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STRENGTH OF MATERIALS IV
Study guide 1 for SOM401M
HM Ngwangwa
RM Nkgoeng
University of South Africa
Florida
CLO_Style
SOM401M/1
Strength
of Materials
Strength
of MaterialsIV
IV
Strength of Materials IV
CONTENTS
Theme
Page
1.1
1.2
Types of loads
1.3
Reactions
1.4
1.5
Sign conventions
1.6
1.7
1.8
Concentrated load
1.9
Uniform load
1.11
Exercise
2.1
Introduction
2.2
2.3
Curvature of a beam
2.4
2.5
2.6
10
2.7
10
2.8
11
2.9
11
12
12
13
14
15
15
16
2.17 Exercise
17
iii
iv
19
3.1
Introduction
19
3.2
Composite beams
19
3.3
19
3.4
Neutral axis
20
3.5
Moment-curvature relationship
20
3.6
Normal stresses
21
3.7
21
3.8
Transformed-section method
21
3.9
21
22
22
22
23
23
24
24
25
25
26
26
27
27
28
29
3.25 Z-section
29
29
29
30
30
31
32
3.32 Exercise
32
Deflections of Beams
33
4.1
Introduction
33
4.2
33
4.3
33
4.4
Non-prismatic beams
34
4.5
Prismatic beams
34
4.6
34
4.7
35
4.8
Method of superposition
35
4.9
Moment-area method
36
36
36
37
37
38
38
39
40
41
41
5.1
Introduction
43
5.2
43
5.3
45
5.4
45
5.5
Reactions at supports
46
5.6
Method of superposition
46
5.7
46
5.8
Temperature effects
47
5.9
47
47
SOM401M/1
5.10 Exercise
43
vi
Columns
49
6.1
Introduction
49
6.2
50
6.3
Critical load
50
6.4
51
6.5
52
6.6
Critical loads
53
6.7
Critical stress
54
6.8
54
6.9
55
56
56
56
57
57
57
59
59
59
59
60
6.21 Exercise
60
61
7.1
Introduction
61
7.2
Boundary conditions
61
7.3
62
7.4
63
7.5
64
7.6
65
7.7
66
7.8
67
7.9
68
68
7.11
69
7.12
69
69
7.14
69
70
7.16
71
7.17
71
8.1
Introduction
73
8.2
73
8.3
74
8.4
74
8.5
75
8.6
76
8.7
76
8.8
76
8.9
77
77
SOM401M/1
8.10 Exercise
73
vii
SOM401M/001
1 L M
,
,
, T
dx,
JG
1 L M
M
dx,
EI
3WL
,
5Gbd
3WL
3WL
,
5Gbd
20Gbd
6WL
5Gbd
2
2
4
,
n
2
2
2
4
A x A x
MA L 2MB L L MC L 6
L
L
Land
2,
anad
2 12 2,
an
, 12 12 4 ,
, an an
an an ,
,
,
, , and
,an
0,
and
8
viii
SOM401M/001
3
4
12
6
4
2
3
2
3
4 3
6
SOM401M/1
ix
Strength
of Materials
Strength
of MaterialsIV
IV
Strength of Materials IV
Chapter 1
Shear Forces and Bending
Moments
SOM401M/001
Theimportantpointstobepickedupfromthischapterarethefollowing:
How to work with axially loaded beams
Theplaneofbending
This chapter
is a revision of a chapter in SOM381B and has been included to refresh your
Howtoworkwithaxiallyloadedbeams
memory.
This chapter is a revision in SOM401M. I choose to believe that you have already dealt with this
chapterinSOM381B.Itwasincludedsothatyoucanrefreshyourmind.
We
the textbook
onsupported
page 306, beam,
fig. 4.2 Fig1.1(b)
(G&G). The
first figurebeam
shows and
a simply
supported
Figrefer
1.1(a)toshows
a simply
a cantilever
Fig1.1(c)
a beam
beam,thesecondfigureacantileverbeamandthethirdoneabeamwithanoverhang.Makesure
with an overhang. Make sure that you understand the difference in the types of beams
that you understand the difference in the types of beams and reactions. Majority of the study of
and reactions. The study of Strength of Materials and Design mainly involves working with
Strength of Materials and design involves working with beams of different sections and loaded in
beams of different sections which are loaded in various ways.
variousways.
P1 P2
HA A
RA
B
c
HA
MA
RB
P3
12
5
(a)
P4
RA
q2
q1
(b)
M1
a
RA
RB
L
(c)
Figure 1.1
SOM401M/1
Types of loads
Concentratedloadtheseinvolveforcesactingvertically,horizontallyorskewtothesection.
Distributedloadtheyaremeasuredbytheirintensity.Theycanvarylinearlyortheycanbe
constant.Theyareexpressedinunitsofforceperunitdistance(N/m)
Couplesandmomentstheyareexpressedinforceunitdistance(Nm)
Reactions
Findingthereactionsisusuallythefirststepintheanalysisofabeam.Oncethereactionsareknown, 1
the shear forces and bending moments can be found. If a beam is supported in a statically
10
Concentrated load involves forces acting vertically, horizontally or skew to the section.
Distributed load is measured by its intensity. The load can vary linearly or can be
constant, and is expressed in units of force per unit distance (N/m).
1.3 Reactions
Finding the reactions is usually the first step in the analysis of a beam. Once the reactions
are known, the shear forces and bending moments can be found. If a beam is supported
in a statically determinate manner, all reactions can be found from the free-body diagram
and equations of equilibrium.
