MODULE I

BASICSOFHEATTRANSFER
Whileteachingheattransfer,oneofthefirstquestionsstudentscommonlyaskisthedifference
between heatand temperature.Anothercommonquestionconcernsthedifferencebetweenthe
subjectsof heattransferandthermodynamics.Letmebeginthischapterbytryingtoaddressthese
two questions.

1.1Differencebetweenheatandtemperature
In heattransfer problems, we often interchangeably use the terms heat and temperature. Actually,
there is a distinct difference between the two. Temperature is a measure of the amount of energy
possessedbythemoleculesofasubstance.Itmanifestsitselfasadegreeofhotness,andcanbeused
to predict the direction of heat transfer. The usual symbol for temperature is T. The scales for
measuringtemperatureinSIunitsaretheCelsiusandKelvintemperaturescales.Heat,ontheother
hand,isenergy intransit. Spontaneously, heatflowsfromahotterbodytoacolderone.Theusual
symbolforheatisQ.IntheSIsystem,common unitsformeasuringheataretheJouleandcalorie.

1.2Differencebetweenthermodynamicsandheattransfer
Thermodynamicstellsus:
howmuchheatistransferred(dQ)
howmuchworkisdone(dW)
finalstateofthesystem
Heattransfertellsus:
how(withwhatmodes) dQistransferred
atwhatrate dQistransferred
temperaturedistributioninsidethebody
complementary

Heattransfer

Thermodynamics

1.3ModesofHeatTransfer
Conduction: Anenergytransferacrossasystemboundaryduetoatemperaturedifference
bythemechanismofintermolecularinteractions.Conductionneedsmatteranddoesnot
requireanybulkmotionofmatter.
x
A
T1
q

T2

Conduction rateequation isdescribedbytheFourierLaw:

r
q = - kAT
where:

q=heatflowvector,(W)
k =thermalconductivity,athermodynamicpropertyofthematerial.
(W/mK)
A=Crosssectionalareaindirectionofheatflow.(m2)
T=Gradientoftemperature(K/m)
= T/x i+ T/y j+ T/z k
Note:Sincethisisavectorequation,itisoften convenienttoworkwithone
componentofthevector.Forexample,inthexdirection:
qx =kAx dT/dx
Incircularcoordinatesitmayconvenienttoworkintheradialdirection:
qr = kAr dT/dr
Convection: Anenergytransferacrossasystemboundaryduetoatemperaturedifference
bythecombinedmechanismsofintermolecularinteractionsandbulktransport.Convection
needsfluidmatter.

movingfluid

Ts>T

T
q

Ts

NewtonsLawofCooling:
q=hAs DT
where:

q=heatflowfromsurface,ascalar,(W)
h=heattransfercoefficient(whichisnotathermodynamicpropertyof
thematerial,butmaydependongeometryofsurface,flow
characteristics,thermodynamicpropertiesofthefluid,etc.(W/m2 K)
As =Surfaceareafromwhichconvectionisoccurring.(m2)
DT = TS - T = TemperatureDifferencebetweensurfaceandcoolant.(K)
Freeornaturalconvection
(inducedbybuoyancyforces)

Convection
Forcedconvection(inducedby
externalmeans)

Mayoccur
withphase
change
(boiling,
condensation)

Table1. Typicalvaluesofh(W/m2K)
Freeconvection

gases:2 25
liquid:50 100

Forcedconvection

gases:25 250
liquid:50 20,000

Boiling/Condensation

2500100,000

Radiation: Radiationheattransferinvolvesthetransferofheatby electromagneticradiation

thatarisesduetothetemperatureofthebody. Radiationdoesnotneedmatter.
Emissivepowerofasurface:
E=seTs4 (W/m2)
where:

e=emissivity,whichisasurfaceproperty(e=1isblackbody)
=SteffanBoltzmanconstant=5.67x108 W/m2 K4.
Ts =Absolutetemperature ofthesurface (K)

Theaboveequationisderivedfrom StefanBoltzmanlaw,which describesagrossheat

emissionratherthanheattransfer. Theexpressionfortheactualradiationheattransferrate
betweensurfaceshavingarbitraryorientationscanbequitecomplex,andwillbedealtwithin
Module9. However,therateof radiationheatexchangebetweenasmallsurfaceandalarge
surroundingisgivenbythefollowingexpression:

Tsur
qrad.
Ts

qconv.
Area=A

q=A(Ts4 Tsur4)
where:

=SurfaceEmissivity
A=SurfaceArea
Ts =Absolutetemperatureofsurface.(K)
Tsur =Absolutetemperatureofsurroundings.(K)

1.4ThermalConductivity,k
Asnotedpreviously,thermalconductivityisathermodynamicpropertyofamaterial. Fromthe
StatePostulategiveninthermodynamics,itmay berecalledthatthermodynamicpropertiesofpure
substances are functions of two independent thermodynamic intensive properties, say temperature
and pressure. Thermal conductivity of real gases is largely independent of pressure and may be
considered a function of temperature alone. For solids and liquids, properties are largely
independentofpressureanddependontemperaturealone.
k=k(T)
Table2givesthevaluesofthermalconductivityforavarietyofmaterials.
Table2. ThermalConductivitiesofSelectedMaterialsatRoomTemperature.
Material
Copper
Silver
Gold
Aluminum
Steel
Limestone
Bakelite
Water
Air

ThermalConductivity,W/mK
401
429
317
237
60.5
2.15
1.4
0.613
0.0263

Letustrytogain aninsightintothebasicconceptof thermalconductivityforvariousmaterials. The

fundamental concept comes from the molecular or atomic scale activities. Molecules/atoms of
variousmaterialsgainenergythroughdifferentmechanisms.Gases,inwhichmoleculesarefreeto
move with a mean free path sufficiently large compared to their diameters, possess energyin the
formofkineticenergyofthemolecules.Energyisgainedorlostthroughcollisions/interactionsof
gasmolecules.

Kineticenergytransfer
betweengasmolecules.

Latticevibrationmaybetransferred
betweenmoleculesasnuclei
attract/repeleachother.

Solids, on the other hand, have atoms/molecules which are more closely packed which cannot
move as freely as in gases. Hence, they cannot effectively transfer energy through these same
mechanisms.Instead,solidsmayexhibitenergythroughvibrationorrotationofthenucleus.Hence,
theenergytransferistypicallythroughlatticevibrations.
Another important mechanism in which materials maintain energy is by shifting electrons into
higher orbital rings. In the case of electrical conductors the electrons are weakly bonded to the
molecule and can drift from one molecule to another, transporting their energy in the process.
Hence, flow of electrons, which is commonly observed in metals, is an effective transport
mechanism, resulting in a correlation that materials which are excellent electrical conductors are
usually excellentthermalconductors.