Chapter -3

3.1 general

Tall buildings, which are usually designed for office or commercial

use, are among the most distinguished space definitions in the
architectural history of American urbanism in the twentieth century.
They are primarily a reaction to the rapid growth of the urban
pulation and the demand by business activities to be as close to
each other as possible. Architects reinterpretations of the building
type, the high cost of land in urban areas, the desire to prevent the
disorganized expansion, the need to preserve gricultural roduction,
the concept of skyscraper, influence of cultural significance and
prestige, have all ontributed to force buildings upward. Today, it is
virtually impossible to imagine a major city without tall buildings.
The importance of tall buildings in the contemporary urban
development is without doubt ever increasing despite their several
undeniable negative effects on the quality of urban life.Many
researches and studies have been done in order to mitigate
excitations and improve the performance of tall buildings against
wind loads & earthquake loads. An extremely important and
effective design approach among these methods is aerodynamic
modifications, including,modifications of uildings corner geometry
and its cross-sectional shape. Tall buildings are gigantic projects
emanding incredible logistics and management, and require
enormous financial investment. A careful coordination of the
structural elements and the shape of a building which minimize the
lateral displacement, may offer considerable savings. Nowadays, the
challenge of designing an efficient tall building has considerably
changed. The conventional approach to tall building design in the
past was to limit the forms of the buildings to a rectangular shape
mostly, but today, much more complicated building geometries
could be utilized.
3.1.1OBJECTIVE & SCOPE
The main objective of this work is to contribute to the development
of the design guidance for high rise buildings in relation to different
shapes of building to control wind excitation and earthquake load as
a reference for architects, engineers, developers, and students.In
this research, the concept of high rise building, which include the
definition, basic design considerations, and lateral loads; shape
modifications of tall buildings, are studied. Then the results for
different conditions are interpreted and conclusions are made as to
which shaped buildings out of four taken in the consideration is
most stable. Further work can also be done on more complicated

shapes of buildings and come to conclusion as to which is most

stable and economical shapes under given condition for
wind and earthquake loads.
3.1.2 DEFINITION OF TALL BUILDING
The tall building can be described as a multistory building generally
provided with high speed elevators, constructed using a structural
frame, and combining extraordinary height with ordinary room
spaces such as could be found in low-buildings. In aggregate, it is a
physical, economic, and technological expression of the citys power
base, representing its private and public investments.

3.1.3 WIND EFFECTS ON TALL BUILDINGS

The wind is the most powerful and unpredictable force affecting
tall buildings. Tall building can be defined as a mast anchored in the
ground, bending and swaying in the wind. This movement,known as
wind drift, should be kept within acceptable limits. Moreover, for a
well-designed tall building, the wind drift should not surpass the
height of the building divided by 500. Wind loads on
buildings increase considerably with the increase in building
heights. Furthermore, the speed of wind increases with height, and
the wind pressures increase as the square of the wind speed. Thus,
wind effects on a tall building are compounded as its height
increases. Besides this, with innovations in architectural treatment,
increase in the strengths of materials, and advances in methods of
analysis,tall building have become more efficient and lighter, and
so, more vulnerable to deflection, and even to swaying under wind
loading. Despite all the engineering sophistication performed with
omputers,
wind is still a complex phenomenon, mainly owing to two major
problems. Unlike dead loads and live loads, wind loads change
rapidly and even abruptly, creating effects much larger than when
the same loads were applied gradually, and that they limit building
accelerations below human perception. Although the true
complexity of the wind and the acceptable human tolerance to it
have just begun to be understood, there is still a need to
understand more the nature of wind and its interaction with a tall
building, with particular reference to allowable defections and
comfort of occupants.
3.1.4 VARIATION OF WIND SPEED WITH HEIGHT

An important characteristic of wind is the variation of its speed

with height (Figure 1). The wind speed increase follows a curved
line varying from zero at the ground surface to a maximum at some
distance above the ground. The height at which the speed stops to
increase is called the gradient height, and the corresponding speed,
the gradient wind speed. This important characteristic of wind is a
well understood phenomenon that higher design pressures are
specified at higher elevations in most building codes. Additionally,
at heights of approximately 366 m from the ground, surface friction
has an almost negligible effect on the wind speed; as such the wind
movement is only depend on the prevailing seasonal and local wind
effects. The height through which the wind speed is affected by the
topography is called atmospheric boundary layer. The wind speed
profile within this layer is in the domain of turbulent flow and could
be mathematically calculated.