Figure 1.2
When drawing free-body diagrams for beams, always apply positive shear forces and
bending moments as shown in the figures above.
SOM401M/1
Looking at fig. 1.3 and tackling only the case of distributed loading, let us consider an
element of a beam cut out between two cross-sections that are distance dx apart. In this
case, the sign convention for the distributed load is positive when it acts downward on the
beam and negative when it acts upward.
Lookingatfig.1.5(a)andtacklingonlythecaseofdistributedloading...Letusconsideranelementof
abeamcutoutbetweentwocrosssectionsthataredistanceapart.Now,thesignconventionfor
the distributed load is positive when it acts downward on the beam and negative when it acts
upward.
q(x)
q(x)
M+dM
dx
V+dV
/F
vert
= 0:
Figure 1.3
V - qdx - ^V + dV h = 0
dV =
q
dx
(1.1)
(1.1)
Integratingwithrespecttowegetthedistributedload.FromEqn.1.1wecanseethattherate
Integrating
with force
respect
x point
we get
equation
1.1 we can
see
of change
of theVshear
at to
any
onthe
thedistributed
axis of theload.
beamFrom
is equal
to the negative
of the
that the rate of change of the shear force at any point on the axis of the beam is equal to the
intensityofthedistributedloadatthatsamepoint.Ifthereisnodistributedloadonasegmentof
negative
of the
intensity
distributed
atisthat
samein
point.
If there
is no
distributed
the
and
the shearload
force
constant
that part
of the
beam.
If the
the beam,
i.e.,
then of
dv
load on a segment of
the beam, ie q = 0 then
dx
distributedloadisuniformalongpartofthebeam,the
uniform
,isalsoconstantandtheshearforce
along part of the beam, the dv = 0 , is
dx
varieslinearlyinthatpartofthebeam.
dV = - # qdx
A
12
(1.2)
VA - VB = - # qdx
A
The change in shear force between two points along the axis of the beam is equal to the
negative of the total downward load between those points. The area of the loading diagram
may be positive (if q acts downward) or negative (if q acts upward).
bendingmomentareplottedasordinatesandthedistancealongtheaxisofthebe
theabscissa.Suchgraphsarecalledshearforceandbendingmomentdiagrams.Rea
to 337. This information is very important and forms a strong foundation of y
practicingengineer.
Concentrated load
1.8 Concentrated
load
RA
M0
RB
M
RA
RA
Referringtofig.1.6(a),wearegoingtoconsidertheentirebeamasafreebodyanda
thereactionsofthebeamcanbereadilydeterminedfromequilibrium.
Figure 1.4
beam as a free body and as it will
Referring to fig. 1.4, we
are going to consider the entire
TheaboveisfoundbytakingthesumofmomentsaboutBandArespectively.
Pb
and
Pa
A =
B =
Thesecondstepwouldbetocutthroughthebeamatacrosssectiontotheleftoft
L
L
a distance x from the support at A. Fig. 1.6(b) shows the cut section with the
The above is found by taking the sum of moments about B and A respectively. Where b is
bendingmomentactingandareherebywrittenasfollows:
the load
Pand
of
at a distance x from the support at A. Figure 1.4 shows the cut section with the shear force
and bending moment acting and written as follows:
V = RA = Pb and M = R A x = Pbx
L
13
^0 1 x 1 a h
The above expressions of V and M are valid only for the part of the beam to the left of the
load P. You have to repeat the process until the whole beam is covered. Once you have
done this, you will find the maximum moment, which is
Mmax = Pab
L
1.3
SOM401M/1
Theaboveexpressionsofandarevalidonlyforthepartofthebeamtotheleftoftheload.
Youhavetorepeattheprocessuntilthewholebeamiscovered.Attheendofthedaywefindthe
maximummomentbeing
anditoccursundertheconcentratedload.
Uniform load
A
RA
q
B
FreeBodyDiagram A
x
L
RB
1.3
M
V
x
RA
Figure 1.5
Letusconsidernowthefigureaboveinwhichthebeamisloadedwithauniformlydistributedload.
R A = RB =
left-hand
The shear force and bending moment
atdistance
x fromthe
2 end are given by:
Theaboveequationsarevalidthroughoutthelengthofthebeam.Themaximummomentisactually
qx 2
V = R A - qx and
M = RA x theareaundertheparabolaanditisfoundtobe
8
is actually the area under the parabola and is
Theaboveisfoundfromthefollowing:
M
max =
qL2
8
(1.4)
2
2
2
Now if we set the above to zero, we get2a value of and if we can substitute it in to the
dM = d c qLx - qx m = qL - qx = V
momentequationwewillbeabletoarriveat
The above is calculated from the following:
dx
dx
1.10 Several
concentrated loads
14
1.11 Exercise
Problems to be done:
Strength
of Materials
Strength
of MaterialsIV
IV
Strength of Materials IV
Chapter 2
Shear Stresses in Beams
(Basic Topics)
2.1 Introduction
This chapter is a revision of SOM381B and has been included to refresh your memory.
In this chapter we will be investigating the stresses and strains associated with those shear
forces and bending moments. Knowing the stresses and strains will allow us the opportunity
to analyse and design beams subjected to a variety of loading conditions. The loads acting on a beam cause the beam to bend (or flex), thereby deforming its axis into a curve.
As an example, we will consider a cantilever beam AB subjected to a load P at the free
end (see fig. 2.1).
The initial straight axis is bent into a curve (fig. 2.1(b)), called the deflection curve of the
beam.
