to correct. Methane generation ceases or is very
low during an upset.
Start-up--usually the most critical phase of methane generation-is difficult.
Methane-producing bacteria are very slow-growing, and several weeks are
required to establish a large bacterial population.
Methane produced is mixed with corrosive gasses that increase wear and tear of
machinery.
Methane is difficult to store, since at normal temperatures the gas can be
compressed but not liquefied without special, very expensive equipment. Methane
is extremely explosive when mixed with air at the proportions of 6-15 percent
methane. Digester gas is heavier than air and settles to the ground, displacing
oxygen. If hydrogen sulfide is present, the digester gas can be a deadly poison.
The decomposition of Liquid and Biodegradable Solid waste in the open releases
two main gases that cause global climate change: nitrogen dioxide and methane.
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) warms the atmosphere 310 times more than carbon dioxide
and methane 21 times more than carbon dioxide Green House Gasses (GHG).
9
Figure 3 Green House Gasses
Landfill/ Sewer gas: Sewer gases may include hydrogen sulfide, ammonia,
methane, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides. Improper disposal of
petroleum products such as gasoline and mineral spirits contribute to sewer gas hazards.
Sewer gases are of concern due to their odor, health effects, and potential for creating fire
or explosions.
2.
Liquid Waste:
Figure 4 Liquid Waste
Aquifer pollution is a main concern in Pakistan. The source is from both

municipal and industrial uses, with only about 1% of wastewater treated before disposal
this has become one of the largest environmental problems in Pakistan.
The quality of surface water has also been identified as the major issue of water
resources. Untreated waste discharged from factories, industrial units, residential areas
and municipal waste are the prime culprits which are polluting sources of surface water.
Industrial estates revealed some frightening figures that indicated serious threats to the
aquatic, terrestrial, atmospheric ecosystems and to the well-being of human, plant and
animal life. Sewage is allowed to mix with storm water as there is no separate sewage
disposal. We must Remember the drain is just for rain.
Additionally the discharge of leachate from Open Air Dumping sites into nearby
water bodies has caused water pollution concentrations exceeding standard values, for
items such as NH3, Mn, and H2S. Analysis of well water found values above the
standards for Fecal Coliforms and Nitrates. With the exception of a few big cities,
sewerage service is almost non-existent; where present it is used for peri-urban
10
horticulture or merely dumped into nearby water bodies, causing serious public health
problems. Nearly 45 % of all Pakistani households do not have access to a latrine.
Furthermore, only 51 % of all households are connected to any form of drainage (35 % to
open drain and 16 % to underground sewers or covered drains). Of particular reference to
Pakistan are the two indicators related to provision of safe drinking water and sanitation
coverage. They have direct linkages with health and therefore the productivity of the
society and its future generations.
A high Biological Oxygen demand (BOD) indicates the presence of excess
amounts of organic carbon. Oxygen depletion is a consequence of adding wastes with
high BOD values to aquatic ecosystems. The higher the BOD of a source of waste, the
higher its polluting power. BOD's of certain wastes are listed in the table below.
Table 7: Sewage Statistics
Type of Waste
Domestic Sewage
Slaughterhouse Wastes
Cattle Shed Effluents
Vegetable Processing
BOD(mg/L)
200-600
1,000-4,000
20,000
200-5,000
Every year, millions of people, most of them children, die from diseases
associated with inadequate water supply, sanitation and hygiene. Each and every day,
some 6,000 children in developing and emerging countries die for want of clean water
and sanitation. Water scarcity, poor water quality, and inadequate sanitation negatively
impact food security, livelihood choices, and educational opportunities for poor families
across the developing world. Yet, although far more people suffer the ill effects of poor
water and sanitation services than are affected by headline-grabbing topics like war,
terrorism, and weapons of mass destruction, those issues capture the public imagination
as well as public resources in a way that water and sanitation issues do not. While
agriculture is the key source of water pollutants in the developed world, human waste
takes center stage in many developing countries, where 90 percent of sewage is dumped,
untreated, into water systems. The net result is a serious reduction in both freshwater
quantity and quality.
Even sewerage systems that solve environmental problems and avert health
crises in one area often create environmental problems elsewhere by dumping the
untreated sewage into another communitys water source or common property resource
(such as lakes, rivers, coastal zone or the sea). The immediate trade-offs between
improvements in human health and the quality of life in an urban area and serious
negative environmental impacts on the surrounding area require careful consideration.
The three principal liquid waste sources within the scope of this presentation are:
Table 8: Liquid Waste Sources
SOURCE
11
1 Households.
2 The Manufacturing Industry (Secondary Industry).
3 Services Industry (Tertiary Industries).
Strict prevention of discharge of industrial effluent into natural streams is a
serious issue to be addressed through incentives and punitive measures, coupled with
cleaning of polluted water streams. A proper Sewerage System should have the following
components:1
Figure 5 Sewerage Systems Components
2.1 Households: Though the main liquid waste is sewage, households also generate some
other volumes of liquid waste (both hazardous and non-hazardous). Hazardous waste
liquids are generated when disposing of household chemicals. Most food waste is
putrescible and will generate liquid as it decomposes. The key food groups disposed via
the sink and sewer by households are:
Table 9: Food Group Disposal via Sink/ Sewer
#
1
2
3
1
Food Group
Soft Drinks.
Dairy and eggs.
Meal scraps.
GOP
12
4 Condiments, sauces, herbs & spices.

5 Staple foods.
6 Meat and fish.
7 Processed vegetables and salad.
2.2 Service Industries: Hospitals, laboratories and vehicle servicing generate hazardous
industrial liquid wastes.
2.3 Manufacturing Industry: All of the manufacturing industry generates sewage for
example in the Leather Industry:
One ton of salted rawhide will produce with 50 M3 of Liquid Effluent.
Table 10: Leather Industry Effluent Analysis
#
Analysis
1 175 kgs of COD.
2 60 kgs BOD.
3 125 kgs of SS.
4 6 kg of Chromium.
5 510 kgs of solids (trimmings and flesh).
A significant portion of all Industry will also generate hazardous liquid wastes,
the categories are as follows:
Table 11: Industrial Hazardous Liquid Waste Categories
2.3.1
#
Waste Categories
1
Plating & heat treatment.
2
Acids.
3
Alkalis.
4
Inorganic chemicals.
5
Reactive chemicals.
6
Paints, resins, inks, organic sludges.
7
Organic solvents
8
Pesticides
9
Oils
10 Putrescible/organic waste
11 Industrial wash-water
12 Organic chemicals
13 Soil/sludge
14 Clinical & pharmaceutical
Waste Stream or Wastes having as Constituents:
Table 12: Industrial Waste Constituents
#
1
2
3
Constituents
Acidic solutions or acids in solid form.
Animal effluent and residues (abattoir effluent, poultry and fish processing waste).
Antimony, antimony compounds.
13
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
Arsenic, arsenic compounds.

Asbestos.
Barium compounds (excluding barium sulfate).
Basic solutions or bases in solid form.
Beryllium, beryllium compounds.
Boron compounds.
Cadmium, Cadmium compounds.
Ceramic-based fibers with physico-chemical characteristics similar to those of
asbestos.
Chlorates.
Chromium compounds (hexavalent and trivalent).
Clinical and related wastes.
Cobalt compounds.
Containers which are contaminated with residues of substances referred to in this
list.
Copper compounds.
Cyanides (inorganic).
Cyanides (organic).
Encapsulated, chemically-fixed, solidified or polymerized wastes.
Ethers.
Filter cake.
Fire debris and fire wash-waters.
Fly ash.
Grease-trap waste.
Halogenated organic solvents.
Highly odorous organic chemicals (including mercaptans and acrylates).
Inorganic fluorine compounds excluding calcium fluoride.
Inorganic sulfides.
Isocyanate compounds.
Lead, lead compounds.
Mercury, mercury compounds.
Metal carbonyls.
Nickel compounds.
Non toxic salts.
Organic phosphorus compounds.
Organic solvents excluding halogenated solvents.
Organohalogen compounds - other than substances referred to in this list.
Perchlorates.
14
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
Phenols, phenol compounds including chlorophenols.

Phosphorus compounds excluding mineral phosphates.
Polychlorinated dibenzo-furan (any congener).
Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin (any congener).
Residues from industrial waste treatment/disposal operations.
Selenium, selenium compounds.
Sewage sludge and residues including night-soil and septic tank sludge.
Soils contaminated with a controlled waste.
Surface active agents (surfactants), containing principally organic constituents and
which may contain metals and inorganic materials.
Tannery wastes (including leather dust, ash, sludges and flours).
Tellurium, tellurium compounds.
Thallium, thallium compounds.
Triethylamine catalysts for setting foundry sands.
Tires.
Vanadium compounds.
Waste chemical substances arising from research and development or teaching
activities including those which are not identified and/or are new and whose effects
on human health and/or the environment are not known.
Waste containing peroxides other than hydrogen peroxide.
Waste from heat treatment and tempering operations containing cyanides.
Waste from the manufacture, formulation and use of wood-preserving chemicals.
Waste from the production, formulation and use of biocides and phytopharmaceuticals.
Waste from the production, formulation and use of inks, dyes, pigments, paints,
lacquers and varnish.
Waste from the production, formulation and use of organic solvents.
Waste from the production, formulation and use of photographic chemicals and
processing materials.
Waste from the production, formulation and use of resins, latex, plasticizers, glues
and adhesives.
Waste from the production and preparation of pharmaceutical products.
Waste mineral oils unfit for their original intended use.
Waste oil/water, hydrocarbons/water mixtures or emulsions.
Waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and medicines.
Waste resulting from surface treatment of metals and plastics.
Waste tarry residues arising from refining, distillation, and any pyrolytic treatment.
Waste, substances and articles containing or contaminated with polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs), polychlorinated
terphenyls (PCTs) and/or polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs).
15
71 Waste of an explosive nature not subject to other legislation.

72 Wool scouring waste.
73 Zinc compounds.
2.3.2 Other Hazardous Waste Streams: Some of the most persistent and harmful of
all pollutants are those created by necessary Defense Production. Due to the sensitivity
and need of such production, special attention needs to be paid to proper and safe
disposal. Presently, this is not the case and such hazardous liquid waste is grossly
polluting our water bodies.
2.4 Hazardous Waste Management:
Hazardous waste is any waste material that, when improperly handled, can cause
substantial harm to human health and safety or to the environment. Hazardous wastes can
take the form of solids, liquids, sludges, or contained gases, and they are generated
primarily by chemical production, manufacturing, and other industrial activities. They
may cause damage during inadequate storage, transportation, treatment, or disposal
operations. Improper waste storage or disposal frequently contaminates surface and
groundwater supplies. People living in homes built near old and abandoned waste
disposal sites may be in a particularly vulnerable position. In an effort to remedy existing
problems and to prevent future harm from hazardous wastes, governments closely
regulate the practice of hazardous-waste management.
2.4.1 Hazardous Waste Characteristics:
Hazardous wastes are classified on the basis of their biological, chemical, and
physical properties. These properties generate materials that are either, toxic, reactive,
ignitable, corrosive, infectious, or radioactive. Toxic wastes are poisons, even in very
small or trace amounts. They may have acute effects, causing death or violent illness, or
they may have chronic effects, slowly causing irreparable harm. Some are carcinogenic,
causing cancer after many years of exposure. Others are mutagenic, causing major
biological changes in the offspring of exposed humans and wildlife. Reactive wastes are
chemically unstable and react violently with air or water. They cause explosions or form
toxic vapors. Ignitable wastes burn at relatively low temperatures and may cause an
immediate fire hazard. Corrosive wastes include strong acidic or alkaline substances.
They destroy solid material and living tissue upon contact, by chemical reaction.
Infectious wastes include used bandages, hypodermic needles, and other materials from
hospitals or biological research facilities. Radioactive wastes emit ionizing energy that
can harm living organisms. Because some radioactive materials can persist in the
environment for many thousands of years before fully decaying, there is much concern
over the control of these wastes. However, the handling and disposal of radioactive
material is not a responsibility of local municipal government. Owing to the scope and
complexity of the problem, the management of radioactive waste (particularly nuclear
fission waste) is usually considered to be a separate engineering task from other forms of
hazardous-waste management and is discussed separately in nuclear
The primary constituents of waste streams from explosives manufacturing
operations that result in liquid and soil contamination are nitroaromatics and nitramines
including:
Table 13: Explosives Waste Constituents
Acronym Compound Name:
16
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
The most
include:
TNT 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene.
RDX Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine.
HMX Octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine.
Tetryl Methyl-2,4,6-trinitrophenylnitramine.
Picric Acid 2,4,6-trinitrophenol.
PETN Pentaerythritol tetranitrate.
TATB Triaminotrinitrobenzene.
frequently occurring impurities and degradation products from these
Table 14: Explosives Waste Degradation Products
#
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
2.4.2
Acronym Compound Name:

2,4-DNT 2,4-dinitrotoluene.
2,6-DNT 2,6-dinitrotoluene.
2A-4,6-DNT 2-amino-4,6-dinitrotoluene.
4A-2,6-DNT 4-amino-2,6-dinitrotoluene.
TNB 1,3,5-trinitrobenzene.
DNB 1,3-dinitrobenzene.
NB Nitrobenzene.
Picramic Acid 2-amino-4,6-dinitrophenol.
Bioaugmentation Treatment Materials:
Table 15: Bioaugmentation Treatment Materials
Pharmaceuticals
Refinery Wastes
Steel Manufacturing
Tanneries
Textiles
Alcohols
Beverages
Dairy
Confectionery
Halogenated Aromatics
Detergent
Petrochemicals
Paper/Cellulose
Spent Fermentation Media, Tabletzing Binders and Solvents