3.1.5 VORTEX-SHEDDING PHENOMENON

Along wind and across wind are two important terms, used to
explain the vortex-shedding phenomenon. Along wind or simply
wind is the term used to refer to drag forces. The across wind
response is a motion, which happens on a plane perpendicular to
the direction of wind. When a building is subjected to a wind flow,
the originally parallel wind stream lines are displaced on both
transverse sides of the building (Fig 2), and the forces produced on
these sides are called vortices.

Fig 2. Simplified wind flow

At quite a low wind speeds, the vortices are shed symmetrically on
either transverse side of the building (Fig 2 a), and so building does
not vibrate in the across wind direction.

Fig 2. Vortices in different wind speed conditions: (a) vortices in low

speed of wind (there is no vibration in the across wind direction);
(b) vortices in high speed of wind vortex-shedding phenomenon
(there is vibration in the across wind direction) On the other hand,
at higher wind speeds, the vortices are shed alternately first from
one and then from the other side. When this occurs, there is an
impulse both in the along wind and across wind directions. The
across wind impulses are applied to the left and then alternatively
to the right. Therefore such kind of shedding which causes
structural vibrations in the flow and the across wind direction is
called vortex-shedding, a phenomenon well known in fluid
mechanics. This phenomenon of alternate shedding of vortices for a
rectangular tall building is shown schematically in Figure 2b.
3.1.6 EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS ON TALL BUILDINGS
As earthquakes can happen almost anywhere, some measure of
earthquake resistance in the form of reserve ductility and
redundancy should be built into the design of all structures to

prevent catastrophic failures. Moreover, during the life of a building

in a seismically active zone, it is usually expected that the building
will be subjected to many small earthquakes, including some
moderate ones, one or more large ones, and possibly a very severe
one. Building massing, shape and proportion, ground acceleration,
and the dynamic response of the structure, influences the
magnitude and distribution of earthquake forces. On the other
hand, if irregular forms are inevitable, special design considerations
are necessary to account for load transfer at abrupt changes in
structural resistance. Therefore, two general approaches are
utilized to determine the seismic loading, which take into
consideration the properties of the structure, and the past record of
earthquakes in the region. When compared to the wind loads,
earthquake loads have stronger intensity and shorter duration.
3.1.7 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Moreover, despite the advancements in earthquake engineering
during the last three decades, many uncertainties still exist. The
plan layout of a building plays a vital role in its resistance to lateral
forces and the distribution of earthquake forces. Experience has
shown that the buildings with an unsymmetrical plan have a greater
vulnerability to earthquake damage than the symmetrical
ones.Therefore, symmetry in both axes, not only for the building
itself but also for the arrangement of wall openings, columns, and
shear walls is very important. For irregular featured buildings, such
as asymmetry in plan or vertical discontinuity, assumptions
different from the buildings with regular features should be used in
developing seismic criteria.
3.1.8 TALL BUILDING BEHAVIOR DURING EARTHQUAKES
Seismic motion response of tall buildings is to some extent
generally different than low-rise buildings. The magnitude of inertia
forces generated by an earthquake depends on the building mass,
ground acceleration, the nature of foundation, and the dynamic
characteristics of the structure (Figure 3). Although tall buildings
are more flexible than low-rise buildings, and usually experience
accelerations much less than low-rise ones, a tall building subjected
to ground motions for a prolonged period may experience much
larger forces if its natural period is near that of the ground waves.

Figure 3. Schematic representation of seismic force

3.1.9 SHAPE SELECTION

A tall building, whose shape is unsuitable, often requires a great
deal of steel or a special damping mechanism to reduce its dynamic
displacement within the limits of the criterion level for the design
wind speed. Understandably, an appropriate choice of building
shape and architectural modifications are also extremely important
and effective design approaches to reduce wind induced motion by
altering the flow pattern around the building, hence for this
research work four shaped buildings are generally studied namely
circular, rectangular, square and triangle as shown in (Figure 4 to
Figure 7).