The deflection of the beam at any point along its axis is the displacement of that point
from its original position, measured in the y direction. In this book the authors denote
deflection by v, but you are welcome to use y or anything that you are comfortable with,
just remember to be consistent with your notation.
P
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.1
SOM401M/1
When analysing beams, it is often necessary to distinguish between pure and non-uniform
bending.
Pure bending refers to flexure of a beam under a constant bending moment. It occurs
only in regions of a beam where the shear force is zero because V = dM . Non-uniform
dx
bending refers to flexure in the presence of shear forces, which means that the bending
moment changes as we move along the axis of the beam.
Figure 2.2
We will be using a cantilever to illustrate this concept (see fig. 2.2(a)). The deflection curve
of this beam is shown in fig. 2.2(b). If k is curvature and represents the radius of curvature,
k= 1
t
(2.1)
What is curvature? Curvature is a measure of how sharply a beam is bent. If the load on a
beam is small, the beam will be nearly straight, the radius of curvature will be very large,
and the curvature will be very small. If the load is increased, the amount of bending will
increase, the radius of curvature will become smaller and the curvature will become larger.
k = 1 = di
t
ds
(2.2)
The above equation 2.2 can also be written as in equation 2.3 because the distance ds
along the curve may be set equal to its horizontal projection distance dx (see fig. 2.2(b)).
k = 1 = di
t
dx
(2.3)
M0
M0
D
B
C
C m
M e
p D
f y
s
dx
y
M
x
C m
e
M
z
dx
p D
f
y
s
q
Afterdeformation
Beforedeformation
Thenormalstressconsistsoftwostressresultants:
Figure 2.3
However,
axial couple
force isacting
zero when
the
Bending
aboutaz beam
axis is in pure bending...therefore we can write the
followingtwoequationsofstatics:
SOM401M/1
However, the axial force is zero when a beam is in pure bending, and we can therefore
write the following two equations of statics:
Fx = 0 =
# v dA = # ydA
x
k= 1 - M
t
EI
1
Theflexureformulacanbederivedoncethelocationoftheneutralaxishasbeendeterminedand
My
momentcurvaturerelationshiphasbeenderived...seetheequationbelow:
(2.4)
vx =-
Readmoreaboutthederivationfrompg.361367anddoexamples5.25.4.
(2.4)
Read more about the derivation on pages 361367 and do examples 5.25.4.
S = Mmax
vallow
(2.5)
The allowable stress is based upon the properties of the material and the desired factor
of safety.
The shear stresses acting on the cross-section are parallel to the shear force, ie parallel to the vertical sides of the cross-section.
The shear stresses are uniformly distributed across the width of the beam, although
they may vary over the height.
In order for us to start with the analysis, we will isolate a small element as shown in
fig 2.4. At any point in the beam the complementary shear stresses are equal in magnitude.
The equality of the horizontal and vertical shear stresses acting on an element leads to
an important conclusion regarding the shear stresses at the top and bottom of the beam.
10
Inorderforustostartwiththeanalysis,weisolateasmallelementasshowninFig526a.Atany
point in the beam, the complementary shear stresses are equal in magnitude. The equality of the
horizontal and vertical shear stresses acting on an element leads to an important conclusion
regardingtheshearstressesatthetopandbottomofthebeam.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.4
ByreferringtoFig2.4,wecanbeabletoshowtheexistenceofhorizontalshearstressesinabeam.If
By referring to fig 2.4, we can show the existence of horizontal shear stresses in a beam.
thefrictionbetweenthebeamsisnegligible,eachbeamwillbendindependently.Eachbeamwillbe
If the friction between the beams is negligible, each beam will bend independently. Each
incompressionaboveitsownneutralaxisandintensionbelowitsneutralaxis.
beam will be in compression above its own neutral axis and in tension below its neutral axis.
Ifnowthetwobeamsbecomegluedtogetheralongthecontactsurfacesothattheybecomeasingle
If the two beams become glued together along the contact surface, they become a single
solidbeam.Whenthissolidbeam(glued)isloaded,horizontalshearstressesmustdevelopalongthe
solid beam. When this solid beam (glued) is loaded, horizontal shear stresses must develop
along the glued surface in order to prevent the sliding as shown in the bottom figure of
gluedsurfaceinordertopreventtheslidingasshowninthebottomfigureofFig.2.4b.
fig. 2.4b.
x=
VQ
Ib
(2.6)
SOM401M/1
The above equation is known as the shear formula and it can be used to determine the
shear stress at any point in the cross-section of a rectangular beam.
11
(2.6)
Theaboveequationisknownastheshearformulaanditcanbeusedtodeterminetheshearstress
atanypointinthecrosssectionofarectangularbeam.
m1
M V
dx
m1
M+dM
p1
y1
dx
V+dV
n1
n1
m1
p1
dx
Figure 2.5
M+dM
y1
2.10 Calculation
the first
Calculation
of the First of
Moment
moment Q
If we are to determine shear stress at any point on the cross-section of the beam, we need
Ifwearetodetermineshearstressatanypointonthecrosssectionofthebeam,weneedtoobtain
to obtain Q by calculating the first moment of the cross-sectional area above the level of
bycalculatingthefirstmomentofthecrosssectionalareaabovetheleveloftheshadedareain
the shaded area in fig. 2.5
Figure2.6
Q = Ay
,whereisthecrosssectionalareaoftheshadedelement;andisthedistancefromthecentroid
where A is the cross-sectional area of the shaded element; and y is the distance from the
ofthebeamtothecentroidoftheshadedelement.
centroid of the beam to the centroid of the shaded element.