Phenols, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, oils and greases
Phenols, cyanide, thiocyanate, ammonia and rolling oils
Vegetable tanning waste
Surfactants, starches and organic dyes used in textile mills
Sugars, tannins and alcohols
Liquid sugars, high fructose corn syrup and flavorings
Fats and whey
Sugar waste and chemicals
Chloro and di-chloro phenol
Surfactants and other components of detergents
Petroleum hydrocarbons, straight and branched alkanes, BTX
BOD reduction and odor control
A study was carried out by myself in summer of 2005 for the Pakistan Ordnance
Factories (POF) to present an Action Plan for remediation of hazardous effluent fro their
Explosives Factory. It was realized that in order to arrive at a precise and dynamic Action
Plan the following steps had to be undertaken.
3-Tier Approach.
17
a)
Preliminary Process Selection, BioTreatability Testing and Price Estimation.

a.
Review all prior written studies, analysis and site work.
Brief Review and Professional Appraisal carried out.
b.
Implement Bio-feasibility screening and Data Interpretation.
Carried out.
b)
Bio-treatability Studies and Process Confirmation.
a.
Laboratory Studies.
b.
In Situ, Ex Situ (water, slurry). Remedial Design/ Remedial Action
(RD/RA) for: In-Situ Pilot Scale Treatability Test Of Municipal Liquid/
Solid Waste.
Phase 1:
Biodegradation of the Municipal Liquid Treatment Effluents (Aerobic,
Anaerobic and Facultative).
Phase 2:
Biodegradation of Municipal Solid Waste through Anaerobic Composting
with Bioaugmentation.
a.
In Situ, Ex Situ (water, slurry). Remedial Design/ Remedial Action
(RD/RA) for: In-Situ Pilot Scale Treatability Test Of Hazardous Liquid/
Solid Waste.
Phase 3:
Biodegradation of Hazardous Liquid Waste through Bio-oxidation and
Phytoremediation.
Phase 4:
Biodegradation of Hazardous Liquid Waste through Anaerobic Slurry
Decomposition with Bioaugmentation.
Bioenvironmental Action Plan: Remedial Design/ Remedial Action (RD/RA) for:
In-Situ Pilot Scale Treatability Test of Liquid/ Solid Waste Bio/ Phytoremediation of:
1:
Mixture of Mono, Di and Tri-Nitro Toulene, Tetryl and Nitrocellulose, Hazardous
Liquid Waste.
2:
Municipal Liquid Waste.
3:
Hazardous Solid Waste.
4:
Municipal Solid Waste.
Table 16:Proposed Bioremediation Process
Phase
ITEM
Phase 1 Biodegradation of Municipal Liquid Waste
Phase 2 Biodegradation of Municipal Solid Waste
Phase 3 Bio-oxidation of Hazardous Liquid Waste
Phase 4 Phytoremediation of Hazardous Liquid Waste
Phase 5 Anaerobic Biodegradation of Hazardous Liquid Waste
Biological treatment or bioremediation is a developing technology that uses
microorganisms to degrade organic contaminants into less harmful compounds.
Phytoremediation uses plants to degrade and uptake organic and inorganic contaminants.
They are practical and inexpensive alternatives to traditional methods such as
incineration, which often produce toxic secondary wastes or simply lowering of pH. The
sites this report addresses are potential sites for these types of bio/ phytoremediation.
18
Our goal was to treat the Municipal Liquid Waste site is to use bioremediation as
the primary treatment and anaerobic slurry decomposition as secondary treatment.
Municipal biodegradable Solid Waste was to be composted anaerobically along with
bioaugmentation. For the Hazardous Liquid Waste bio-oxidation as primary and
Phytoremediation or anaerobic slurry decomposition as secondary treatments was
proposed. Our aim was to reduce the hazardous properties of the target compounds
through the process of bio and phytotransformation and offer as near complete return of
the compounds into the normal geochemical carbon and nitrogen cycles through
mineralization.
Sites Evaluation
Two Liquid and one Solid Waste Dump Sites were visited by the
Bioenvironmental Management Consultant.
Solid Waste Dumping Ground consisted of Open Air Dumping of untreated and
non-segregated Solid Waste. As facilities for secondary segregation do not exist and are
expensive to install, the Consultant recommended Primary Segregation (Segregation on
the part of the polluting agency into Biodegradable and Non Degradable Streams. The
Biodegradable Waste can then be effectively anaerobically composted, using
Bioaugmentation. This method is extremely effective and rapid apart from being lowcost. For Demonstration purposes as near primarily segregated biodegradable municipal
solid waste was to be anaerobically composted along with bioaugmentation.
Municipal Liquid Waste Treatment Plant with inflow of 4 times the rated capacity
(50,000 population) has resulted in incomplete digestion and discontinuation of anaerobic
decomposition in the facility that exists from over 100 years. It is possible to increase the
efficiency of decomposition and thus make maximum use of existing facilities. This
would entail bioaugmentation with a range of products to determine efficacy and
adaptation to local conditions. On successful treatment the products can be cultured
locally either independently or as Joint Venture with the manufacturer. Similarly, the
anaerobic digester can be re-commissioned (subject to structural soundness).
Hazardous Liquid Waste Treatment is restricted to open air incineration, oxidation
and regulation of pH to neutral value. At the exit point a combination of Hydraulic Ram
for raising the Liquid Waste in order to access near by Bank of Dhamrah Kas for
purposes of Phytoremediation trials will be required. As capacity of adjoining area and
rate of production of Liquid waste (4 cusecs) both do not match and also due to the
requirement for demonstration for efficacy, a limited quantity of Liquid Waste was to be
introduced to the Beds. Remainder effluent will rejoin its original watercourse after
biooxidation/ deionization through the means of a created waterfall. This process will be
replicated at the point where effluent subjected to phytoremediation rejoins the Dhamrah
Kas.
Along with these treatments, it was proposed to pipe a part of the effluent to the
anaerobic digester situated in the Municipal Liquid waste Treatment Plant. This would
serve to show anaerobic decomposition as a demonstration for evaluation purposes.
Thus the Sites would be subjected to the following:
Bioaugmentation:
Phytoremediation:
Bio-Oxidation:
Anaerobic Bioslurry/ Composting:
19
Site 1: Bioaugmentation: Municipal Treatment Plan:
Anaerobic Digester:
Figure 6 Treatment Perspective
Site 2: Composting: Anaerobic Bioaugmentation:

Hazardous Liquid Waste Pre-Treatment Plant:
Phase D: Anaerobic Decomposition of Hazardous Waste:
Site 3:
Phase A: Hydraulic Ram.
Phase B: Waterfall Oxidation/ Deionization.
Phase C: Red Beds.
Site 4: Waterfall Oxidation/ Deionization.
Table 17: Compounds Proposed for Degradation
#
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Compounds to be Degraded:
Mono, Di and Tri-Nitro Toluene
Nitrocellulose (cellulose nitrate)
Tetryl
Sulfate
Oil & Grease
Sulphide
Chlorine
Chloride
Lead
20
10
11
12
13
Iron
Cadmium
Chromium
Nitrocellulose (cellulose nitrate)
Phase 1. Biodegradation of the Municipal Liquid Treatment Effluents (Aerobic,

Anaerobic and Facultative).
Phase 2. Biodegradation of Municipal Solid Waste through Anaerobic Composting
with Bioaugmentation.
Phase 3. Biodegradation of Hazardous Liquid Waste through Bio-oxidation and
Phytoremediation.
Phase 4. Biodegradation of Hazardous Liquid Waste through Anaerobic Slurry
Decomposition with Bioaugmentation.
Application and Sampling Methods:
Initially, sampling the site will involve samples from monitoring points placed
around the site. Sampling should be conducted to determine contaminant levels as well as
nutrient levels in the effluents. Sampling of the water would also be important.
Information on the nutrient levels is important so that possible growth rates can be
established.
Foreseeable Problems:
The problems that can occur during the bioremediation of these explosive
compounds could arise from the bacteria and fungi unable to adapt to the extreme
anaerobic or anaerobic environment for example the anaerobic fungi isolated from the
rumen might not tolerate the conditions given. Due to the assumption made, that this
fungi will be able to degrade nitrocellulose in an ideal laboratories conditions may not
necessary mimic the activities in the environment. Other microorganisms, like the denitrifiers which grow relatively fast, might use up the entire available nitrate and inhibit
their own growth. Furthermore, the assumption that the ammonium ions and nitrate ions
are in equilibrium might not hold due to an influx of microbial activities, which might
inhibit denitrification. This inhibition of denitrification may occur due to temperature
increase in the summer, nutrient levels too low or too abundant.
Problems that might occur during biodegradation, or might already be occurring
include the release of nitric oxide, nitrous oxide and nitrogen dioxide into the
environment. This needs to be monitored, as both nitrogen dioxide and nitric oxide are
toxic to humans and to many other organisms. Nitrous oxide is able to diffuse up to the
lower atmosphere and up to the stratosphere where it reacts with the ozone causing partial
damage to the protective layer (Boyd, 1988). UV penetration to the surface of the earth is
further increased.
Costs:
The need for prevention of environmental contamination from hazardous wastes
is overwhelming. The cost for remediation of these contamination sites all over Pakistan
is estimated at over 10 Arab Rupees, and even at this cost most sites would not be achieve
'pristine' condition. Most technologies currently considered for remediation are expensive
21
and often do not effectively alleviate the pollution hazard. Bio/ Phytoremediation is
usually much cheaper than other clean-up options, and provides great adaptability and
tailorabilty to specific environments (Walker and Kaplan, 1992).
3.
Health Issues:
4.
3.1 Major Excreta Related Diseases:
Table 18: Major Excreta Related Diseases
Category
Disease
Transmission Mechanism
Fecal Oral
(Non Bacterial)
Hepatitis A
Amoebic
Dysentery
Rotavirus
Giardiasis
Person to Person Contact

Domestic Contamination
Fecal Oral
(Bacterial)
Person to Person Contact

Domestic Contamination
Water Contamination
Crop Contamination
Cholera
Salmonellosis
Shigellosis
Many forms
Diarrhea
of
Soil Transmitted Helminths
Hookworm
Roundworm
Whipworm
Compound Contamination
Communal Defecation Areas
Crop Contamination
Tapeworms
Beef Tapeworm
Port Tapeworm
Compound Contamination
Field Contamination
Fodder Contamination
Water-Based Helminths
Schistosomisis
Water Contamination
Excreta
Vectors
Filariasis
Some Fecal Oral
Diseases
Related
Insect
Insects Breeding/ Feeding in Poor

Sanitation Sites
3.2 Excreta Related Diseases and their Characteristics:

Table 19: Excreta Related Diseases & Characteristics
Disease
Specific
Reservoir
Agent
Transmission
Incubation
Period
Hookworm
(Anctlostomiasis)
Necator
americanus
Ancylostoma
duodonale
Ancylostoma
ceylanicum
Man
Fecal contamination of the soil; eggs hatch,

infective larvae penetrates the bare skin,
usually of the foot.
Few weeks to several

months
Ascariasis
(Roundworm)
Ascarsis
Lumbricoids
Man
Ingestion of infective eggs from

contaminated soils, salads and other foods
eaten raw, eating with contaminated hand.
Two months
Tapeworm
Taenia saginata
Man
Ingestion of raw or partially cooked meat
8 to 14 weeks
22
containing infected larvae passed through

feces.
Entrobiasis
(Pinworm, Thread
worm)
Entrobius
vermicularies
Man
Direct transfer of infected eggs by hand from

anus to the mouth; indirect through
contaminated fomites.
3 to 6 weeks
Poliomyelitis
Poliovirus type
1,2,3
Man
Direct contact with pharyngeal secretion or

feces of infected person.
Commonly 7 to 12
days range from 3 to
21 days
Bilharziasis
Schistosoma
haematobium
Schistosoma
mansoni
Man
Exposure to infected water during bathing or

wading.
Months
Strongyloidiasis
Strongyloids
stericolaris
Man, possibly
dogs
Infected soils in moist soil contaminated with

feces penetrates the skin usually of the foot
17 days
Viral Diarrhea
Ratavirus
Probably Man
Probably fecal-Oral and possibly FecalRespiratory
Approximately 48
hours
Infectious Hepatitis
A
Hepatitis A
virus
Man
Person to Person by the Fecal-Oral route
From 15 50 days
depending on dose
Cholera
Vibrio Cholerae
Man
Ingestion of water contaminated with feces or

vomitus of patients, ingestion of food
contaminated with dirty hand, fomites etc.
From a few hours to

five days
Shigellosis
(Bacillary
Dysentery)
Shigella
bacteria species
Man
Direct or indirect Fecal-Oral transmission

from patient or carrier
One to seven days,

usually one to three
days
Typhoid and
Paratyphoid
Salmonella
typhi
Man both
patients and
especially
carriers
By food or water contaminated by feces or

urine of a patient or carrier; fruits; vegetables
harvested from sewage contaminated area.
Usually ranges from

1-3 weeks depending
on dose
Giardiaa lambliasis
Giardia laambia
Man, possibly
other wild or
domestic animals
Ingestion of cysts in feacally contaminated

water or less often faecally contaminated
food
5-25 days or longer,

median is 7-10 days
Amoebiasis
Entmobeba
Histolitica
Man
Epidemic outbreaks result mainly from

ingestion of faecally contaminated water
containing amoebic cysts. Endemic spread
involves hand to mouth transfer of feces from
contaminated raw vegetables, by flies or
soiled hands of food vendors
From a few days to

several months or
years. Commonly 2-4
weeks
Tricuriasis
Tricuruis
Tricuria
Man
Ingestion of developed eggs, which have

been deposited with feces on to the ground
Indefinite
3.3 Survival Time of pathogens in days by different Disposal or Treatment