Figure 4 Circular Shape

Figure 6 Square Shape

Figure 7 Triangular Shape

3.2 LOADS CONSIDERED

3.2.1 DEAD LOADS:
3.2.1.1 Dead loads shall include self-weight of all items of
permanent nature that will act continuously throughout the
service life of the building, street, building works, street
works, and the variations of its magnitude with time are
insignificant. It shall be taken to include but not limited to the
following:
(a) the structure
(b) all other structural elements that are affixed to the
structure (e.g. windows, claddings and other forms of
permanent construction);

(c) non-structural elements (e.g. finishes, roofing, surfacing

and coverings, linings, kerbs, suspended ceilings, insulation,
earth and ballast);
(d) permanent equipment including fixtures and fittings (e.g.
permanently fixed wiring and reticulated services);
(e) partitions the positions of which are indicated on the
building plans submitted to the Buildings Department (BD)
for approval; and
(f) soil fill, waterproofing and drainage system for gardening,
greenery or planting.
All permanent constructions of the structure form the dead
loads. The dead load comprises of the weights of walls,
partitions floor finishes, false ceilings, false floors and the
other permanent constructions in the buildings. The dead load
loads may be calculated from the dimensions of various
members and their unit weights. the unit weights of plain
concrete and reinforced concrete made with sand and gravel or
crushed natural stone aggregate may be taken as 24 kN/m
and 25 kN/m respectively.
3.2.1.2 The weights of tanks and other receptacles shall be
considered as dead loads. The contents of tanks and
receptacles shall be considered as imposed loads.
3.2.1.3 When there is doubt to the permanency of loads, such
loads should be treated as imposed loads while reduction of
which under clause 3.7 should not be taken on beams and
vertical members.

3.2.2 Determination of Dead Loads

3.2.2.1 General

Dead loads shall be calculated from the design or known

dimensions of the structures and the density of the materials
used. The density of some common materials is given in
Appendix A for reference. For materials not included in
Appendix A, the determination of their density shall be based

on reliable data. Some common items for assessment of dead

loads are described in more details in clause
3.2.2.2 Partitions

A- Partitions indicated on the building plans submitted to BD

for approval are considered as permanent partitions. Their
weight shall be considered as dead loads and calculated
according to the layout shown on the building plans.
B- Where partitions are envisaged but the location of which are
not indicated on the building plans, the weights of these
partitions shall be considered as imposed loads and to be
calculated in accordance with clause 3.6.

3.2.2.3 Roofings
(a)- The weight of roofings such as waterproofing membrane,
protective screeding, and tiles shall be calculated from the
weight of the component materials and their geometry such as
the thickness and area.
(b)- Where a roof is to be provided with greenery, the weight
of soil, waterproofing and drainage system, and plants for
greenery shall be taken as dead loads.

3.2.2.4 Claddings and Finishes

( a)- Claddings shall include aluminum or metal cladding,
polished granite slabs or limestone cladding, marble facing
and their fixings. Finishes shall include in-situ finishes (e.g.
plaster, screeds), pre-fabricated wall-panel finishes, suspended
ceilings, timber and other floor finishes.
(b)- The weight of niches in columbaria shall be determined
according to the material used for the construction of niches
and the weight of the urns. For lightweight niches, such as
niches made of wood or lightweight metals, the weight shall be
not less than 2.0 kN/m length for each meter height. For heavy
weight niches, such as niches made of concrete, the weight
shall be not less than 4.5 kN/m length for each meter height.

3.2.2 IMPOSED LOADS:

Imposed load is produced by the intended use or occupancy of
a building including the weight of movable partitions,
distributed and concentrated loads, load due to impact and
vto, creep and shrinkage of the structure, the differential
settlements to which the structure may undergo.

3.2.2.1 General
(a)-Under

the Building (Construction) Regulations, the

imposed load on any building, street, building works or street
works shall be the greatest applied load likely to arise from
their intended use or purpose during the service life of the
building, street, building works or street works (including
forces exerted by the adjacent ground but excluding dead
loads and wind loads).