Figure 2.6
fig.
2.6.
we will refer to
going to take it further. Again
2
h 2
2 y1
2 4
2
Q = b ` h - y1jc y1 + 2
m = b c h - y12 m
2
2
2 4
WhenwesubstitutetheexpressionforQintotheshearformula,weget
When we substitute the expression for Q into the shear formula, we get
19
12
2
x = V c h - y12 m
2I 4
(2.7)
SOM401M/001
SOM401M
(2.7)
(2.7
2 4 2 4
ByobservingEq.2.7,wecanseethatshearstressvaryquadraticallywiththedistance
.Thisisalso
ByobservingEq.2.7,wecanseethatshearstressvaryquadraticallywiththedistance
By looking
at equation 2.7, we can see that the shear stress varies quadratically with
the .Thisis
shownbyFig.2.7
shownbyFig.2.7
distance
y1. This is also shown in fig. 2.7.
Figure 2.7
Effects of
ShearofStrains
Effects
Shear Strains
Sincetheshearstressvariesparabolicallyovertheheightofarectangularbeam,itfollowsthatthe
Sincetheshearstressvariesparabolicallyovertheheightofarectangularbeam,itfollowstha
Since the shear
parabolically over the height of a rectangular beam, it follows
stress varies
shearstrain
forshearstrainalsovariesparabolically.
x
forshearstrainalsovariesparabolically.
shearstrain
WenowlookatFig.2.8toseetheeffectsofshearstrains.Itcanbeseenthatthecrosssectionsof
Look at
fig. 2.8 to see the effects of shear strains. It can be seen that the cross-sections of
WenowlookatFig.2.8toseetheeffectsofshearstrains.Itcanbeseenthatthecrosssectio
the beam
that were originally plane surfaces become warped. Warping effects will not be
thebeamthatwereoriginallyplanesurfacesbecomewarped.Warpingeffectwillnotbedealtwith
thebeamthatwereoriginallyplanesurfacesbecomewarped.Warpingeffectwillnotbedealt
dealt
with
in either SOM381B or SOM401M.
ineitherSOM381BorSOM401M.
ineitherSOM381BorSOM401M.
m1
m
n
1
m1
p1m
n p
q n1
q1
p1P
q1
Figure 2.8
Doexample511
Do example
511.
Doexample511
Letusconsiderabeamwithacircularsection(solid)withradius.
Let us Letusconsiderabeamwithacircularsection(solid)withradius.
consider a beam with a circular section (solid) with radius r.
r 4, A = rr 2and 4r
I = r
y = 3r4
4
4
, ,
3
4
3
4 3
` Q = 4r
34
xmax =
Ib
3A
4 4
3 3
Readonpg.397anddoexample513.
Readonpg.397anddoexample513.
SOM401M/1
20
20
13
Figure 2.9
Shear stresses in the web
Now look at fig. 2.10. The following assumptions are made:
1
2
As before, we need to calculate the first moment Q. The area of interest is the area between e f and the top edge of the cross-section of the shaded area as shown in fig. 2.10.
A1 = b ` h - h1 j
2
2
Figure 2.10
Here b is the width of the flange, h is the overall height of the beam, and h1 is the distance
between the insides of the flanges.
A2 = t ` h1 - y1j
2
where t is the thickness of the web and y1 is the distance from the neutral axis to the line ef.
h1 - y1
h - h1
h
1
2
2
e
o
e
o
Q = A1
+
+ A2 y1 + 2
2
2
2
14
(2.8)
The shear stress in the web of the beam at distance y1 from the neutral axis is found to be:
(2.9)
(2.10)
SOM401M/1
Figure 2.12
The next example is a steel plate girder of the type commonly used in bridges and large
buildings. The design calculations in these types of beams involve two phases. In the first
phase, the beam is designed as though it was made of one piece, taking into account both
bending and shear stresses. In the second phase, the connections between the parts are
designed to ensure that the beam does indeed behave as a single entity.
15
SOM401M/001
Shear flow
Inorderforustoobtaintheformulaforthehorizontalshearforcesactingbetweenpartsofabeam
2.16
Shear flow
fromthehorizontalequilibriumofthesubelementinFig.542bwedeterminetheforce
actingon
itslowersurface:
In
order for us to obtain the formula for the horizontal shear forces acting between parts
of a beam, from the horizontal equilibrium of the sub-element in fig. 2.13 we determine
(2.11)
the force F3 acting on its lower surface:
Shearflowisthehorizontalshearforceperunitdistancealongthelongitudinalaxisofthebeamand
(2.11)
F3 = dM # ydA
I
,actsalongthedistance.
Shear flow is the horizontal shear force per unit distance along the longitudinal axis of the
beam,
and F3 acts along the distance dx. 1
f = F3 = dM ` 1 j # ydA
dx
dx,weobtainthefollowingformulaforshearflow:
I
...butweknowthat and
dM
But
we know that dx = V and
shear flow:
m1
p1
f=
M+dM
y1
n1
m1
p
p1
y1 2
x
dx
m
F1
(2.12)
(2.12)
dx
n
VQ
I
m1
p1
F2
F3
dx
y1
2
x
Figure 2.13
Areasused
Used
when
Calculating
the First
Areas
when
calculating
the first moment
Q Moment Q
To
illustrate how Q is calculated, look at fig. 2.14(a). The welds must transmit the horizontal
Toillustratehowiscalculated,letusrefertoFig.2.14(a).Theweldsmusttransmitthehorizonta
shear
between
thethe
flanges
andand
thethe
web.