Conditions.
Table 20:Pathogen Survival Times by Disposal/ Treatment
Conditions
Bacteria
Soil
Crops
Night Soil, feces, sludge 20-30 C
Composting (anaerobic at ambient temperature)
Thermophilic Composting (50-60 C maintained
for 7 days)
Waste Stabilization Ponds (Retention Time
greater than 20 days)
5.
Viruses
Protozoa
400
50
90
60
7
175
60
100
60
7
10
Not known
0
30
7
Helminthes
(Ascaris)
Many months
Not known
Many months
Many months
7
20
20
20
20
Managing the Use of Water:
23
5.1
BACT: Best Available Control Technology (BACT) is based on optimum
capacity to promote pollution prevention using the 3Rs and Resource, Recovery and
Residuals Management e.g. for sewage discharges, pollution prevention using the 3Rs
means to:
Table 21: Best Available Control Technology (BACT) 3Rs
#
1
2
3
Results
Reduce the toxic contaminants discharging to sewers and ultimately in the effluent;
Reuse the municipal sludge beneficially as a soil conditioner, fertilizer or for making
top soil; and
Recycle the effluent economically as irrigation or industrial process water.
Secondary sewage treatment best meets these goals and will satisfy the toxicity
prevention requirements of Environment Protection. Secondary Treatment enables
nutrients and water to be economically recovered and residuals to be beneficially
managed. Tertiary treatment can be readily applied to reduce specific contaminants when
necessary. Secondary sludge and effluent can be routinely tested for toxicity and metals,
and provide a good monitor on toxic discharges to the sewer and the effectiveness of
source control programs. BACT for sewage discharges has therefore been determined to
be secondary treatment.
5.2
The Sustainable Region Initiative (SRI2): This idea is derived from Canadian
Good Governance in Metro Vancouver and has its framework for decision making as well
as the mechanism by which sustainability imperatives are moved from ideas into action.
The SRI has been driven by three overarching principles which state that decision making
must cater for:
Table 22: Overarching Principles
#
1
2
3
Principles
Have regard for both local and global consequences, and long term impacts;
Recognize and reflect the interconnectedness and interdependence of systems;
Be collaborative.
These provide the foundation for the three sets of sustainability principles.
Table 23: Sustainability Principles
#
1
2
3
2
Sustainability Principles
Protect and enhance the natural environment (conserve and develop natural capital);
Provide for ongoing prosperity (conserve and develop economic capital);
Build community capacity and social cohesion (conserve and develop social capital).
Metro Vancouver, Canada.
24
The long-term vision for liquid waste management is that all elements of liquid
waste will be efficiently recovered as energy, nutrients, water or other usable material or
else returned to the environment as part of the hydrological cycle in a way that protects
public health and the environment.
This vision and the Sustainable Region Initiative are supported by three goals:
Goal 1: Protect Public Health and the Environment:
Public health and the environment are protected by managing sanitary sewage and
stormwater at their sources, and providing wastewater collection and treatment services
protective of the environment.
Goal 2: Use Liquid Waste as a Resource:
Energy will be recovered from the heat in the sewage and from biogas generated
in the treatment process. Materials which have nutrient value will be recovered from
wastewater treatment plants. Water will be recovered from the wastewater treatment
process and stormwater will be kept separate from effluent.
Goal 3: Effective, Affordable and Collaborative Management:
Monitoring, maintaining and investing in liquid waste infrastructure are essential
to ensuring effective system performance and preventing costlier repairs. Innovative
alternative approaches to traditional treatment systems will be explored. Opportunities for
positive synergies with other utilities and regional management systems will be pursued
such as integrated stormwater management plans. Sources of risk will be identified and
mitigated.
4.2.2 Integrated Resource Recovery: A concept and approach that integrates the
management of water, wastewater, energy and solid waste services to recover resources
and value and to help increase resiliency. IRR planning and resource recovery actions in
this plan support the Climate Action Plan, the Energy Plan, and Living Water Smart.
The Energy Plan: A Vision for Clean Energy Leadership: In support of the Provincial
Governments vision for clean energy leadership and electricity self-sufficiency by
2016, this plan seeks to expand the production of biogas from wastewater, and to recover
heat energy from wastewater for use in district heating systems. The IRR approach to
integrating liquid and solid waste management will also support the Bio-Energy Strategy:
Growing Our Natural Energy Advantage. In partnership with Municipalities and the
Private Sector, initiatives in these areas will reduce greenhouse gas emissions, diversify
the regions sources of energy, provide renewable energy and increase our energy
independence. Water Smart objectives supported by this plan include the requirements to
complete and implement municipal Integrated Stormwater Management Plans, support
rainwater harvesting and water reclamation actions, the development of an understanding
of what makes streams healthy, watershed management planning in priority areas, and
helping address the impacts of climate change and climatic variability on local water
resources. This will be supported by the ongoing work of a new overarching integrated
utility management advisory committee.
4.2.2
Use Liquid waste as a Resource:
25
The goal of using liquid waste as a resource marks two important advances in the
thinking about liquid waste in the context of Metro Vancouvers sustainability
framework.
The first is the recognition that the traditional and still vitally important functions
of liquid waste management to protect public health and the environment will ultimately
be achieved most beneficially by converting liquid waste into usable resources. Liquid
waste is a source of green energy and nutrients and, in addition to stormwater; it can
provide alternative sources of water. Strategies are included in this plan to address these
opportunities.
The second, which follows logically from the first, is the recognition that the
opportunities for cost effective resource recovery from liquid waste are magnified when
explored in the context of integrated resource recovery from the whole range of urban
management systems. This is essentially the implementation of the second overarching
imperative of the SRI framework: Recognize and reflect the interconnectedness and
interdependence of systems.
A major challenge for Metro Vancouver and its members will be to adapt the
legacy sewerage and stormwater infrastructure of the 20th century to a more sustainable,
integrated 21st century system focused on integrated resource recovery. This will involve
embracing new technologies and reshaping communities and their infrastructure so that
the resources and energy recovered can be used efficiently and effectively: integrating a
new kind of liquid waste infrastructure with building design, community and nature. This
involves managing liquid wastes as a resource, minimizing discharges, minimizing
financial risks, and maximizing the quality of discharges.
26
Figure 7 Sustainable Resource Initiative
4.3 Water Treatment Projects Design Philosophy for Developing Countries:

What type of technology is?
27
Table 24: Design Philosophy Indicators
#
Indicators
1 Acceptable?
2 Sustainable?
3 Easily operable?
4 Replicable?
5 Replaceable or maintainable?
6 Beneficial / not a liability?
These are some of the questions that must be clearly answered in order to have
viable and sustainable community based sanitation. In many cities, towns and rural areas
of Pakistan today people live and raise their children in highly polluted environment.
Urban and peri-urban areas are among the worst polluted and disease ridden habitats.
Much of this pollution, which leads to high rates of disease, malnutrition and death, is
caused by lack of adequate excreta disposal facilities and inadequate solid waste
collection and disposal service. As communities expand and population increase, the
situation will grow worse and the need for safe, sustainable and affordable sanitation
technology or system will be even more critical.
Secondly, the technology must:
Table 25: Technology Imperatives
#
Technology Imperatives
1 Produce reliable Treatment.
2 Ensure easy Plant Operation and maintenance.
3 Minimize Imported items.
4 Reduce Mechanization and Instrumentation.
5 Maximize local labor during construction and operation.
6 Limit Energy demands.
7 Use local materials whenever possible.
8 Provide adequate flexibility.
For Water Treatment Projects to produce high quality water several conditions
must be met:
Table 26: Conditions for High Quality Water Production
#
1
2
3
4
Staff must understand the process and equipment.

Mechanical and electrical equipment must be durable.
Spare parts and the availability of local repair and maintenance must exist.
Process units that will perform under varying water qualities and forgive occasional
oversight of operations personnel must be purchased.
5 Reliable suppliers of equipment with dependable local agents must be available.
5.
Biological Treatment: Biological treatment is the
most economical of waste treatments available today. In biological systems, the
dynamics are biochemical as opposed to chemical, and the active agents are living
entities. In chemical treatment we have to increase the quantity of chemical
28
proportionally to deal with a higher load of reactant, in a biological system the biological
additive can grow to help compensate for increased loadings. The septic system is a
biological process. Like any living thing, it has certain nutritional requirements to
function properly and functions best in a suitable environment. However, the best first
step in optimizing the performance of a septic system is to have a complete ecosystem of
the organisms required for the most complete breakdown of the waste.
Bacteria are typically 1-2 um wide and 2-20 um long. Due to the small size, shape
or morphology they can be examined only by using a high power microscope (x1000)
and staining techniques. The Gram Stain is the basic criteria used to categorize the groups
of bacteria as either gram positive or gram negative, indicating a fundamental variation in
cell-wall structure.
Use of oxygen in degrading organic matter

o
uses oxygen only -- aerobic;
o
can metabolize with or without oxygen -- facultative;
o
does not use oxygen anaerobic.
Use of carbon sources
organic -- heterotrophic; carbon dioxide -- autotrophic
Optimum growth at different temperatures

o
Thermophiles -- 55-75 C
o
Mesophiles -- 30-45 C
o
Psychrophiles:
Obligate -- 15-18 C
Facultative -- 25-30C
Aerobic wastewater treatment systems operate in the temperature range of 10-40
C and therefore contain mainly mesophilic bacteria. These include both the gram positive
types, such as Bacillius, and the gram negative types, such as Pseudomonas Successful
bioaugmentation requires total system management If the microbiological population can
be viewed as a workforce, then the consultant or system manager is responsible for
keeping the workforce productive.
If liquid wastes are discharged into rivers, ponds, lands, etc., without proper
treatment, the result is offensive odor and pollution of water and air as they will emit
gases like methane and Carbon Dioxide. By adopting environmental friendly
technologies, these problems can be mitigated. These waste waters can be treated using
numerous processes depending on the type and extent of contamination. A typical
wastewater treatment plant includes physical, chemical and biological treatment
processes.
Methane is generated in landfills as waste decomposes and in the treatment of
wastewater.
Sewer gas is a complex mixture of toxic and nontoxic gases produced and
collected in sewage systems by the decomposition of organic household or industrial
wastes, typical components of sewage. Sewer gases may include hydrogen sulfide,
ammonia, methane, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides. Improper
disposal of petroleum products such as gasoline and mineral spirits contribute to sewer
gas hazards. Sewer gases are of concern due to their odor, health effects, and potential for
creating fire or explosions.
29
Anaerobic digesters were originally designed for operation using sewage sludge
and manures. Sewage and manure are not; however, the material with the most potential
for anaerobic digestion, as the biodegradable material has already had much of the energy
content taken out by the animals that produced it. Therefore, many digesters operate with
co-digestion of two or more types of feedstock which can increase energy output tenfold
for only three times the capital cost, relative to a slurry-only system.
5.5 Wastewater Treatment Plants:
Wastewater treatment facilities employ anaerobic digesters to break down sewage
sludge and eliminate pathogens in wastewater. Often, biogas is captured from digesters
and used to heat nearby facilities. Some municipalities have even begun to divert food
waste from landfills to WWTPs; this relieves waste burdens placed on local landfills and
allows for energy production It is estimated that 544 large WWTPs (those that process
more than five million gallons of wastewater per day) currently utilize anaerobic
digesters to produce biogas. A WWTP digester that also processes food waste will have a
payback period of around 6 months to 3 years Modern method of treating industrial waste
water is by installing advanced anaerobic digestion plants. Modern high rate reactors can
reduce the COD of the waste water by 85-95%.
Figure 8 Wastewater Treatment Stages
5.2
Methane:
Methane is the simplest alkane and a major component of natural gas, about 87%
by volume. The major source of methane is extraction from geological deposits known as
natural gas fields. Methane is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CH4. It is
probably the most abundant organic compound on earth. The relative abundance of
methane makes it an attractive fuel. Methane is a relatively potent greenhouse gas. The
concentration of methane in the Earth's atmosphere in 1998, expressed as a mole fraction,
was 1,745 nmol/mol (parts per billion, ppb), up from 700 nmol/mol in 1750. By 2008,
however, global methane levels, which had stayed mostly flat since 1998, had risen to
1,800 nmol/mol. Methane is a tetrahedral molecule with four equivalent C-H bonds, its
electronic structure is described by four bonding molecular orbitals (MOs) At room
temperature and standard pressure, methane is a colorless and odorless gas. The familiar
smell of natural gas as used in homes is a safety measure achieved by the addition of an
odorant. Methane has a boiling point of 161 C (257.8 F) at a pressure of one
atmosphere. As a gas it is flammable only over a narrow range of concentrations (515%)
in air. Like other hydrocarbons, methane is a very weak acid. In the combustion of
methane, multiple steps are involved. The following equations are part of the process,
with the net result being:
5.2.1 CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O (H = 891 kJ/mol (at standard conditions))
Table 27:Methane Combustion Process Equations
Equation
30
1
CH4+ M* CH3 + H + M
2
CH4 + O2 CH3 + HO2
3
CH4 + HO2 CH3 + 2 OH
4
CH4 + OH CH3 + H2O
5
O2 + H O + OH
6
CH4 + O CH3 + OH
7
CH3 + O2 CH2O + OH
8
CH2O + O CHO + OH
9
CH2O + OH CHO + H2O
10 CH2O + H CHO + H2
11 CHO + O CO + OH
12 CHO + OH CO + H2O
13 CHO + H CO + H2
14 H2 + O H + OH
15 H2 + OH H + H2O
16 CO + OH CO2 + H
17 H + OH + M H2O + M*
18 H + H + M H2 + M*
19 H + O2 + M HO2 + M*
The species M* signifies an energetic third body, from which energy is transferred
during a molecular collision.
Methane in the Earth's atmosphere is a significant greenhouse gas with a global
warming potential of 25 compared to CO2 over a 100-year period (although accepted
figures probably represent an underestimate). This means that a methane emission will
have 25 times the effect on temperature of a carbon dioxide emission of the same mass
over the following 100 years. Methane has a large effect for a brief period (a net lifetime
of 8.4 years in the atmosphere), whereas carbon dioxide has a small effect for a long
period (over 100 years). Because of this difference in effect and time period, the global
warming potential of methane over a 20 year time period is 72. The Earth's atmospheric
methane concentration has increased by about 150% since 1750, and it accounts for 20%
of the total radiative forcing from all of the long-lived and globally mixed greenhouse
gases (these gases don't include water vapor which is by far the largest component of the
greenhouse effect). Usually, excess methane from landfills and other natural producers of
methane is burned so CO2 is released into the atmosphere instead of methane, because
methane is a more effective greenhouse gas. Recently, methane emitted from coal mines
has been successfully utilized to generate electricity.
Globally, over 60% of total CH 4 emissions come from human activities. Methane
is emitted from industry, agriculture, and waste management activities globally; the
Agriculture sector is the primary source of CH4 emissions.
5.3
Methanogenesis:
31
Also known as biomethanation is the formation of methane by microbes known as