(b)- The values of imposed loads are categorized and given in

this Section according to specific use of the related floor or
structure, and they shall be considered as the minimum values
to be adopted in design. Where higher values are anticipated
or considered more appropriate, based on knowledge of the
intended use of the floor or the intended installation of
equipment, machinery or displayed items, they shall be
considered in determining the imposed loads on the floor.

3.2.2.2The imposed loads as given shall be:

(a) a uniformly distributed load, qk, in kPa; or
(b) a concentrated load or line load, Qk, in kN or kN/m, as
appropriate; whichever shall produce the most adverse effect.

3.2.2.3The

uniformly distributed load, qk, and the

concentrated load or line load, Qk, shall be considered
separately.

3.2.2.4 The uniformly distributed load, qk, shall be applied to

one or more areas such that the most adverse effect will be
produced for the design parameter under consideration.

3.2.2.5 The concentrated load or line load, Qk, shall be

applied in a position that will produce the most adverse effect

for
the
design
parameter
under
consideration.
The
concentrated load shall be assumed to be uniformly
distributed over a contact area as specified in this Code. The
line load shall be applied in the manner as specified in this
Code.

3.2.2.6 Reduction of distributed imposed loads in accordance

with clause 3.7 may be applied as appropriate.

3.2.2.7 Allowance for partitions (where positions of which are

not indicated on building plan) and horizontal imposed loads
as specified in clause 3.6 and 3.8 respectively shall be
considered as appropriate.

3.2.2.8 Floor uses are categorized into eight classes as

shown in Table 3.1

3.2.3 Class 1 to 5: Imposed Loads for Domestic, Office, Social,

Commercial, Administration and Industrial Floor Uses

3.2.3.1 Imposed loads with examples of specific use for Class

1 to 5 are given in Table 3.2. 3.2.3.2 The concentrated loads Qk
given in Table 3.2 shall be applied on plan over any square
with a 50 mm side.

Notes:
1 Specific uses that are not specified in the Building (Construction) Regulations.
2 For stacking or storage area, reference shall be made to the appropriate example of specific use and the
corresponding imposed load given in Class 5.
3 Storage height in Class 5 shall be the height of the space between the following: the floor, and a physical
constraint to the height of storage formed by a ceiling, soffit of a floor, roof or other obstruction.

A floor should be designed for the most adverse effect of

uniformly distributed load and concentrated load over 0.3 m by
0.3 m as specified in Table-3.1, but they should not be
considered to act simultaneously. All other structural elements
such as beams and columns are designed for the
corresponding uniformly distributed loads on floors.
Reduction in imposed (live) load may be made in designing
columns, load bearing walls etc., if there is no specific load like
plant or machinery on the floor. This is allowed to account for
reduced probability of full loading being applied over larger
areas. The supporting members of the roof of the multistoreyed building is designed for 100% of uniformly distributed
load; further reductions of 10% for each successive floor down
to a minimum of 50% of uniformly distributed load is done. The
live load at a floor level can be reduced in the design of beams,
girders or trusses by 5% for each 50m2 area supported,
subject to a maximum reduction of 25%. In cases where the
reduced load of a lower floor is less than the reduced load of
an upper floor, then the reduced load of the upper floor should
be adopted in the lower floor also.

3.2.3 WIND LOAD:

The wind loading is the most important factor that
determines the designof tall buildings over 10 storeys, where
storey height approximately lies between
2.7 3.0 m. Buildings of up to 10 storeys, designed for gravity
loading can accommodate wind loading without any additional
steel for lateral system. Usually, buildings taller than 10
storeys would generally require additional steel for lateral
system. This is due to the fact that wind loading on a tall
building acts over a very large building surface, with greater
intensity at greater heights and with a larger moment arm
about the base. So, the additional steel required for wind
resistance increases non-linearly with height as shown in Fig.
3.7.