At the
flange,
the horizontal
shearforces
forcesthat
thatact
act
between
flanges
web.
Atupper
the upper
flange,
the horizontal shea
shear
force
is
the
shear
flow
along
the
contact
surface
aa.
The
shear
flow
is
calculated
forceistheshearflowalongthecontactsurface.Theshearflowiscalculatedbytakingasthe
by
taking Q as the first moment of the cross-sectional area above the contact surface aa.
firstmomentofthecrosssectionalareaabovethecontactsurface.
In fig. 2.14(b) the beam is strengthened by riveting a channel section to each flange. The
InFig.2.14(b),thebeamisstrengthenedbyrivetingachannelsectiontoeachflange.Thehorizonta
horizontal shear force acting between each channel and the main beam must be transmitshear
between
the main
beam must
transmitted
by rivets. We
ted
by force
rivets. acting
We calculate
thiseach
forcechannel
from theand
shear-flow
formula,
with Qbe
calculated
using
calculatethisforcefromtheshearflowformula,withcalculatedusingtheshadedareaasshown.
the
shaded area as shown.
In fig. 2.14(c), we have a wooden beam with two flanges and two webs that are connected
by nails. The total horizontal shear force between23
the upper flange and the webs is the
shear
flow
acting
along
both
cc
and
dd,
and
therefore
Q is calculated for the upper flange.
16
InFig.2.14(c),wehavegotawoodenbeamwithtwoflangesandtwowebsthatareconnectedby
nails. The total horizontal shear force between the upper flange and the webs is the shear flow
actingalongbothand,andthereforeiscalculatedfortheupperflange.
y
(a)
BeamswithAxialLoads
(b)
Exercise
(c)
Figure 2.14
Beams
with axial loads
Problemstobedonefromthechapter
Probs.5.54;5.555.56;5.58;5.5155.517;5.519;5.521&5.61.
2.17 Exercise
Introduction
Wewillbestudyingthebendingofbeamsbyexaminingseveralspecializedtopicsthatwealready
havedealtwithinthepreviouschaptersuchascurvature,normalstressinbeamsandshearstresses
inbeams.Therestrictionsthatbeams
needtocomposeofonematerial
needtohaveaplaneofsymmetryinwhichtraverseloadsmustbeapplied
Attheendofthechapterwewillbeextendingtheperformanceintotheinelasticrangeofbehaviour
forbeamsmadeofelastoplasticmaterial.
Composite Beams
Beams that are fabricated of more than one material are called composite beams. The examples
includebimetallicbeams,plasticcoatedpipesandwoodbeamswithsteelreinforcingplates.
Many other types of composite beams have been developed in recent years, primarily to save
materialandreduceweight.Readmoreonpg.457.
SOM401M/1
ReadmoreonPgs.458and459
(3.1)
24
17
Strength
of Materials
Strength
of MaterialsIV
IV
Strength of Materials IV
Chapter 3
Stresses in Beams Advanced
Topics
3.1 Introduction
We will be studying the bending of beams by examining several specialised topics that we
already dealt with in the previous chapter such as curvature, normal stress in beams and
shear stresses in beams. The following restrictions must be taken into account:
Beams need to have a plane of symmetry in which traverse loads must be applied.
At the end of the chapter we will be extending the performance into the inelastic range of
behaviour for beams made of elasto-plastic material.
fx =-
y
=- ky
t
(3.1)
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19
SOM401M/001
3.4 Neutral
Neutral
Axis axis
The position of the neutral axis, the z-axis, is found from the condition that the resultant
Thepositionoftheneutralaxistheaxisisfoundfromtheconditionthattheresultantaxialforce
axial force acting on the cross-section is zero; therefore,
actingonthecrosssectioniszero,therefore,
(3.2)
# vx dA + #1 vx dA = 0
1
(3.2)
where the first integral is evaluated over the cross-sectional area of material 1 and the
...whenitisunderstoodthatthefirstintegralisevaluatedoverthecrosssectionalareaofmaterial1
second integral evaluated over the cross-sectional area of material 2; replacing x1 and
andthesecondintegralevaluatedoverthecrosssectionalareaofmaterial2.Replacing
and
x2 with the following:
withthefollowing:
vx =- E1 ky and vx =- E2 ky
Thereforetheresultingequationisasfollows:
Therefore the resulting equation is as follows:
1
E1#y
2# y
dA+E
dA=0
(3.3) (3.3)
y
t
h
O
z
Figure 3.1
The integrals in this equation represent the first moments of the two parts of the cross-
Figure31
sectional area with respect to the neutral
axis.
The integrals in this equation represent the first moments of the two parts of the crosssectional
Equation 3.3 is a generalised form of the analogous equation for a beam of one material,
areawithrespecttotheneutralaxis.
ie equation 5.8 in the textbook.
Eq.(3.3)isageneralizedformoftheanalogousequationforabeamofonematerial,i.e.,Eq.(5.8)
If the cross-section of a beam is doubly symmetric, as in the case of a wood beam with
fromthetextbook.
steel cover plates on the top and bottom (see fig. 3.1), the neutral axis is located at the
mid-height of the cross-section and equation 3.3 is not needed.
Ifthecrosssectionofabeamisdoublysymmetric,asinthecaseofawoodbeamwithsteelcover
platesonthetopandbottom...seeFig.3.1,theneutralaxisislocatedatthemidheightofthecross
sectionandEq.(3.3)isnotneeded.