methanogens. Organisms capable of producing methane have been identified from the
domain Archaea, a group phylogenetically distinct from both eukaryotes and bacteria,
although many live in close association with anaerobic bacteria. The production of
methane is an important and widespread form of microbial metabolism. In most
environments, it is the final step in the decomposition of biomass.
Methanogenesis in microbes is a form of anaerobic respiration. Methanogens do
not use oxygen to respire; in fact, oxygen inhibits the growth of methanogens.
Methanogenesis is the final step in the decay of organic matter. During the decay process,
electron acceptors (such as oxygen, ferric iron, sulfate, and nitrate) become depleted,
while hydrogen (H2) and carbon dioxide accumulate. Light organics produced by
fermentation also accumulate. During advanced stages of organic decay, all electron
acceptors become depleted except carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is a product of most
catabolic processes, so it is not depleted like other potential electron acceptors.
Only methanogenesis and fermentation can occur in the absence of electron
acceptors other than carbon. Fermentation only allows the breakdown of larger organic
compounds, and produces small organic compounds. Methanogenesis effectively
removes the semi-final products of decay: hydrogen, small organics, and carbon dioxide.
Without methanogenesis, a great deal of carbon (in the form of fermentation products)
would accumulate in anaerobic environments.
Strains of Methanogens:
Methanobacterium bryantii.
Methanobacterium formicum.
Methanobrevibacter arboriphilicus.
Methanobrevibacter gottschalkii.
Methanobrevibacter ruminantium.
Methanobrevibacter smithii.
Methanocalculus chunghsingensis.
Methanococcoides burtonii.
Methanococcus aeolicus.
Methanococcus deltae.
Methanococcus jannaschii.
Methanococcus maripaludis.
Methanococcus vannielii.
Methanocorpusculum labreanum.
Methanoculleus bourgensis (Methanogenium olentangyi &
Methanogenium bourgense).
Methanoculleus marisnigri.
Methanofollis liminatans.
Methanogenium cariaci.
Methanogenium frigidum.
Methanogenium organophilum.
32
Methanogenium wolfei.
Methanomicrobium mobile.
Methanopyrus kandleri.
Methanoregula boonei.
Methanosaeta concilii.
Methanosaeta thermophila.
Methanosarcina acetivorans.
Methanosarcina barkeri.
Methanosarcina mazei.
Methanosphaera stadtmanae.
Methanospirillium hungatei.
Methanothermobacter defluvii (Methanobacterium defluvii).
Methanothermobacter thermautotrophicus (Methanobacterium
thermoautotrophicum).
Methanothermobacter thermoflexus (Methanobacterium thermoflexum).
Methanothermobacter wolfei (Methanobacterium wolfei).
Methanothrix sochngenii.
Different organisms are able to survive at different temperature ranges. Ones

living optimally at temperatures between 35 and 40 C are called mesophiles or
mesophilic bacteria. Some organisms can survive at the hotter and more hostile
conditions of 55 to 60 C; these are called thermophiles or thermophilic bacteria.
Methanogens come from the domain of archaea. This family includes species that can
grow in the hostile conditions of hydrothermal vents, so are more resistant to heat, and
can, therefore, operate at high temperatures, a property unique to thermophiles.
5.4
Thermophillic Digesters:
Thermophillic (high-temperature) digesters have been designed that operate
satisfactorily at a 5-day detention time and a solids level of 10-20 percent. Digester gas
production has been around 11 cubic feet per pound of volatile solids destroyed.
Operation is normally started by bringing the digester up to a temperature of 130F at a
rate of about 3F per week.
In many ways, thermophillic digestion is better than digestion at 950F. Gas
production is about 20 percent higher and solids breakdown about 10 percent higher. In
addition, the higher temperature kills more pathogenic bacteria, thus allowing the
digested waste to be used as a feed supplement without further sterilization.
But thermophillic bacteria digestion also has its disadvantages. The methane
content of the gas is somewhat lower (55 percent), and digester operation is not quite as
stable as conventional digesters.
5.5 Energy: Methane is important for electrical generation by burning it as a fuel in a
gas turbine or steam boiler. Compared to other hydrocarbon fuels, burning methane
produces less carbon dioxide for each unit of heat released. At about 891 kJ/mol,
methane's heat of combustion is lower than any other hydrocarbon but the ratio of the
33
heat of combustion (891 kJ/mol) to the molecular mass (16.0 g/mol, of which 12.0 g/mol
is carbon) shows that methane, being the simplest hydrocarbon, produces more heat per
mass unit (55.7 kJ/g) than other complex hydrocarbons. In many cities, methane is piped
into homes for domestic heating and cooking purposes. In this context it is usually known
as natural gas, which is considered to have an energy content of 39 megajoules per cubic
meter, or 1,000 BTU per standard cubic foot.
The gases methane, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide (CO) can be combusted or
oxidized with oxygen. This energy release allows biogas to be used as a fuel. Biogas can
be used as a fuel in any country for any heating purpose, such as cooking. It can also be
used in anaerobic digesters where it is typically used in a gas engine to convert the energy
in the gas into electricity and heat. Biogas can be compressed, much like natural gas, and
used to power motor vehicles. In the UK, for example, biogas is estimated to have the
potential to replace around 17% of vehicle fuel. Biogas is a renewable fuel so it qualifies
for renewable energy subsidies in some parts of the world. Biogas can also be cleaned
and upgraded to natural gas standards when it becomes bio methane.
By 2010, there was 35GW of globally installed bioenergy capacity for electricity
generation, of which 7GW was in the United States. A 2 cubic meter bio-digester can
produce 2 cubic meter of cooking gas. This is equivalent to 1 kg of LPG.
United Nations Development Program as one of the most useful decentralized
sources of energy supply, as they are less capital-intensive than large power plants. With
increased focus on climate change mitigation, the re-use of waste as a resource and new
technological approaches which have lowered capital costs, anaerobic digestion has in
recent years received increased attention among governments in a number of countries
If localized anaerobic digestion facilities are embedded within an electrical
distribution network, they can help reduce the electrical losses associated with
transporting electricity over a national grid. Biogas from sewage works can be used to
run a gas engine to produce electrical power, some or all of which can be used to run the
sewage works. Some waste heat from the engine is then used to heat the digester. The
waste heat is, in general, enough to heat the digester to the required temperatures. The
power potential from sewage works is limited The scope for biogas generation from nonsewage waste biological matter energy crops, food waste, abattoir waste, etc. - is much
higher, estimated to be capable of about 3,000 MW. Food waste is currently co-digested
with primary and secondary municipal wastewater solids and other high-strength wastes.
Compared to municipal wastewater solids digestion alone, food waste co-digestion has
many benefits. Anaerobic digestion of food waste pulp provides a higher normalized
energy benefit, compared to municipal wastewater solids: 730 to 1,300 kWh per dry ton
of food waste applied compared to 560 to 940 kWh per dry ton of municipal wastewater
solids applied. If manure from Gawala Colonies is added to the digester for cogeneration a manifold increase of benefits can be achieved, for instance one cow can
produce enough manure in one day to generate three kilowatt hours of electricity; only
2.4 kilowatt hours of electricity are needed to power a single one hundred watt light bulb
for one day.
Engine efficiency can be improved by removing carbon dioxide from the digester
gas before combustion, then burning the remaining methane. Digester gas can also be
injected into the air stream in a stationary diesel engine. Up to 90 percent of the fuel
entering an engine by this technique can be methane gas.
34
5.5.1
Use & Consumption of Biogas:
Table 28: Use & Consumption of Biogas
Use
Units of consumption of gas
For cooking purposes (per person

per day)
12 to 15 cft
To operate gas lamps
2j cft per mantle per hour
To operate gas engines

To operate electricity
Ib cft per BHP per hour

22 cft gas 1 Unit equivalent to 1 kWh of electricity
In place of petrol
225 cft gas 1 gallon equivalent to petrol
In place of diesel oil
250 cft gas 1 gallon equivalent to of diesel oil
Methane production is usually expressed in terms of cubic feet of gas generated

per pound of volatile solids destroyed. Volatile solids are the organic portion of livestock
waste; about 80 percent of the manure solids are volatile. A gallon of liquid manure
containing 8 percent solids potentially can provide about 3 3/4 cubic feet of digester gas,
or 2 1/2 cubic feet of methane (Roughly 10-13 cubic feet of gas can be produced per
pound of volatile solids destroyed in a properly-operating digester. Since about half of the
volatile solids added can be destroyed and half to three-fourths of the gas produced will
be methane, about 5 cubic feet of digester gas (3 cubic feet of methane) can be produced
per pound of total manure solids added. In terms of digester size, it is possible to produce
3/4 to 2 1/2 cubic feet of gas (1/2 to 1 1/2 cubic feet of methane) per cubic foot of
digester volume. The gas production expected from various livestock species is shown
below:
5.5.1
Daily Waste and Methane Production by Dairy, Beef per 1,000 Pounds of
Animal Weight.
Table 29: Dry Manure Methane Production
Item
Dairy Beef
Raw manure (lb.)
82.0
60.0
Total solids (lb.)
10.4
6.9
Volatile solids (lb.)
8.6
5.9
Methane potential (cu.ft.)* 28.4
19.4
* Based on 65 percent of gas being methane
5.5.2
Waste Methane Contents and Petrol Equivalents:
35
Table 30: Waste Methane Contents & Petrol Equivalents
Item
Food waste
Paper
Grass
Branches and
leaves
Methane per Ton Dry

Waste
500
330
310
110
Tons of Petrol Equivalents per Ton of

Dry Waste
0.43
0.28
0.26
0.09
Start-up can be speeded by providing a source of methane bacteria. One way of

doing this is to initially fill 20-25 percent of the digester volume with active waste
digester sludge from a municipal sewage plant, then to gradually increase the amount of
livestock waste added at each loading over a 6-8 week period until the system is fully
operational. Another, perhaps more effective method, is the production of methane
bacteria in laboratories.
5.5.3 Developing Technologies:
Research is being conducted by NASA on methane's potential as a rocket fuel.
One advantage of methane is that it is abundant in many parts of the solar system and it
could potentially be harvested on the surface of another solar-system body, providing fuel
for a return journey. The assembly of a 5,500-pound-thrust liquid oxygen/liquid methane
rocket engine has been completed. Current methane engines in development produce a
thrust of 7,500 pounds-force (33 kN), which is far from the 7,000,000 lbf (31 MN)
needed to launch the Space Shuttle. This propulsion technology is under consideration as
the way off the Moon for human explorers; such engines will most likely propel voyages
from the Moon or send robotic expeditions to other planets in the solar system.
5.6 Safety:
Methane is not toxic; however, it is extremely flammable and may form explosive
mixtures with air.
5.7 Composition:
Table 31: Methane Composition & %
Typical composition of biogas

Compound
Chemical
Methane
CH4
Carbon dioxide
CO2
Nitrogen
N2
Hydrogen
H2
Hydrogen sulphide H2S
Oxygen
O2
%
5075
2550
010
01
03
00
5.8
Fertilizer and Soil Conditioner:

The solid, fibrous component of the digested material can be used as a soil
conditioner to increase the organic content of soils. Digester liquor can be used as a
36
fertilizer to supply vital nutrients to soils instead of chemical fertilizers that require large
amounts of energy to produce and transport. The use of manufactured fertilizers is,
therefore, more carbon-intensive than the use of anaerobic digester liquor fertilizers. The
notable advantage of using a bio-digester is the sludge which is a rich organic manure
called digestate.
5.9
Waste Heat Recovery:
Approximately 75 percent of fuel energy input to an engine is rejected as waste
heat. Therefore, it is common practice to recover engine heat for heating the digester and
providing water and space heat for the farm. Commercially available heat exchangers can
recover heat from the engine water cooling system and the engine exhaust. Properly
sized heat exchangers will recover up to 7,000 BTUs of heat per hour for each kW of
generator load, increasing energy efficiency to 40 - 50 percent. A biogas fueled engine
generator will normally convert 18 - 25 percent of the biogas BTUs to electricity,
depending on engine design and load factor.
5.10 Biochemical Process:
Carbohydrates
Sugars
Fats
Fatty Acids
Proteins
Hydrolysis
Carbonic Acids
& Alcohols
Amino Acids
Hydrogen
Acetic Acid
Carbon Dioxide
Hydrogen
Carbon Dioxide
Ammonia
Acidogenesis
Acetogenesis
Methane
Carbon Dioxide
Methanogenesis
Figure 9 Biochemical Process
The Biochemical digestion process is as follows:
Bacterial hydrolysis of the input materials to break down insoluble organic

polymers, such as carbohydrates, and make them available for other
bacteria.
Acidogenic bacteria then convert the sugars and amino acids into carbon
dioxide, hydrogen, ammonia, and organic acids.
Acetogenic bacteria then convert these resulting organic acids into acetic
acid, along with additional ammonia, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide.
Finally, methanogens convert these products to methane and carbon

dioxide. The methanogenic archaea populations play an indispensable role
in anaerobic wastewater treatments.
5.11
Physical Process:
In the case of co-generation with biodegradable solid waste, after sorting or
screening to remove any physical contaminants from the feedstock, the material is often
37
shredded, minced, and mechanically or hydraulically pulped to increase the surface area
available to microbes in the digesters and, hence, increase the speed of digestion.
5.12 Alternative Biological Production routes:
Apart from gas fields, an alternative method of obtaining methane is via biogas
generated by the fermentation of organic matter including manure, wastewater sludge,
municipal solid waste (including landfills), or any other biodegradable feedstock, under
anaerobic conditions. Rice fields also generate large amounts of methane during plant
growth. Cattle belch methane accounts for 16% of the world's annual methane emissions
to the atmosphere. One study reported that the livestock sector in general (primarily
cattle, and chickens) produces 37% of all human-induced methane. Early research has
found a number of medical treatments and dietary adjustments that help slightly limit the
production of methane in ruminants A more recent study, in 2009, found that at a
conservative estimate, at least 51% of global greenhouse gas emissions were attributable
to the life cycle and supply chain of livestock products, meaning all meat, dairy, and byproducts, and their transportation. Many efforts are underway to reduce livestock
methane production and trap the gas to use as energy.
6.
Generation Process:
6.1 Optimum Conditions for Digester Operation:
Every application is different. In general, so long as the objective is to remove
organic constituents, biological treatment is the most effective and most economical.
Biologically, we can usually get BOD down to 1 or 2 parts per million with a successful
treatment, yet certain applications require further reduction down to parts per billion
levels. For this extreme reduction, chemical treatment would be necessary. For instance,
biological treatment will never yield potable water. This must be achieved with chemical
treatments like ozone and chlorine. Most applications consist of a primary, secondary and
tertiary treatment, the primary being mostly physical like filtration settling, etc. The
secondary is typically a biological treatment to organics. The tertiary treatment is a final,
polishing and clarification treatment. It is typical that the tertiary treatment would
incorporate some chemicals like polymers to aid in flocculation. In certain applications
where there are no organics, it is appropriate to only use chemical treatment. For
instance, a metal plating factory has only metals in the water. Bacteria will do nothing
and a hydroxide must be used to chemically interact with the metal compounds and
flocculate out. Activated carbon is a typical chemical treatment for final polishing of
water. Polymers are used to further flocculate and settle colloidal solids. In certain
applications in the past, the use of Bioaugmentation has allowed users to significantly
reduce the amount of polymers being used in the final treatment without affecting solids
settling characteristics. This will net a huge costs savings to the user. In general, most
applications should incorporate a biological treatment. This treatment is usually good in
most applications for discharge to the sewers or rivers. In most particular applications,
chemicals can be used as polishers in the tertiary treatment. Chemical only treatments
are only applicable in waters that have no organics, a situation that is very rare.
6.2 System Management: The system manager must provide an acceptable work
environment for micro-organisms by controlling the key operation parameters such as
pH, temperature and oxygen levels. He must compensate them with nutrients to ensure
good growth and a healthy population. He has to know when to lay off workers through
wasting to keep the population young and vital. Finally, the successful system manager
38
knows when to hire new workers to provide special skills not found in his workforce.
Bioaugmentation is the mechanism to provide these skills workers.
The biomass is the "workforce" of a waste treatment system. In a dynamic state of
flux, different microbes are dying while others grow and become more dominant. Under
adverse conditions such as toxic shock, certain bacterial populations may be reduced or
eliminated, causing poor effluent quality. Examples of toxic shock would be black liquor
spills in paper mills or a process upset in a chemical plant sending high levels of terpenes
to the wastewater plant.
A critical part of the success of a bioaugmentation program is proper application.
Because every system is unique, it is essential that products are properly applied.
Bioaugmentation programs should be implemented with the help of qualified consultants
capable of surveying the total system, assessing the best solution to the problem, and
documenting the impact of the program. Simply dumping a product into the influent is
not bioaugmentation.
6.2.2 Preferential Degradation of Specific Compounds: By adding selected
organisms, low levels of particular compounds can be achieved that are not possible with
the indigenous population. Compounds such as phenols, chlorinated aromatics and
aromatic hydrocarbons are but a few compounds that can be reduced with
bioaugmentation
6.2.3 Improved Nitrification -- Many industrial waste plants have difficulty in
achieving nitrification because of design limitations or toxic shocks. By regularly adding
nitrifying bacteria, the proper population for ammonia removal can be maintained.
6.2.4 Other Areas: Other areas where bioaugmentation offers benefits include odor
reduction, oil and grease removal, rapid system start-up and improved tolerance to toxic
shocks.
6.2.5 Purpose: The purpose of bioaugmentation is to facilitate a gradual shift in the
microbial population, not to totally replace the existing biomass. The population shift
must be accomplished in a planned and controlled manner to maintain the integrity of the
microbial ecosystem. Over-feeding the selected microorganisms could result in a biomass
no better equipped to handle the broad range of compounds in the influent than the
original population.
6.2.6 Method: Bio-augmentation dosage problems typically follow a descending
application schedule to accommodate that fact that the benefits of the addition are
multiplied. These programs usually involve a purge or inoculation dosage to
establish the population quickly.
The purge or inoculation is followed by an intermediate maintenance dosage
to support the development of the required population. Finally, a regular maintenance
addition is used to maintain the required population to maintain the biochemical
improvements, which have been realized through the inoculum and intermediate
maintenance dosages.
Unlike that added to municipal sewage digesters, livestock waste is fairly uniform
in composition. Monitoring digester operation, nevertheless, is a good idea and can be
accomplished fairly easily, using gas production or pH of the digester liquid as an
indicator.
6.3 Gas Production. This is the simplest and most reliable indicator. In a batch-loaded
digester (one in which waste is added every month or so), if gas production drops off
39
gradually, the food supply available to the bacteria is probably depleted, indicating it's
time to add more waste to the digester. If gas production drops off rapidly (within 1 or 2
days), the reason is probably an upset digester. Among the potential causes, the major
ones are: too high a level of toxic compounds in the waste feed, too high a feed rate or
too cold a temperature in the digester.
A low digester temperature could be the result of a failure in the heating system. If
a large amount of waste is added at one time, it should be preheated to 95F to prevent
thermal shock to the methane bacteria. Better performance is usually obtained with
continuous loading i.e. where the digester is loaded with smaller amounts of waste on a
daily basis.
6.3.1 pH: A near-neutral acidity (pH=7.0) is a good indicator of proper operation. This
means that the bacterial populations are in balance, with the `acid formers' producing
only as much organic acids as the `methane formers' can use. A pH below 6.0 indicates a
digester upset. Less-than-optimum environmental conditions can cause a digester upset,
usually resulting in acid conditions. This is because acid-forming bacteria will thrive
under a much wider range of environmental conditions than the slower-growing methaneforming bacteria. Acid conditions can be temporarily controlled by adding an alkaline
substance such as lime. However, the original cause of the imbalance must be found and
corrected if gas production is to be maintained.
Figure 10: pH Effects
6.3.2 Ammonia Concentration: As Ammonia is present in large quantities in urine it

can inhibit methane production if present in large enough concentrations. Ammonia
concentration at 1,500 parts per million (ppm) is considered to be the maximum
allowable for good methane production. Above that level, the waste should be diluted
with non-sewage water.
Effect of Ammonia Concentration on Methane Production:

Table 32: Ammonia Concentration Effect on Methane Production
Concentration
(mg/l of Ammonia-N)
5 - 200
Effect
Beneficial
40
200 - 1000
1500 - 3000
Above 3000
No adverse effect
Possible inhibition at higher pH Values
Toxic
6.3.3 Uniform loading: (preferably daily).

6.3.4 Key Consideration: Carbon: Nitrogen Ratio of the input material is the key
consideration. This ratio is the balance of food a microbe requires to grow; the optimal C:
N ratio is 2030:1. Excess N can lead to ammonia inhibition of digestion. The primary
limitation on co-generation of livestock waste along with liquid waste loading rates is the
high nitrogen (N) content compared to its carbon (C) content. The ratio of carbon to
nitrogen in manure added to the digester should be 20 parts C to one part N for optimum
methane production.
Crop residues and leaves, which are usually low in nitrogen content but high in
carbon, could be useful in improving digester performance. Mixing crop residue with
high nitrogen livestock waste provides a more favorable C:N ratio; and gas production
increases accordingly.
If the liquid waste; cow manure and crop residue/ leaves is not enough, for gas
production requirements, it can be mixed with vegetable and food waste to cover the
deficiency. However, this mixture has to meet certain conditions to be suitable for the
digestion process.
This should never exceed a ratio of 35:1, and even 30:1 is quite high. A high ratio
will slow the digestion process; a lower ratio will allow it to proceed well and will ensure
a good fertilizer with high nitrogen contents. Substances with low ratio are unsuitable for
open air composting because so much nitrogen is lost to the atmosphere, as soon as it is
turned into ammonia. However, the Biogas plant avoids this, as the atmosphere is sealed,
and the ammonia cannot escape.
Carbon: Nitrogen Ratios:
Table 33:C:N Ratios
Material
C/N
N (% )
Urine
0.8
15 18
2
3
Blood
Cow Manure (dung)
3
25
10 14
1.7
6.3.5 Important Issue: The most important initial issue when considering the
application of anaerobic digestion systems is the feedstock to the process. Almost any
organic material can be processed with anaerobic digestion; however, if biogas production
is the aim, the level of putrescibility is the key factor in its successful application. The
more putrescible (digestible) the material, the higher the gas yields possible from the
system.
6.3.6 Establishment: Populations of anaerobic microorganisms typically take a
significant period of time to establish themselves to be fully effective. Therefore,
common practice is to introduce anaerobic microorganisms from materials with existing
41
populations, a process known as "seeding" the digesters, typically accomplished with the
addition of sewage sludge or cattle slurry.
6.3.7 Suitability of Raw Material: Certainly, large quantities of antibiotics and
cleaning disinfectants should be kept out of the digester. For this reason, consider
excluding farrowing building waste from the digester. The antibiotic rumensin is also
toxic to methane bacteria and should not be fed to cattle whose waste is to be used for
methane generation.
6.3.8 Percentage of Solids:
Ideally the slurry in a gas plant digester should be 7% - 9% solid material, pure
manure is 18% dry matter; it must be diluted with a roughly equal part of water to
achieve this level. If vegetable waste is added, more water will have to be added,
depending on the solid content of the vegetable matter. It makes greater ecological
sense to utilize sewage for this purpose.
If vegetable waste is used the gas plant should be provided with some kind of a
mechanical agitation system, otherwise, the heavy leaves or straw will settle to the
bottom and fermentation will be very slow.
6.3.9 Temperature of Operating Cycle:
The operating cycle is the number of days after which with regular feeding and
discharge of the gas plant, the entire contents are replaced by fresh material. At
temperatures averaging about 75F, manure will take about 50 days to be completely
digested. Light vegetable waste will be digested in about 70 days at this temperature. A
mixture of manure and vegetable waste will take about 50 - 60 days, depending largely
on the quantity and the kind of the vegetable waste added. If temperature is artificially
maintained between 90F and 100F, the fermentation period will not be more than 28
days for manure and 45 days for vegetable waste. Accordingly, large size plants that have
such temperature control will be based on an operating cycle in this range.
6.4 Digester Construction Requirements:
6.5.1 Insulating: Because temperature is critical to methane generation, heat
conservation in the digester is essential. To utilize the insulating properties of the soil,
consider mounding the soil up around the tank or burying the tank in a well-drained site
so that the soil's full insulating potential can be realized Heating. The system most
commonly used to provide a year-round 95F temperature for methane generation is a heat
exchanger where hot water pipes are placed within the digester. The water can be heated
outside the digester, possibly using a methane-fired water heater. For best results, waste
should be preheated before adding it to the digester. As much as five times more heat may
be needed for the preheating process as for maintaining digester temperature.
6.4.2 Stirring. Mixing is important to ensure adequate contact between the bacteria and
the waste and also to help strip gas out of the liquid. Mixing can be done using either:
Mechanical mixer.
Compressor to bubble collected gas back through the digester liquid.
Closed-circuit manure pump.

A mechanical stirrer works well as long as a good air seal is maintained.
Atmospheric oxygen must be excluded from the digester, to eliminate the threat of
explosion.
For the mechanical or pump-type methods, to determine the horsepower (hp)
needed to mix the digester contents, use the equation:
42
hp=0.185 x % total solids x liquid capacity (in 1,000 cft units).