Fig.3.2.3.1Weight of steel in multi-storeyed buildings

As shown in Fig.3.7 the lateral stiffness of the building is a
more important consideration than its strength for tall multistoreyed structures. Wind has become a major load for the
designer of multi-storeyed buildings. Prediction of wind
loading in precise scientific terms may not be possible, as it is
influenced by many factors such as the form of errain, the

shape, slenderness, the solidity ratio of building and the

arrangement of adjacent buildings. The appropriate design
wind loads are estimated based on two approaches. Static
approach is one, which assumes the building to be a fixed rigid
body in the wind. This method is suitable for buildings of
normal height, slenderness, or susceptible to vibration in the
wind. The other approach is the dynamic approach. This is
adopted for exceptionally tall, slender, or vibration prone
buildings. Sometimes wind sensitive tall buildings will have to
be designed for interference effects caused by the
environment in which the building stands. The loading due to
these interference effects is best ascertained using wind
tunnel modeled structures in the laboratory.
However, in the Indian context, where the tallest multistoreyed building is only about 35 storeys high, multi-storeyed
buildings do not suffer wind-induced oscillation and generally
do not require to be examined for the dynamic effects.For
detailed information on evaluating wind load, the reader is
referred to IS:875-1987 (Part-III).

Wind is air in motion relative to the surface of the earth. The primary cause of wind
is traced to earths rotation and differences in terrestrial radiation. The radiation
effects are primarily responsible for convection either upwards or downwards. The
wind generally blows horizontal to the ground at high wind speeds. Since vertical
components of atmospheric motion are relatively small, the term wind denotes
almost exclusively the horizontal wind, vertical winds are always identified as such.
The wind speeds are assessed with the aid of anemometers or anemographs which
are installed at meteorological observatories at heights generally varying from 10 to
30 metres above ground. The following factors are generally
considered in determining the fluctuating wind force.
1) wind turbulence (temporal and spatial fluctuation of wind)
2) vortex generation in wake of building
3) interaction between building vibration and surrounding air
flow

Figure 3.2.3.2 Fluctuating wind forces based on wind turbulence and vortex
generation
in wake of building

Fluctuating wind pressures act on building surfaces due to the

above factors. Fluctuating wind pressures change temporally, and
their dynamic characteristics are not uniform at all positions on the
building surface. Therefore, it is better to evaluate wind load on
structural frames based on overall building behavior and that on
components/cladding based on the behavior of individual building
parts. For most buildings, the effect of fluctuating wind force
generated by wind turbulence is predominant. In this case,
horizontal wind load on structural frames in the along-wind
direction is important. However, for relatively flexible buildings with
a large aspect ratio, horizontal wind loads on structural frames in
the across-wind and torsional directions should not be ignored. For
roof loads, the fluctuating wind force caused by separation flow
from the leading edge of the roof often predominates.
Therefore, wind load on structural frames is divided into two parts:
horizontal wind load on structural frames and roof wind load on
structural frames.

Figure 3.2.3.3 Classification of wind loads

3.2.3.1Design Wind Speed (V,)

The basic wind speed (V,) for any site shall be obtained from and shall be modified
to include the following effects to get design wind velocity at any height (V,) for the
chosen structure:
a) Risk level;
b) Terrain roughness, height and size of structure; and
c) Local topography.
It can be mathematically expressed as follows:
Where:

V = Vb * kl * k* ks
Vb = design wind speed at any height z in m/s;
kl = probability factor (risk coefficient)
k = terrain, height and structure size factor and
ks = topography factor
Risk Coefficient (kI Factor) gives basic wind speeds for terrain
Category 2 as applicable at 10 m above ground level based on
50 years mean return period. In the design of all buildings and
structures, a regional basic wind speed having a mean return
period of 50 years shall be used.

3.2.3.2Terrain, Height and Structure Size Factor (k, Factor)

Terrain - Selection of terrain categories shall be made with due regard to the effect
of obstructions which constitute the ground surface roughness. The terrain category
used in the design of a structure may vary depending on the direction of wind under
Wherever sufficient meteorological information is available
about the nature of wind direction, the orientation of any
building or structure may be suitably planned. Topography (ks
Factor) - The basic wind speed Vb takes account of the general
level of site above sea level. This does not allow for local
topographic features such as hills, valleys, cliffs, escarpments,

or ridges which can significantly affect wind speed in their

vicinity. The effect of topography is to accelerate wind near the
summits of hills or crests of cliffs, escarpments or ridges and
decelerate the wind in valleys or near the foot of cliff, steep
escarpments, or ridges.