20
The moment-curvature relationship for a composite beam of the two materials may be
determined from the condition that the moment resultant of the bending stresses is equal
Themomentcurvaturerelationshipforacompositebeamofthetwomaterialsmaybedetermined
to the
bending
moment
M acting
at the
cross-section.
from
the
condition
that the
moment
resultant
of the bending stresses is equal to the bending
momentMactingatthecrosssection.ReadmoreonPg.460.
(3.4)
M
k= 1 =
t
E1 I1 + E2 I2
(3.4)
My
vx =I1
1
(3.5)
which is similar to the ordinary flexural formula. The quantity I1 is the moment of inertia of
the two faces evaluated with respect to the neutral axis.
Read more on pages 461 and 462. Do examples 6.1 and 6.2.
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In this section, the bending stresses in the beam are determined by resolving the inclined
load into two components, one acting in each plane of symmetry. The bending stresses
can be obtained from the flexure formula for each load component acting separately, and
the final stresses can be obtained by superposing the separate stresses.
21
vz =
Mz y
My z
Iy
Iz
(3.6)
Using the above equation, we can find the normal stress at any point in the cross-section
by substituting the appropriate algebraic values of the moments and the coordinates.
The equation of the neutral axis can be determined by equating the normal stress vz
(equation 3.6) to zero:
M
y z Mz y
vz =
0 = -
I
I
y
z
Thisequationshowsthattheneutralaxisisastraightlinepassingthroughthecentroid.Theangle
This equation shows that the neutral axis is a straight line passing through the centroid.
The angle between the neutral axis and the z-axis is determined as follows:
betweentheneutralaxisandtheaxisisdeterminedasfollows:
y
M y Iz
tanb = =
Mz I y
z
(3.7)
(3.7)
Relationship
N.A and
the inclination
of the loads
3.12 between
Relationship
between
N.A. and
inclination of the
loads
Acantileverbeamisusedasanexample...;seeFig.3.2(a).Thebeamisloadedbyforceactingin
theplaneoftheendcrosssectionandinclinedatanangletothepositiveaxis.
We will use a cantilever beam as an example (see fig. 3.2). The beam is loaded by force P
acting in the plane of the end cross-section and inclined at an angle to the positive y-axis.
TheloadPcanberesolvedintoitsrespectivecomponents inthepositiveydirectionand
The load P can be resolved into its respective components P cos i in the positive y direction
and acting
cross
in the
Therefore
theTherefore
bending moments
moments
and positive
the positive
z direction.
the bending
My andon
Ma
acting
P sin i indirection.
z
on
a
cross-section
located
at
distance
x
from
the
fixed
support
are
sectionlocatedatdistancefromthefixedsupportare
22
Figure32
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3
in which L is the length of the beam. The ratio of these moments is
My
= tan i
Mz
(3.8)
which shows that the resultant moment vector M is at the angle from the x-axis in
Fig 3.3. The resultant moment vector is perpendicular to the longitudinal plane containing
the force P. The angle between the neutral axis and the z-axis is obtained from equation
3.9 which shows that the angle is generally not equal to the angle . Thus, except in
special cases, the neutral axis is not perpendicular to the longitudinal plane containing
the load. These exceptions are mentioned on page 474 where you can read more about
them. Do example 65. Skip example 64.
tanb =
My I z
I
= z tani
Mz I y
Iy
(3.9)
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23
Myy
Mzz
Figure 3.4
Let us consider fig. 3.4 as shown above, and describe a general procedure for analysing
an asymmetric beam subjected to any bending moment M. We will begin by locating the
centroid C of the cross-section and constructing a set of principal axes at that point (the
y- and z-axes) in the figure. Next, the bending moment is resolved into components My
and Mz , positive and negative, as shown in the figure.
(3.10)
in which is the angle between the moment vector M and the z-axis. Since each component
acts in a principal plane, it produces pure bending in that same plane.
The superposition of the bending stresses in order to obtain the resultant stress at any point
in the cross-section is given by the following equation:
vx =
Mz y
M cos iy
My z
= M sin iz +
Iy
Iz
Iy
Iz
(3.11)
sin i z - cos i y = 0
Iy
Iz
(3.12)
The angle between the neutral axis and the z-axis can be obtained from the preceding
equation as follows:
tan b =
y
I
= z tan i
z
Iy
(3.13)
3
d = PNA L
3EINA
(3.14)
where PNA is the component of the load perpendicular to the neutral axis and the INA is the
second moment of the area about the neutral axis. The most convenient way to obtain INA is
to use the coordinates (Iy , Iyz) and Iy Iyz to construct a Mohrs circle for moments. This then
allows the second moment of area at any angle to the y- or z- direction to be determined.
PNA = P cos b
Do examples 6.6 and 6.7 in the textbook.
o
M0
P
Figure 3.5
x=
VQ
Ib
(3.15)
In the above formula, V represents the shear force acting in the cross-section, I is the moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area, b is the width of the beam at the location where
the shear stress is to be determined, and Q is the first moment of the cross-sectional area
outside the location where the stress is being found. Typical beams are displayed in the
25
textbook on page 489. Now, we will be considering the shear stresses in a special class
of beams known as thin-walled open cross-section. The figure that we need to look at is
fig. 6.31 on page 490.