For example, a 10,000-cubic foot digester containing waste at 6 percent solids
would require a 11.1 hp mixer (0.185 X 6% X 10). As to frequency of stirring, some
small-scale studies indicate that intermittent stirring (3-4 times per day) is about as
effective as continuous stirring.
If a compressor is used for mixing, piping can be inserted into the digester, and
recirculated gas from a storage unit injected by means of an open pipe or diffuser at the
bottom of the tank. This creates turbulence and keeps the solids in suspension.
Any gas piping used should either slope back to the digester or have condensate
traps to prevent water vapor from condensing and blocking the lines when the gas cools.
Also, it is important that a gas meter be installed on the gas collection line in order to
monitor digester operation; a high, stable gas production level usually indicates good
operation.
Figure 11: Stirrer
6.5 Digester Innovations:

6.5.1
Corn Cob Digesters

A laboratory study at Purdue University found that an anaerobic digester
containing corn cobs can be used to treat swine waste and produce methane at
temperatures as low as 65F. The study used a detention time of 5 days and a loading rate
of 7.5 pounds of volatile solids per cubic foot per day. This system holds a great deal of
promise for on farm use, with daily gas production as high as 1.5 volumes of gas per
volume of digester.
Since the cobs are high in carbon but low in nitrogen, they improve the C:N ratio
by supplying additional organic carbon. They also provide a support medium onto which
bacteria can attach and be retained within the digester instead of being removed with the
digester effluent.
6.5.2 An Energy Dome that combines liquid waste-treatment with biodegradable solid
waste consisting of four, 30ft. domes (two each of Anaerobic and Aerobic Design) with
allied equipment will optimally generate 10 MW-hours of electricity while treating
10,000 gallons (8% solid content) of waste per day. This is adequate to maintain 500 to
1,000 homes, depending upon energy requirements. An energy dome of this size, capable
of generating 3,650 MW-hours annually and should cost under Rs. 20 million. This
system costs less than coal or nuclear for initial set up as well as maintenance while
43
remaining completely sustainable. The 3 inch concrete with Basalt Rebar dome's disasterproof construction and adobe cover of 1 to 2 feet imparts the ultimate flexibility for
architectural design. It is ideally suited for small as well as large-scale structures such as
homes, shops, mosques, auditoriums, schools, athletic facilities, arenas, stadiums,
gymnasiums, convention halls, stores, shops, and warehouses, including cold
store/freezer operations. Insulated concrete domes provide excellent energy efficiency.
Heating and cooling a dome typically costs 1/4 to 1/2 less than a conventional building
the same size. This cost savings has to do with how the dome is constructed. The thermal
mass of the concrete and adobe combined create an R value of 50-60 with extremely low
air filtration. Low maintenance is also a quality of a Monolithic Dome. Snow and rain
cause very little stress on the exterior of a dome since its shape sheds water quickly. In a
well constructed Dome leaks are rare compared to conventional domes and are easily
repaired. The American Institute of Architects has acclaimed the geodesic dome "the
strongest, lightest and most efficient means of enclosing space known to man". They
handle hurricane winds, extreme snow loads and are the safest structure in an earthquake.
Figure 12: Geodesic Dome Bamboo Frame
7.
Makeen Qatil Makanoon Kay

Due to climate change and rising energy/ construction material costs as well as
prevailing construction practices that are outmoded and ill suited to local climate and
culture, a need was felt to develop a viable alternate. Specifically after the Earthquake
disaster in AJ&K and Hazara, it was realized that habitation of unsound architectural
structures that are not suited, due to seismic instability as well as increasing heat/ cold,
should be replaced with an adequate response. After many years of trial and error and
much personal expense such a response has emerged. Refining the concept through
expert input has always been a priority and has served to enhance the productivity and
aptness as well as reduce the costs of such an endeavor.
7.1 Standing on the Outside, Looking In:
The very word homeless evokes a feeling of pity and insecurity. The social animal
that man is requires the safety and security of a shelter that belongs to him. A shelter
wherein he can find peace and an opportunity to bring up his children. The self-respect
and esteem that goes along with ownership of ones own home, fosters a sense of well
44
being and belonging. With this inborn craving once satisfied the individual can be
expected to put in his best for the society that he belongs to. In no case should an
individual or family group be made to feel as outcasts. To be exposed to the vagaries of
nature or the arbitrariness of landlords leaves either a sense of despondency or else a
growing frustration and inner rage against society. This must be addressed and removed
in a satisfactory manner. By this I mean to say that providing a. cheap and dingy hovel in
sordid surroundings would aggravate rather then alleviate the problem. A way to provide
inexpensive yet well suited; modern and indeed futuristic housing needs to be adopted.
7.2 Present Trends:
The present trends in building houses suffer from the following serious defects:
7.2.1 Israaf:
An Islamic term denoting ostentation. The vast amounts of money wasted on
pomp and show is a sin and is strictly forbidden. This leads to fostering a sense of
deprivation in the less fortunate sections of society as well as clearly depicts the owners
of such ostentation as insensitive at the very least.
7.2.2 Eco-Disaster:
The very method of producing/ manufacturing building material is contributing
towards an ecological disaster in the making. Bricks; Cement; Girders and other steel
products; Crush; Sand and transportation are all based upon burning of fossil fuels on
vast scales. This results in the emission of noxious gasses that greatly damage the fragile
ecological system.
7.2.3 Unaesthetic:
The very attempt to produce fine homes proves to be a sore on the landscape and
is totally out of place. This is all the more true due to mindless aping of the West and
location of homes in a completely different environment from the original.
7.2.4 Un-Scientific:
The design and construction of these so called modern houses fail to take into
consideration Solar Insolation; Prevailing Winds; Rainfall; Humidity etc. This results in
enormous costs of heating and cooling. A waste that can be easily avoided or drastically
curtailed.
7.2.5 Expensive:
Apart from ostentation the expenses involved in construction of relatively modest
homes is enormous. This is very much beyond the reach of even the middle class.
7.2.6 Non-Traditional:
The adoption of non-progressive and indeed seriously flawed standards leaves us
exposed to the charge of superficially following unsound practices. If the adopted course
were one wherein advance is made and benefits accrued there would be no harm.
However adoption of a course that leads to the afore mentioned deficiencies is ridiculous
to say the least. Secondly a growing alienation and divergence from ones own culture and
traditions is promoted for no possible gain.
7.2.7 Site-Orientation:
The first factor for planning a house is the location and orientation. Whereas
location is often predetermined due to availability; inherent location defects can be
overcome by means of correct orientation. The direction of window and door openings
and their grouping is termed as the structures orientation. This is affected by the
following:
45
Table 34: Orientation Factors
#
1
Major Factors
Sun: This is the most important determining factor to make structure energy efficient.
A factor of increasing importance due to rising energy costs and global warming.
Solar angles vary from summer to winter and have to be taken into consideration
depending upon site location where heat gain in summer and heat loss in winter is to
be avoided
Wind: Prevailing winds of an area when catered for will provide ventilation in
summer and prevent heat loss in winter.
Vegetation: Vegetation provides a host of uses from aesthetic to erosion/ dust noise
control and insulation. This factor can also be actively used for income
supplementation and/ or nutrition enhancement.
7.2.8
Energy Conservation:
As mentioned previously this factor is of increasing importance and has become
almost crucial. This aspect is addressed by the following;
Table 35: Energy Conservation
#
Item:
1Surface Area: Buildings with large surface areas will experience greater heat gain/ loss
when least required. A circular configuration encloses the most space with the least wall
area. This results in compact structures without compromising space availability.
2Roof Loads: Heavy roof loads for insulation require unconventional structural systems.
The best of such systems is the Geodesic Dome. This design distributes the load evenly
to all walls.
3Shuttering: An aspect that has fallen into disuse for no apparent reason. The use of
slatted wooden shutters is of enormous benefit. The incorporation of directional
skylights or windows facing south reflects sunlight into the house in winters but is
screened out in summer with the change in the suns angle. The energy loss at nighttime
is greatly reduced by using the insulated shutter in winters.
7.2.9
Thermal Characteristics:
The inherent heat loss/ gain features of a structure are termed as its thermal
characteristics.
Thermal Mass: This affects the heat capacity, which is the amount of energy
required to change the temperature by 1 degree. A building with a large thermal mass
within the insulation heats and cools at a low and slow rate. Whereas the opposite takes
place at small thermal mass. Where temperature inside the building is more of question
of survival rather then comfort this factor takes on increased importance. Passive solar
use greatly diminishes requirements of external energy sources in winters.
7.2.10 Earth Shelter:
The interaction between roof; walls and floor is to a greater degree when earth
shelter is used.
46
7.2.11 Roof:
The geodesic dome provides the least roof surface area of any structure. This
combined with a thick earth berm around the walls leads to a high thermal mass. This
results in moderate and stable heat gain/ loss. Shading by trees is much easier. If new
planting is required the growing period can be covered by using green netting on bamboo
poles which is easier and uses less material then required for square or rectangular roofs,
secondly use of fruit or vegetable vines is also easier.
7.2.12 Walls:
The door and window openings not only affect the strength of the building but
also the net heat gain/ loss. Properly designed south facing openings, directly exposed to
the sun in winters and shaded in summers should be used. These will provide a positive
heating affect in winter and minimize gain in summer. Surrounding vegetation will
decrease heat gain and consequent reflection/ conduction from the immediate vicinity.
7.2.13 Floors:
The interior temperature begins to rise due to warm/ hot incoming air or
conduction in summer. An un-insulated floor responds by drawing heat out of the
building at a greater rate in an attempt to maintain a steady temperature. Studies show
that a three-fold increase in heat loss occurs in summer to aid in stabilizing the interior
temperature to comfortable levels. A vapor barrier of existing roofing material under a
relatively thin compacted floor will not act as a major impediment to this process.
7.2.14 Basements:
With additional increase in expense a sizable below grade, well type room can be
added to the structure at any time without affecting the existing building. This room will
have even more desirable thermal characteristics in extremely severe climates. In this
case pre-cast concrete planks are used as roofing material/ floor of the above grade room.
Since these possess poor insulation especially where waterproofing is not required, the
heat loss characteristics are not affected. Indeed these can be positively aided by
provision of exhaust/ covering with rugs.
7.2.15 Berming:
Provision of a sloping earth berm around the structure will provide even greater
insulation and lead to greater thermal mass. Secondly improved drainage characteristics
can be readily incorporated. Thirdly utility rooms such as kitchen and bath/ washrooms
can be conveniently built into these berms. Fourthly a greater degree of stability is
ensured.
7.2.16 Internal Heat Gain:
Depending upon the size and life style of the occupants there is a net heat gain
inside the structure. This is estimated at 12 to 15 KwHrs per day in winter and 7 to 9
KwHrs in summers for a small household (5 to 7 individuals). A good cross ventilation
plan and exhaust of kitchen heat to the outside will curtail this heat in summer. Retention
of kitchen heat in winter and use of shuttering will add to comfort in winter.
7.2.17 Well-Designed Openings:
Recessed and shaded openings will greatly add to prevention of heat gain/ loss
when required. These will automatically aid in preventing entry of insects as well as dust
into the interior of the house. Properly fabricated windows can provide net heat gain in
winters.
7.2.18 Prevailing Adobe Homes:
47
The concept of adobe housing is ancient and is still being used in many underdeveloped/ developing Countries. Inexpensive material and quick building have always
been the hallmarks of such types of building. Insecurity of tenancy adds to the
requirement of building an inexpensive and semi-permanent home. Crude and primitive,
they nonetheless provide some features of climatic adaptation that are worth considering.
Table 36: Current Adobe Construction Climatic Adaptation Advantages
#
1
2
3
Advantages:
Earthen walls gain and lose heat slowly.
Material readily available, usually free of cost.
Quick drying/ fast building.
Table 37: Current Adobe Construction Climatic Adaptation Disadvantages
#
Disadvantages:
1 Roofing gains and loses heat rapidly.
2 Needs constant maintenance.
3 Leaking roofs.
7.2.19 Geodesic Dome Construction:
Table 38: Gedesic Dome Construction Advantages
#
Advantages:
1
Inexpensive and readily available Insulation materials (Clay).
2
Quick to build.
3
Virtually indestructible.
4
Fire proof.
5
Insect proof.
6
Earthquake proof.
7
Waterproof.
8
Highly hygienic.
9
Low cost.
10 Super Insulation.
Usual concepts of low cost houses are inefficient and depressing. This concept
utilizes the extremely pleasing design of a Geodesic Dome and incorporates the
advantages of Earth Sheltered and Passive Solar Techniques.
7.2.20 Weather/ Climate Orientation:
In cold climates or hot areas the house is built facing the South for maximum
solar gain in winters and minimum in summers. Prevailing cold and hot winds are also
taken into account.
7.2.21 Location:
This type of housing is highly adaptable in land use. However some disadvantages
do crop up.
7.2.22 Summary:
48
Detached Units require from a minimum of 0.01 acres to 0.16 acres lot sizes.
Four Unit Clusters require 0.25 acres while double Row Attached Units require as little as
0.018 acre lot sizes. This is by far the lowest of any type of construction while yet
leaving a range from as low as 50 square feet per individual for an 8-member family. At
present our less fortunate brethren are huddled together at intensities of 15 to 25 square
feet per individual and are cramped together in single rooms where cooking also takes
place in rainy weather. The concept of attached bathrooms/ toilets is all together missing.
Privacy is non-existent and this and the other factors have significant adverse impacts
upon the psyches of the coming generations. The House thus provides the following
additional advantages:
Table 39: Advantages of Proposed Construction
#
Advantages:
1
More Space at low cost.
2
More aesthetic surroundings for children.
3
More Privacy.
4
Space Age design acts as stimulus to imagination.
5
More Privacy.
6
Indoor Toilets provide hygienic surroundings.
7
Stimulates Pride of possession.
8
Raises self-esteem.
9
Encourages Nation Building.
10 Fosters Cohesiveness in Society.
11 Removes Apathy.
7.3
Concept: The concept is based upon the Mongol folding Felt Tents (Ger:
Origin of Urdu word Ghar or home) which incorporated for the first time the concept
of Tension Bands and thus pre-empted discovery of this vital architectural principle. The
concept was taken further by the Turks who named it as Yurt (Origin of the word and
language Urdu as plural of Yurt to Yurtu or Army Camp). Muslim architecture
incorporated the engineering excellence of the Dome as existing in harmony with the
force of gravity as opposed to the flat roof of contemporary architecture. The
development of the Geodesic Dome further increased the strength and engineering
soundness of the concept. This development has been used extensively by me to erect
Low-Cost Environment/ Predator Green/ Shade Houses for Kitchen Gardening. Here a
wide variety of materials can be used to erect the requisite frame for the said purpose.
Similarly, the concept has been taken further and adapted to meet the exacting climatic,
expense and geo stability requirements that we face.
7.3.1 Effort: An effort was made to utilize locally available (NARC) construction
material in the most efficient manner to establish Rapidly Erected, Low-Cost Dwelling
for Field Research/ Development workers. The intended full scale model was for a 20 ft.
diameter dome with 5 foot verandah, two bedrooms with one baths and one kitchen. The
structure was to accommodate 4 workers or two officers. For Tsunami/ Violent Wind
Storm proofing the structure was to be grouted on a reinforced concrete (40x40 ft.) pad.
Unfortunately and despite expenditure of my own resources, using my own workers nd
49
tools, the effort was called off due to differences between the Chairman PARC and his
Federal Minister. This led to dismissal of th Chairman and all the people he had
employed.
7.3.2 Other Uses: The concept can, and should, be used for insulated cattle-sheds;
poultry sheds; low-cost green houses or kitchen gardens for nutritional food security
called; cottage industry workplaces; mosques; grain silos; godowns; cold stores; Bio
Reactors (for generating Methane for Direct combustion or Electricity generation
utilizing sewage with no external energy input); shops, offices and other structures.
7.3.3 The Design: The design consists of an aero dynamic geodesic dome that covers
the most floor space with the least walls or roof and rests, but is not grouted to, a floor of
2 tons per square foot bearing capacity. This results in freedom for the structure to move
with, rather than resist earthquakes up to 9 on the Richter scale. Secondly, the aero
dynamic design does not oppose high velocity wind and allows it to flow over the
structure thus providing capability to resist up to 250 mph winds. Rising temperatures in
summer and increased cold in winters is resulting in increased need of energy for heating
and cooling at a time when energy is scarce and prohibitively costly. This is yet another
factor which is adequately catered for by emplacing the lowest possible cost and
abundantly available adobe insulation material. Arising from the technology of our own
cultural streams rather then the inappropriate western technologies, the concept is ready
for ownership by our people.
7.3.4 Culture: The dome of Muslim architecture is the prototype of the Geodesic dome
which is the strongest structure in an engineering sense and consists of 40 triangular
facets. The compressional forces of traditional architecture are replaced by pre-stressed
tensional members which is best described as Tensigrity or Tensional Integrity of the
structure. Each member is linked to the other and passes on applied force to the others to
provide equal strength of all members. Similarly, gravitational forces from below or
impactional forces from above are not resisted but are allowed to flow through the
structure.
7.3.5 Structure: The structure consists of an RCC shell of 3 inch thickness that is
covered with 1-2 foot adobe with a soil-cement layer upon curing. This system is capable
of rapid erection by using permanent inner and outer shuttering, utilizing pressure filling
of concrete over Steel Bar Re-enforcement (Rebar) or Basalt Rebar for lower carbon
rating. Steps involved are; Firstly, construction of floor pad. Secondly; erection of inner
shuttering. Thirdly, erection of outer shuttering and pressure filling; Fourthly, curing and
removal of outer shuttering and finally emplacement of adobe cover and removal of inner
shuttering.
7.3.6 Designing and Trials: Designing and trials of different versions for disaster
proofing began after the 2005 EQ and built upon efforts at low-cost Ceramic Adobe
Construction being studied and tried by the developer since 1990. At an R&D expense of
Rs. 4.5 million (less personal time and effort) the final version is ready for mass
dissemination. The existence of EQ Fault lines, storms and finally Global Warming
accompanied with the equal and opposite reaction of increased cold in winters, demands
that such methods of construction be immediately undertaken. Resistances to change and
ingrained habits have to be abandoned in order to adequately respond to 21 st Century
challenges. We have to live in harmony with nature in order to continue living at all! It is
50
a pity that adequate attention is not being paid to the development despite or because of it
being a win-win empowerment situation for all!
8.
Size of the Plant:
The size of the plant is determined by multiplying the average volume of slurry to
be fed per day as to supply the gas and fertilizer desired, by the number of days in the
operating cycle. :
8.1
Sizing a Bio Gas Plant.
In a two-stage digestion system (multistage), different digestion vessels are
optimized to bring maximum control over the bacterial communities living within the
digesters. Acidogenic bacteria produce organic acids and more quickly grow and
reproduce than methanogenic bacteria. Methanogenic bacteria require stable pH and
temperature to optimize their performance. Under typical circumstances, hydrolysis,
acetogenesis, and acidogenesis occur within the first reaction vessel.
The organic material is then heated to the required operational temperature (either
mesophilic or thermophilic) prior to being pumped into a methanogenic reactor. The
initial hydrolysis or acidogenesis tanks prior to the methanogenic reactor can provide a
buffer to the rate at which feedstock is added. Some European countries require a degree
of elevated heat treatment to kill harmful bacteria in the input waste. In this instance,
there may be a pasteurization or sterilization stage prior to digestion or between the two
digestion tanks. Notably, it is not possible to completely isolate the different reaction
phases, and often some biogas is produced in the hydrolysis or acidogenesis tanks.
Passive solar heating can be used to save on direct energy consumption.
51
REQUIREMENTS
Small
Single
Chamber
Large
Double
Chamber
Single
Stage
Availability of
R aw Material
Artificial
Heating &
Agitation
Double
Stage
Multiple
Digesters
Suitability of
R aw Material
Amount & Type