3.2.3.2WIND PRESSURES AND FORCES ON BUILDINGS/STRUCTURES:

The wind load on a building shall be calculated for:
a) The building as a whole,
b) Individual structural elements as roofs and walls, and
c) Individual cladding units including glazing and their fixings

Figure 3.2.3.4 Definition of reference height and velocity pressure

Pressure Coefficients - The pressure coefficients are always given for a particular
surface or part of the surface of a building. The wind load acting normal to a
surface is obtained by multiplying the area of that surface or its appropriate portion
by the pressure coefficient (C,) and the design wind pressure at the height of the
surface from the ground. The average values of these pressure coefficients for some
building shapes Average values of pressure coefficients are given for critical wind
directions in one or more quadrants. In order to determine the maximum wind load
on the building, the total load should be calculated for each of the critical directions
shown from all quadrants. Where considerable variation of pressure occurs over a
surface, it has been subdivided and mean pressure coefficients given for each of its
several parts. Then the wind load, F, acting in a direction normal to the individual
structural element or Cladding unit is:
F= (Cpe Cpi) A Pd
Where,
Cpe = external pressure coefficient,

Cpi = internal pressure- coefficient,

A = surface area of structural or cladding unit, and
Pd = design wind pressure element

3.2.4 SEISMIC LOAD:

3.2.3.1Design Lateral Force
The design lateral force shall first be computed for the building
as a whole. This design lateral force shall then be distributed
to the various floor levels. The overall design seismic force
thus obtained at each floor level shall then be distributed to
individual lateral load resisting elements depending on the
floor diaphragm action.

3.2.3.2Design Seismic Base Shear

The total design lateral force or design seismic base shear
(Vb) along any principal direction shall be determined by the
following expression:

Vb = Ah W
Where,
Ah = horizontal acceleration spectrum
W = seismic weight of all the floors

3.2.3.3Fundamental Natural Period

The approximate fundamental natural period of vibration (T,), in seconds, of a
moment-resisting frame building without brick in the panels may be estimated by
the empirical expression:
Ta=0.075 h0.75
for RC frame building
Ta=0.085 h0.75
for steel frame building
Where,
h = Height of building, in m. This excludes the basement
storeys, where basement walls are connected with the ground
floor deck or fitted between the building columns. But it
includes the basement storeys, when they are not so
connected. The approximate fundamental natural period of
vibration (T,), in seconds, of all other buildings, including
moment-resisting frame
buildings with brick lintel panels, may be estimated by the
empirical Expression:

T=.09H/D
Where,
h= Height of building
d= Base dimension of the building at the plinth level, in m, along the considered direction of
the lateral force.

3.2.3.4Distribution of Design Force

Vertical Distribution of Base Shear to Different Floor Level The

design base shear (V) shall be distributed along the height of
the building as per the following expression:

Qi=Design lateral force at floor i,

Wi=Seismic weight of floor i,
hi=Height of floor i measured from base, and

n=Number of storeys in the building is the number of levels at which the masses are located.
Distribution of Horizontal Design Lateral Force to Different Lateral Force
Resisting Elements in case of buildings whose floors are capable of
providing rigid horizontal diaphragm action, the total shear in any
horizontal plane shall be distributed to the various vertical elements of
lateral force resisting system, assuming the floors to be infinitely rigid in
the horizontal plane. In case of building whose floor diaphragms cannot be
treated as infinitely rigid in their own plane, the lateral shear at each floor
shall be distributed to the vertical elements resisting the lateral forces,
considering the in-plane flexibility of the diagram.

3.2.3.5Seismic analysis
3.2.3.5.1 Static

. Used in the past years or for structures of less than 5 stories

and in certain seismic

zones.

It assumes that the seismic deformations increase linearly

with the height (first mode).

3.2.3.5.2.1 Dynamic AnalysisDynamic analysis shall be performed to obtain the design seismic force, and its
distribution to different levels along the height of the building and to the various
lateral load resisting elements, for the following Buildings:
a) Regular buildings -Those greater than 40 m in height in
Zones IV and V and those Greater than 90 m in height in Zones
II and 111.
b) Irregular buildings All framed buildings higher than 12m in
Zones IV and V and those greater
The analytical model for dynamic analysis of buildings with
unusual configuration should be such that it adequately
models the types of irregularities present in the building
configuration. Buildings with plan irregularities cannot be
modelled for dynamic analysis. For irregular buildings, lesser
than 40 m in height in Zones 11and III, dynamic analysis, even
though not mandatory, is recommended. Dynamic analysis may
be performed either by the Time History Method or by the
Response Spectrum Method. However, in either method, the
design base shear (VB) shall be compared with abase shear
(VB)

3.2.3.5.2.1.1 Time History Method-

You find the response of the structure (internal forces) as a

function of time for a specific
ground motion.