Please page through for this figure because I have omitted it from the manual.
dM = Mx - Mx = Vy
dx
dx
x=
Vy
Iz t
# ydA
s
(3.16)
(3.17)
The above equation, equation 3.18, gives the shear stress at any point in the cross-section
at distances from the free edge. The integral on the right-hand side represents the first moment with respect to the z-axis of the area of the cross-section from s = 0 to s = s. Denoting
this moment by Qz, we can write the equation for the shear stresses in the simpler form:
x=
Vy Qz
Iz t
(3.18)
P ` st f h 2 j
Vy Qz
xf =
=
= shP
Iz t f
Iz t f
2Iz
(3.19)
Make sure that you redo this derivation because I am definitely going to ask something
like this in the examination.
26
1
2
max
2
1
Figure 3.6
The variation of the stresses in the upper flange is shown graphically in fig.3.6, and we
see that the stresses vary from zero at point a to a maximum value T1
x1 = bhP
4Iz
(3.20)
Note that we have calculated the shear stress at the junction of the centrelines of the flange
and web, using only the centreline dimensions of the cross-section in the calculations. This
approximate procedure simplifies the calculations and is satisfactory for thin-walled cross
sections.
x2 =
bht f P
2Iz tw
(3.21)
Read more about this section on pages 494496. This is an important section in the book
and we will be doing more examples in this regard. Do the derivation of the necessary
shear stresses.
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In this section we are going to consider fig. 3.7. Only beams with singly symmetric or asymmetric cross-sections will be considered, because we already know that the shear centre
of a doubly symmetric cross-section is located at the centroid. The procedure for locating
shear centre consists of two principal steps: first, evaluating the shear stresses acting on
the cross-section when bending occurs about one of the principal axes, and secondly, de27
termining the resultant of those stresses. The shear centre is located on the line of action
of the resultant. By considering bending about both principal axes, we can determine the
position of the shear centre.
y
V
F1
e
h
2
z
F2
F3
h
2
Figure 3.7
Figure 3.8
e=
3b2 t f
htw + 6bt f
(3.22)
I strongly urge you to redo this derivation and I will put the derivation on the website in
the latter part of the year.
28
Read about this on pages 500501. This is an important section for you to know as a
practising engineer. I have worked many times with structural design and a lot of times I
have used channels and angles to build large structures.
3.25 Z-section
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29
c
r
y
Figure 3.9
The bending moment in the beam when the maximum stress just reaches the yield stress,
called the yield moment , My can be obtained from the flexure formula:
My = vy Ic = vy S
in which c is the distance to the point farthest from the neutral axis and S is the corresponding section modulus.
MP = v y Z
(3.24)
Z=
A^y1 + y2h
2
(3.25)
is the plastic modulus or the plastic section modulus for the cross-section.
The ratio of the plastic moment to the yield moment is solely a function of the shape of
the cross-section and is called the shape factor f:
f = MP = Z
MY
S
(3.26)
h
2
h
2
Figure 3.10
The yield moment is given as follows:
MY =
vy bh2
6
(3.27)
in which b is the width and h is the height of the cross-section. The distances to the centroids
of the areas above and below the neutral axis are
y1 = y2 = h
4
The plastic modulus is derived as follows:
Z=
2
A^y1 + y2h
= bh ` h + h j = bh
2
2 4 4
4
MP =
vy bh2
4
(3.28)
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31
Read more about this section on pages 509 510 and do examples 69 and 610 in G&G.
3.32 Exercise
You are required to do the following problems from the textbook:
6.211; 6.39; 6.31112; 6.414; 6.46; 6.49; 6.41213; 6.518; 6.512;
6.813; 6.9311; 6.1045, 1113, 1819.
32
Strength
of Materials
Strength
of MaterialsIV
IV
Strength of Materials IV
Chapter 4
Deflections of Beams
4.1 Introduction
As you will notice most procedures of finding beam deflections are based on the differential
equations of the deflection curve.
B
v
L
P
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.1
The assumption that we can make here is that xy is a plane of symmetry of the beam and
that all loads act in this plane.
The deflection v is the displacement in the y direction. Because the y-axis is positive upward,
the deflections are also positive when upward.
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=1 = M
t
EI
(4.1)
The basic differential equation of the deflection curve of a beam is given by:
d2 v = M
EI
dx2
(4.2)
The above equation can be integrated in each particular case to find the deflection v,
provided the bending moment and flexural rigidity are known as a function of x.
The sign conventions to be used with the preceding equations are as follows:
1
2
3
4
5
The x- and y-axes are positive to the right and upward, respectively.
The deflection v is positive upward.
The slope dv
dx and angle of rotation are positive when counter-clockwise with
respect to the positive x-axis.
The curvature k is positive when the beam is bent concave upward.
The bending moment M is positive when it produces compression in the upper part
of the beam.
2
EIx d v2 = M
dx
(4.3)
where the subscript x means that the flexural rigidity may vary with x.
d EIx d2 v = dM = V
c 2m
dx
dx
dx
(4.4)
d2 EIx d2 v = dV =- q
c 2m
dx
dx
dx2
(4.5)
2
3
4
EI d v2 = M, EI d v3 = V and EI d v4 =- q
dx
dx
dx
(4.6)
These equations are referred to as the bending-moment equation, the shear-force equation
and the load equation respectively.
These constants are evaluated from known conditions pertaining to the slopes and deflections.
The conditions fall into three categories:
1
2
3
Boundary conditions
Continuity conditions
Symmetry conditions
Boundary conditions pertain to the deflections and slope at the supports of a beam. At a
fixed end v = v = 0, and at either the pin or roller support v = 0 only. Each boundary
condition supplies one equation that can be used to evaluate the constants of integration.