Of Raw
Material Used
Artificial
Heating &
Agitation
Operating Cycle of
the Plant
Size of Digester
Figure 13: Sizing a Digester

Summary
This table summarizes the steps in designing a gas plant. The items in double
boxes are the independent variables i.e. they are determined before any designing is done.
The single boxed items are dependent variables. The plainly written items are free
options which may be chosen on the basis of convenience and local conditions Thus
production requirements determine how big a gas plant should be. With a small plant one
has the options of one or two chambers in his digester, and with a big plant, one can
choose between a single or double stage plant, or multiple single stage plants connected
in series. Production requirements when considered together with the availability and
suitability of the raw material determine the amount and type of the raw material to be
used. Artificial heating and agitation is necessary for large plants, hence it is boxed. For
small plants it is not always necessary. It only becomes necessary if the raw material used
8.2
52
in a small plant contains vegetable matter. Hence it is semi-boxed to show that it is purely
for a small gas plant.
8.3
Double Stage: When such a large digester volume is required that construction in
a single tank is impractical, the two stage gas plant is constructed. Here the digester
volume is divided between two tanks. Digestion is carried out in the first tank until 80%
of the total gas volume is evolved, and completed in the second tank. This necessitates
the calculating of two operating cycles, and two volumes. The secondary digester is built
without heating or agitation system, although it should have insulation. The primary
digester should have all these. When the primary tank is operated with heating and
agitation, 80% of the gas is evolved from fresh slurry after 15 days. This will be the
operating cycle of the primary digester. Its volume should be sufficient to accommodate
all the slurry fed in 15 days. A siphon transfers the slurry into the second digester when
this volume is exceeded i.e. when the tank contains more than what will be fed in 15
days. The primary tank is intended mainly to produce gas. The function of the second
digester is mainly to complete the decomposition. If gas is evolved so much the better,
but the cooler temperatures present there might cause production to be quite low.
Agitation' is not used because it would disturb the separation of the decomposed solid
settled at the bottom, from the only partially decomposed slurry coming in from the
siphon. Construction should be in cement and concrete. Since this material will absorb
the gas a non-porous, non-absorbent coating must be applied to the inside right down to
the level which is exposed to the gas.
Figure 14: Flow Chart Waste Disposal
53
9.
Residual Products: The anaerobic digestion process produces:
Table 40: Methane Production Residual Products
#
1
2
3
Product
Grease that, separated via further treatment, can be used as an alternative liquid fuel.
Low-strength Liquid Wastes that can be fed into an on-site aerobic treatment plant.
Class-A sludge (Digestate) with the potential to be used as a high-quality soil
amendment.
4 Methane Gas Contaminants
9.1
Class A Sludge: Digestate is the solid remnants of the original input material to
the digesters that the microbes cannot use. It also consists of the mineralized remains of
the dead bacteria from within the digesters. Digestate can come in three forms: fibrous,
liquor, or a sludge-based combination of the two fractions. The second byproduct
(Acidogenic digestate) is a stable, organic material consisting largely of lignin that cannot
be broken down by the anaerobic microorganisms and cellulose. The biodegradation of
the nitrocellulose compounds may be the most challenging step of the bioremedial
process. However an alternative approach is to use known anaerobic bacteria often
isolated in bovine rumens, or horse intestines 3 that are capable of decomposing cellulose.
The route which these type microorganisms use to degrade cellulosic compounds is
through the production of important cellobiase enzymes, endo and exoglucanases,
especially of fungal origin. It is proposed to use the species Clostridium cellobioparum,
which have been found to effectively degrade cellulose under appropriate conditions,
especially anaerobically. If this approach succeeds the digestate will not consist of
significant volumes of cellulose. Also of a variety of mineral components in a matrix of
dead bacterial cells; some plastic may be present. The material resembles domestic
compost and can be used as such or to make low-grade building products, such as
fiberboard. The third byproduct is a liquid (methanogenic digestate) rich in nutrients,
which can be used as a fertilizer, depending on the quality of the material being digested.
Levels of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) should be chemically assessed. This will
depend upon the quality of the original feedstock. In the case of most clean and sourceseparated biodegradable waste streams, the levels of PTEs will be low. In the case of
wastes originating from industry, the levels of PTEs may be higher and will need to be
taken into consideration when determining a suitable end use for the material.
The digestate may contain ammonia that is phytotoxic, and may hamper the
growth of plants if it is used as a soil-improving material. For these two reasons, a
maturation or composting stage may be employed after digestion. Lignin and other
materials are available for degradation by aerobic microorganisms, such as fungi, helping
reduce the overall volume of the material for transport. During this maturation, the
ammonia will be oxidized into nitrates, improving the fertility of the material and making
it more suitable as a soil improver. Large composting stages are typically used by dry
anaerobic digestion technologies The wastewater exiting the anaerobic digestion facility
will typically have elevated levels of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical
oxygen demand (COD). These measures of the reactivity of the effluent indicate an
3
Shapton, 1971
54
ability to pollute. Some of this material is termed 'hard COD', meaning it cannot be
accessed by the anaerobic bacteria for conversion into biogas. If this effluent were put
directly into watercourses, it would negatively affect them by causing eutrophication. As
such, further treatment of the wastewater is often required. This treatment will typically
be an oxidation stage wherein air is passed through the water in sequencing batch reactors
or reverse osmosis unit.
9.1.1 Composting the Digestate:
Table 41: Digestate Composting Advantages
#
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Benefits of Composting:
Serves as the principal storehouse for anions such as nitrates, sulfates, borates,
molybdates and chlorides that are essential for plant growth.
Increases CEC (Cation Exchange Capacity) of soil by a factor of 5 to 10 times that of
clay.
Acts as a buffer against rapid changes caused by acidity; alkalinity; salinity; pesticides
and toxic heavy metals.
Supplies food for beneficial soil organisms like earthworms, symbiotic Nitrogen
fixing bacteria and mycorrihize (beneficial fungus).
Serves as recycling sink for organic waste and green manures (animal manure, crop
residues, household refuse and leguminous plants collected within and outside the
farm) and thus keeps environment clean and hygienic.
Softens the soil by introducing fibrous matter.
Increases soil water retention capacity.
Makes plants more resistant to pests and disease through improved nutrient
availability and uptake, resulting in healthier plants with strong immune systems.
Prevents soil acidification.
Figure 15: Large Scale Composting
9.2
Gas Contamination and Contaminants: Raw biogas produced from digestion
is not high quality enough to be used as fuel gas for machinery. The solution is the use of
upgrading or purification processes whereby contaminants in the raw biogas stream are
absorbed or scrubbed, leaving more methane per unit volume of gas. It takes roughly
between 3-6% of the total energy output in gas to run a biogas upgrading system.
55
Definition: Process of removing one or more undesirable components from a gas

stream.
Typically targeted at removing hydrogen sulfide (H2S), siloxanes, and

particulates.
Optional removal of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and water vapor for specific
applications.
Digesters are known to contain undesirable components such as:
Figure 16: Digester Gas Contents
Hydrogen Sulfide, H2S: 100 to 3,000 ppm: H2S gas when combined
with water vapor produces a weak acid: hydro sulfuric acid which is
corrosive to metals in the combustion chamber as well as the intake and
exhaust piping. It also produces sulfur dioxide during combustion. The
corrosive nature of H2S alone is enough to destroy the internals of a plant.
The addition of ferrous chloride, FeCl2, to the digestion tanks inhibits
hydrogen sulfide production;
Volatile Siloxanes, 100 to 10,000 ppb: The word siloxane is derived from
the words silicon, oxygen, and alkane. They belong to the wider class of
organo-silicon volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Siloxanes can be
found in products such as cosmetics, deodorants, de-foamers, toothpaste,
water repelling windshield coatings, lubricants, food additives, and soaps.
Most common siloxane types found in digester gas are the D3, D4, and D5
compounds.
Such compounds are frequently found in household waste and wastewater
and are formed from the anaerobic decomposition of materials commonly found
in soaps and detergents. During combustion of biogas containing siloxanes,
silicon is released and can combine with free oxygen or various other elements in
the combustion gas. It also forms deposits containing mostly silica (SiO2) or
silicates (SixOy) and can also contain calcium, sulfur, zinc, phosphorus. Such
white mineral deposits accumulate to a surface thickness of several millimeters
and must be removed by chemical or mechanical means.
Recommended target concentration:
56