It requires to have the accelerogram of

earthquake or have several representative ace

the

design

Time history method of analysis shall be based on an appropriate ground motion

and shall be performed using accepted principles of dynamics.

3.2.3.5.2.1.1 Response Spectrum Method1-Definition

So what is a spectrum in the context of this discussion? A
spectrum is a collection of
sine waves that, when combined
properly, produce the time-domain signal under examination.

Figure 1-1 shows the waveform of a complex signal. Suppose

that we were hoping to see a sine wave. Although the waveform
certainly shows us that the signal is not a pure sinusoid, it does
not give us a definitive indication of the reason why. The
frequency-domain display plots the amplitude versus the
frequency of each sine wave in the spectrum. As shown, the
spectrum in this case comprises just two sine waves. We now
know why our original waveform was not a pure sine wave. It
contained a second sine wave, the second harmonic in this case.
Does this mean we have no need to perform time-domain
measurements? Not at all. The time domain is better for many
measurements, and some can be made only in the time domain.
For example, pure timedomain measurements include pulse rise
and fall times, overshoot and ringing The frequency domain also
has its measurement strengths.People involved in wireless
communications are extremely interested in out-of-band and
spurious emissions. For example, cellular radio systems must be
checked for harmonics of the carrier signal that might interfere
with other systems operating at the same frequencies as the
harmonics. Engineers and technicians are also very concerned
about distortion of the message modulated onto a carrier. Thirdorder intermodulation (two tones of a complex signal
modulating each other) can be particularly troublesome because
the distortion components can fall within the band of interest,
which means they cannot be filtered away. Spectrum monitoring
is another important frequency-domain measurement activity.
Government regulatory agencies allocate different frequencies
for various radio services, such as broadcast television and
radio,
mobile
phone
systems,
police
and
emergency
communications, and a host of other applications. It is critical
that each of these services operates at the assigned frequency
and stays within the allocated channel bandwidth. Transmitters
and other intentional radiators often must operate at closely
spaced adjacent frequencies. A key performance measure for
the power amplifiers and other components used in these
systems is the amount of signal energy that spills over into
adjacent channels and causes interference. Electromagnetic
interference (EMI) is a
term applied to unwanted emissions from both intentional and
unintentional radiators. These unwanted emissions, either
radiated or conducted (through the power lines or other
interconnecting wires), might impair the operation of other
systems. Almost anyone designing or manufacturing electrical
or electronic products must test for emission levels versus
frequency according to regulations set by various government.
The peak or maximum response (acceleration, velocity, displacement) of all possible

linear single degree of freedom (SDF) system to a particular component of ground

motion for a given level of damping.

Figure 1. Displacement response spectrum for 2 percent

damping (after Chopra).

. Now, it is necessary to construct the design response spectrum.

. A plot of the peak value of a response quantity (eg.acceleration)
as a function of the natural vibration period of the system is called
the response spectrum for this quantity.

This response spectrum will depend on the damping ratio and the
ground motion selected.
2. Uses of the response spectrum
a. The response spectrum provided a convenient and practical way to summarize
the frequency content of a given acceleration, velocity or displacement time history.
b. It provides a practical way to apply the knowledge of structural dynamics to
design of structures and development of lateral force requirements in building
codes.
3. Types of Response Spectra
(a)- Response Spectra calculated from actual time histories

Figure 3. Acceleration Time History for Yerba Buena Island from the 1989 Loma Prieta
Earthquake.

Figure 2. Acceleration Response Spectrum for Yerba Buena Record.