Target concentration in feed gas : <100 ppm
Reciprocating engines and boilers: <100 ppb
Turbines / Micro-turbines:
< 50 ppb
Effect of Siloxanes:
Siloxanes degrade to silicates (SiO2 & SiO3) at high temperature and
create impermeable glass particles. These particles bond onto hot metal surfaces.
Reciprocating Piston Engines: Forms deposits and hot spots in the

combustion chamber, valves, valve seats, piston crowns and cylinder
walls.
Boilers: Deposits a coating of silicate on boiler tubes that lowers heat

transfer efficiency.
Gas Turbines: Deposits on turbine blades leading to blade erosion and a

significant drop in operating efficiency.
Particulates: Form deposits on engine surfaces and boiler equipment.
Water Vapor, H2O: 1 6%: Inert gas, lowers heat value of digester gas. Wet
gas is more corrosive to machinery
Carbon Dioxide: 35 40%
Nitrogen, N2: <1%
9.3
Purification of Landfill and Digester Gas: Purification is done to remove
harmful constituents within the stream. The addition of ferrous chloride, FeCl2, to the
digestion tanks inhibits hydrogen sulfide production. The methane within biogas can be
concentrated via a biogas upgrader to the same standards as fossil natural gas, which
itself has had to go through a cleaning process, and becomes biomethane. The cleaned
methane fuel may be pressurized into a high pressure fuel which is suitable for use with
motors or vehicle engines adapted to be fueled by compressed natural gas. If the SNGPL
allows for this, the producer of the biogas may utilize the local gas distribution networks.
Gas must be very clean to reach pipeline quality, and must be of the correct composition
for the local distribution network to accept.
First the Methane Gas is passed through a primary knockout pot that removes
droplets, and filters matter from the Methane Gas.
The first segment of the duct passes through a series of three tubes that are filled
with caustic soda that retains the CO2 emitted by the methane. The baking soda produced
after CO2 reduction can also be a complementary source of revenue.
Next main vacuum and/or blower's pressure boost the gas to the appropriate
conditions for moving the process gases as required. The hydrogen sulfide (H2S) removal
system can either be a scrubber with solid media that absorbs the H2S in the Methane
Gas stream or a liquid scrubber that catalytically converts H2S in the gas stream to solid
sulfur. When using the second mentioned method, hydrogen sulfide removal produces
inert element sulfur that can further purified for use as a secondary nutrient or even to
stabilize Urea to avoid hydrolysis and volatilization when it is inculcated in the soil. This
would also provide us with a double nutrient fertilizer. Alternatively it can be used as an
additive for compost. This is in contrast to typical hydrogen sulfide removal processes
that produce a hazardous waste element to be disposed of as hazardous waste if it is
treated by the first mentioned method.
After the hydrogen sulfide removal process the gas moves to the siloxane
removal equipment where siloxanes are removed by adsorption. The siloxanes removal
57
system can be granular media scrubbers with re-generable or non-re-generable adsorbent

media or a pressure swing adsorption (PSA) system, Vacuum Swing Adsorption system
(VSA), Temperature Swing Adsorption (TSA) system. The siloxane waste products are
then disposed of with a small amount of Methane Gas in a flare or thermal oxidizer.
The resulting cleaned Methane Gas fuel is delivered as feedstock to the work
application with clean, dry, filtered and temperature/dew point controlled fuel gas stream,
without excessive hydrogen sulfide, and siloxanes after a final particulate filter to remove
any entrained particulates in the gas stream. This stage may include Gas Conditioning.
A skid mounted gas drying system, including a moisture inlet coalescer, heat
exchangers, chiller, pumps, moisture separator, recirculation bypass, and all piping,
controls, and control panel consisting of:
Prime mover: Differential pressure blower, compressor, vacuum pump stage. This
stage produces the required delta P to move the gas within the process stages, deliver it at
pressures required for use in the engine/boiler user system. This stage moves from point
to point within the flow path per job requirements.
Reasons for Gas Scrubbing:
Table 42: Gas Purification Reasons
#
Reason
1 Decrease engine maintenance intervals
2 Improve fuel (heat) value
3 Improve engine performance providing more power!
4 Sell gas to utility (pipeline quality)
5 Produce compressed natural gas (CNG) for City fleet use
6 Provide higher quality fuel to boiler
7 Less maintenance
There are four main methods of biogas upgrading, these include:
Water-washing: The most prevalent method is water washing where high
pressure gas flows into a column where the carbon dioxide which is soluble in water and
other trace elements such as Particulates are scrubbed by cascading water running
counter-flow to the gas. This arrangement could deliver 98% methane with manufacturers
guaranteeing maximum 2% methane loss in the system. It takes roughly between 3-6% of
the total energy output in gas to run a biogas upgrading system.
9.3.1 Gas Scrubbing Technologies:
Adsorption (Dry Scrubbing) Molecular Sieve Media Adsorption:

Component is adsorbed onto media the media is either exhausted and
replaced or regenerated such as Iron sponge (iron oxide on wood chips)
for removing H2S
Wet Scrubbing: Activated carbon, activated alumina for siloxane.

removal
58
Figure 17: Wet Scrubbing
Refrigeration (Chilling): Mechanical refrigeration that removes moisture

by lowering the temperature of the gas to condense the water vapor. Other
impurities also removed in condensate.
Removes:
Moisture - dewpoint < 40F
90 - 100% particulates
70 - 80% siloxanes
20 - 30% H2S
Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA): A mechanical pressure switching
system that rapidly cycles from adsorption to regeneration. Uses molecular
sieve media and other adsorption media to allow the passage of methane
but rejects carbon dioxide, H2S, and siloxanes
Molecular Sieve Media: Specialized adsorption media that traps
(adsorbs) smaller molecules in media while allowing larger molecules to
pass through. Media can be rapidly regenerated.
Digester Gas Scrubbing: Traps carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and other
smaller molecules while allowing methane to pass through media.
Angstrom length equal to 1 x 10-10 meters.
Figure 18: PSA Cycle
59
Pressure Phase: Adsorbing; Feed gas flows upward thru media bed. Targeted
compounds are trapped or adsorbed in the media bed. CH4 passes thru the bed,
over time the bed will become saturated.
Vacuum Phase: Purging and Regenerating; Pressure is released thru the bottom
of adsorbent bed.
Figure 19: PSA
Gas Scrubbing Approaches: Remove H2S, CO2, Particulates and Siloxanes

Unit Processes in Series; Series of unit processes to remove each undesirable
component.
Table 43: Purification Process
#
Processes:
1 Iron sponge.
2 Activated Carbon.
3 Chiller.
4 Wet Scrubber.
5 Adsorption.
6 Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA).
Schematic: Major Components of PSA Gas Scrubber
Feed Compressor
Type: Reciprocating
Capacity: 1 Million SCFD
60 HP Motor
Compresses from 40-50 to 105 PSIG
Vacuum Compressor
Type: Liquid Ring
Capacity:0.5 Million SCFD
150 HP Motor
Reduces from -3 to -18 in of HG
Adsorber Vessels
Four Adsorbers: On-line, De-pressurizing, Re-pressurizing, and Purging.
Buffer Tanks
Two Equalization and Two Repressurization Tanks
Tail Gas BufferTank

60
Purge Tank
Table 44: PSA Scrubbing Advantages
#
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Advantages of PSA Scrubbing:

No consumables. PSA media has 5+ year life.
Single process versus multiple processes.
Less liquid discharge (compared to wet scrubbing for CO2 removal).
Lower maintenance cost.
Lower operating cost.
Cost of the project.
Received American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) money for the project.
Pay back period will be between 5-10 years.
By using clean gas reduction in maintenance cost of the engines and boilers.
Sell the gas to Gas Company or Build a CNG station.
10. Determining the Feasibility of Methane Production:

The economics of methane production are generally considered questionable,
even at today's escalating fuel prices. But energy costs and availability tomorrow is
changing this feasibility drastically. The following example, while by no means a
complete economic analysis, should provide a rough idea of the value of methane
generation.
Example:
Sr.
Items and calculations
Value
A.
Determine potential volume of gas produced per day.
1.
Gas produced per unit of input materials.
2.
Total gas produced per day. Quantity of input x Step A.1
3.
Total methane produced per day. Step A.2/
B.
1.
2.
3.
4.
C.
1.
2.
3.
Determine amount and value of energy produced.

Energy value per day. (Assumes of the methane must be recycled to provide
heat for the digester. As compared to cost of Natural Gas.
Energy value of methane x usable methane x Step A.3
= BTU/day
Natural Gas equivalent of heat produced.
Step B.1 / BTU/gal. Natural Gas
Rupee value of energy produced per day.
Price of Natural Gas x Step B.2
Rupee value of energy produced per year.
Days/yr. x Step B.3
Determine digester tank volume and dimensions
Design liquid volume in the digester
Below Grade Volume
Total digester volume (including 1/2 day's storage for gas produced) in cubic feet.
Step C.1 + (1/2 day x Step A.3)
Total digester volume in gallons.
61
4.
5.
D.
1.
2.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
3.
a.
b.
4.
a.
b.
5.
E.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
F.
Gals./cu.ft. x Step 0.2

Dome dimensions.
Diameter of circular sump for height chosen.
((Step C.2 / Step C.4) x 1.27)1/2
Determine Digester Cost, including Insulation, Heater and Mixer.
Cost of digester, including pump.
Cost for digester insulation on cover and sidewalls.
Insulation covering. (One way to insulate is to construct a larger diameter tank
around the digester and insulate the space between. The outer tank does not need
to be as watertight or sturdy as the inner tank. Assume cost of the exterior tank is
1/2 the digester tank).
Step D.1 x 1/2
Digester sidewall surface area.
Step C.4 x Step C.5 X 3.14
Digester cover area.
(Step C.5)2 x 0.79
Total digester surface area.
Step D.2.b + Step D.2.c
Insulation cost.
Insulating cost/sq.ft. x Step D.2.d
Cost of the water heater.
Heater sized to supply 30 BTU per hour per cubic foot of digester liquid volume.
Heater capacity/cu.ft. x Step 0.1.
Heater cost.
Digester mixer cost.
Mixer sized to stir digester contents having about 10 percent solids.
Step C.1/1000 x pct. solids x 0.185
Mixer cost. (Assume a 3-in. diaphragm pump and piping system to
re-circulate digester contents).
Total digester cost.
Steps D.1 + D.2.a + D.2.e + D.3.b + D.4.b
Determine the Cost of holding Digester Effluent Until Disposed.
Effluent produced per day in kgs.
Effluent produced per day in cubic feet.
Step E.1 / kgs./cft.
Storage volume needed for x-day(s) capacity in cubic feet.
Days capacity x Step E.2
Storage volume needed for x-day(s) capacity in gallons.
Gals./cu.ft. x Step E.3
Cost for a prefabricated storage structure.
Construction cost/gal. x Step E.4
Cost for an earthen storage structure.
Construction cost/gal. x Step E.3
Determine cost of a gas storage unit.
A gas storage unit must also be constructed or else a use developed which
consumes gas at the rate it is produced.
62
For this example, assume no gas storage is needed.

G.
Determine total cost of this methane generation system.
1.
Total cost with a prefabricated storage.
Step D.5 + Step E.5
2.
Total cost with an earthen storage.
Step D.5 + Step E.6
H.
Determine the economic feasibility. (The Rupee value of methane produced
in Step B.4 can be used to determine the payback period).
1.
Capital investment that can be paid back in 7 years.
2.
Total breakeven investment.
Step H.1 Total Investment.
(In case of Carbon Credits attained or Cost Returned the situation will be different.
However, it makes good economic sense to work out Economic Feasibility).
11.
Conclusion: By now, I am sure that all will agree that the discussed exercise is
not only badly needed, it is also highly desirable and affordable. A CMD Project that
commands carbon Credits is the requirement of the day. In this manner, given seed
money for initial establishment, a recycling of Capital along with Socially Generated
Waste is made possible. In this case we do not have to ask How much will it cost, rather
ask what will it cost not to implement the Project?
Figure 20: Moving Towards the Future
63

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Biomelioration:

Harnessing Biomethanation for Energy Generation &

Table 19:Pathogen Survival Times by Disposal/ Treatment..............................................23

Composting: Process by which organic materials are biodegraded by

1.2 The History of Methane:

Used to heat water in Assyria

Figure 1Gas Street Lamp

1.3 Reasons for Failures:

Inadequate operator training.

Improved designs and better understanding of O&M requirements.

Figure 2 Geodesic Digesters

1.5 Advantages & Disadvantages:

Figure 3 Green House Gasses

Figure 4 Liquid Waste

Aquifer pollution is a main concern in Pakistan. The source is from both

Figure 5 Sewerage Systems Components

4 Condiments, sauces, herbs & spices.

Table 12: Industrial Waste Constituents

Arsenic, arsenic compounds.

Phenols, phenol compounds including chlorophenols.

71 Waste of an explosive nature not subject to other legislation.

Acronym Compound Name:

Table 14: Explosives Waste Degradation Products

Acronym Compound Name:

Bioaugmentation Treatment Materials:

Table 15: Bioaugmentation Treatment Materials

Spent Fermentation Media, Tabletzing Binders and Solvents

Preliminary Process Selection, BioTreatability Testing and Price Estimation.

Table 16:Proposed Bioremediation Process

Site 1: Bioaugmentation: Municipal Treatment Plan:

Site 2: Composting: Anaerobic Bioaugmentation:

Phase 1. Biodegradation of the Municipal Liquid Treatment Effluents (Aerobic,

Person to Person Contact

Person to Person Contact

Soil Transmitted Helminths

Insects Breeding/ Feeding in Poor

3.2 Excreta Related Diseases and their Characteristics:

Fecal contamination of the soil; eggs hatch,

Few weeks to several

Ingestion of infective eggs from

Ingestion of raw or partially cooked meat

containing infected larvae passed through

Direct transfer of infected eggs by hand from

Direct contact with pharyngeal secretion or

Exposure to infected water during bathing or

Infected soils in moist soil contaminated with

Probably fecal-Oral and possibly FecalRespiratory

Person to Person by the Fecal-Oral route

Ingestion of water contaminated with feces or

From a few hours to

Direct or indirect Fecal-Oral transmission

One to seven days,

By food or water contaminated by feces or

Usually ranges from

Ingestion of cysts in feacally contaminated

5-25 days or longer,

Epidemic outbreaks result mainly from

From a few days to

Ingestion of developed eggs, which have

3.3 Survival Time of pathogens in days by different Disposal or Treatment

Managing the Use of Water:

Table 23: Sustainability Principles

Use Liquid waste as a Resource:

Figure 7 Sustainable Resource Initiative