Figure 4. Displacement Response Spectrum for the Yerba Buena Record.Steps for calculating a
(a)-1response spectrum from a time history
The response spectrum for a given ground motion component (e.g., a(t)) is developed using
the following steps:
(1) Obtain the ground motion (a(t)) for an earthquake. Typically the acceleration values
should be defined at time steps of 0.02 second, or less.
(2) Select the natural vibration period, T , and damping ratio, for
SDOF system. N (Usually 5 percent damping is selected.)
(3) Determine the maximum displacement response for a SDOF structure with the selected
percent damping for a given period or frequency of vibration.

To do this, you must solve the following differential equation

mM2u/dt2 + c Mu/dt + k u = F(t)
This can be solved using (see Chopra, Ch. 1, pp. 28-32):

(a) Closed form solution (linear systems)

. Solution is only valid for initial conditions at rest

(b) Duhamels integral (linear systems)

. based on treating the periodic motion as a series of short impulses

(c) Frequency Domain method (linear systems)

. Fourier transform
. Inverse Fourier transform
(d) Numerical methods (linear and nonlinear systems)

. Numerical time stepping methods

(4) Repeat step 3 and vary the fundamental period of the structure by changing the mass
(m), the stiffness (k), or both. Plot the new results.
Example of Using NONLIN to create a displacement response spectrum
First linear analysis
m = 100 kips
k = 100 kips / in
c = 5 percent of critical damping
earthquake record is Imperial Valley El Centro Record (Impval1.acc)
period = 0.32 s, f = 3.13 Hz, = 19.65 rad/s
max. displacement = 0.700 inches
Second linear analysis
m = 100 kips
k = 50 kips / in
c = 5 percent of critical damping
earthquake record is Imperial Valley El Centro Record (Impval1.acc)
period = 0.45 s, f = 2.21 Hz, = 13.89 rad/s
max. displacement = 1.677 inches
Third linear analysis
m = 100 kips
k = 25 kips / in
c = 5 percent of critical damping
earthquake record is Imperial Valley El Centro Record (Impval1.acc)
period = 0.64 s, f = 1.56 Hz, = 9.82 rad/s
max. displacement = 3.051 inches
Example of Using NONLIN to create a displacement response spectrum
Fourth linear analysis
m = 100 kips

k = 200 kips / in
c = 5 percent of critical damping
earthquake record is Imperial Valley El Centro Record (Impval1.acc)
period = 0.23 s, f = 4.42 Hz, = 27.79 rad/s
max. displacement = 0.359 inches
Fifth linear analysis
m = 100 kips
k = 400 kips / in
c = 5 percent of critical damping
earthquake record is Imperial Valley El Centro Record (Impval1.acc)
period = 0.16 s, f = 6.25 Hz, = 39.30 rad/s
max. displacement = 0.135 inches
Sixth linear analysis
m = 100 kips
k = 1000 kips / in
c = 5 percent of critical damping
earthquake record is Imperial Valley El Centro Record (Impval1.acc)
period = 0.10 s, f =0.259 Hz, = 62.14 rad/s
max. displacement = 0.056 inches

Figure 6. Displacement Response Spectrum for El Centro Record.

Figure 7. Displacement Response Spectrum from NONLIN.

(5) Calculate the other pseudo spectral velocity values using:

V = D

Figure 8. Velocity Response Spectrum for example.

Figure 9. Velocity Response Spectrum from NONLIN

(6) Calculate the pseudo acceleration response values from:

A = D
It is common to express A in units of g, thus:

A(in g) = 2D/g

Figure 10. Acceleration Response Spectrum

Figure 11. Acceleration Response Spectrum from NONLIN

(b) . Deterministic Response Spectra from attenuation relations

.Deterministic spectrum are usually developed for the

maximum credible
earthquake (MCE).

.The maximum credible earthquake is the largest earthquake

possible from the
active faults in the region.

Figure 12. Comparison of Deterministic Rock Spectra for M =

7.0, R = 5 km earthquake from attenuation relations.

(c). Probabilistic Spectra for Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis (PSHA)

Figure 13. Seismic Hazard and Percent Contribution of

M and R pairs for 2500 year return period event (2
percent probability of exceedance in 50 years) for peak
ground acceleration.

Figure 14. Probabilistic Uniform Hazard Spectra for input

zipcode 84115 for USGS.
(d) . Design Spectra Developed from Building Codes (See Lecture 6b).