Continuity conditions occur at points where the regions of integration meet, such as at
point C as shown in fig. 4.2.
B A
Figure 4.2
Symmetry conditions occur when a beam is simply supported and carries a uniform load
throughout its length. This allows us to know in advance that the slope of the deflection
curve at the midpoint must be zero. This condition supplies us with an extra equation.
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Let us consider an arbitrary beam subjected to distributed loads (q1, q2 and q3) with
accompanying bending moments at a section of the beam caused by each load when
acting on the beam ie, M1, M2 and M3.
But
M = M1 + M2 + M3 + g
Therefore
M = EI d v2
dx
v= 1
EI
v= 1
EI
# ` # ^M + M
1
+ M3 + gh dxj dx
v = v1 + v2 + v3 + g
Thus the deflection at a section of a beam subjected to complex loading can be obtained
by the summation of the deflections caused at that section by the individual components
of the loading.
When dealing with problems of superpositioning you might find Appendix G in the textbook
handy, that is if you cannot quickly derive the deflection or slope equation. In the examination I will provide the table with the necessary information that you will need from it.
M
A
L
L
Figure 4.3
As the bending couples gradually increase in magnitude from zero to their maximum
values, they perform work W. This work, equal to the strain energy U stored in the beam,
is given as follows:
36
W = U = Mi
2
(4.7)
But on the other hand, the angle subtended by the arc as shown in fig. 4.3 is given by the
following formula:
i = ML
EI
(4.8)
So if we now combine the two equations, we get either one of the following equations:
2
2
U = M L or U = EIi
2EI
2L
(4.9)
in which the first one expresses the strain energy in terms of the applied moments M, and
the second one expresses the strain energy in terms of the angle . For a strip of element,
2
dU = M dx
2EI
# M2EIdx
2
`U=
dU =
2dx
dx m =
c
c
m dx
2dx dx2
2 dx2
`U=
d v dx
# EI
c
m
2 dx
2
U = W = Pd and U = Moi
2
2
The first equation applies to a beam that is loaded with only a load P and the second
equation applies to a beam loaded by only a couple Mo. We are then able to write the
following by just manipulating the above equations:
d = 2U
P
and i = 2U
Mo
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Let us consider a cantilever beam with a concentrated load, P acting at the free end as
shown in fig. 4.4. The strain energy is found to be
37
2 3
U= P L
6EI
P
A
B
A
L
Figure 4.4
The derivative of the above with respect to the load is given as follows:
dU = PL3
dP
3EI
di = 2U
2Pi
(4.10)
where i is the displacement of the point of application of the force Pi in the direction of Pi.
For rotational displacement
ii = 2U
2Mi
(4.11)
where i is the rotational displacement, in radians, of the moment Mi in the direction of Mi.
Solution-strain energy:
Mxx =- Px
The strain energy is given by the following formula:
U=
#
0
38
M2 dx =
2EI
#
0
P2 x2 dx
2EI
Solution-deflection:
The deflection at the end of the beam due to load P is
3
dP = 2U = PL
2P
3EI
P
A
Mo
C
L
/2
/2
c
Figure 4.5
NB: With beams we are often required to determine the slopes as well. In order to do that,
we are always required to determine the couple at the application of the load in order to
keep the beam stable, ie Mo.
Mxx =- Px - Mo
in which x is the distance from the free end. The strain energy is written as follows:
2
L _- Px - Mo i
U=
#
0
2EI
dx
The deflection at the free end where the load and the couple are acting is given by
2
3
dA = 2U = PL + M0 L
2P
3EI
2EI
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i A = 2U
2Mo
x
A
x
B
z
RA
RB
Figure 4.6
RA = Pb and RB = Pa
L
L
We then cut the beam into two sections XX and YY, with the resulting moments about the
sections being as follows:
d=
d = d1 = d2 =
d= 1
EI
#
0
M 2M ds
EI 2P
Mxx 2Mxx ds +
EI 2P
Pbx bx dx + 1
L L
EI
Mzz 2Mzz ds
EI 2P
Paz az ds
L L
2 2
2 2
` d = Pb2 a ^a + bh = Pb a
3LEI
3L EU
U=
# 2MEI dx
2
di = 2U
2Pi
We then differentiate the integral by differentiating under the integral sign:
40
di = d
dPi
M 2M dx
# 2MEI dx = # ` EI
j c 2P m
2
(4.12)
We can now refer to equation 4.12 as the modified Castiglianos theorem. When using
the modified theorem, we actually integrate the product of the bending moment and its
derivative.
Let us refer to fig. 4.5 Recall that we want to determine the deflection and the angle of
rotation at the free end. The bending moment as has been derived is given by
Mxx =- Px - Mo
Now the partial derivatives of the load as well as the moment are as follows:
2M =- x and 2M =- 1
2P
2Mo
From equation 5.12 we obtain the deflection A and the angle of rotation A,
dA = 1
EI
iA = 1
EI
2
3
^- Px - Moh^- xh dx = PL + Mo L
3EI
2EI
2
^- Px - Moh^- 1h dx = PL + M0 L
2EI
2EI
The advantages of differentiating under the integral sign are even more apparent when
there are more than two loads acting on the structure.
Other types of Castiglianos method will be dealt with later, such as curved beams and
frame structures.
SOM401M/1
41
Strength
of Materials
Strength
of MaterialsIV
IV
Strength of Materials IV
Chapter 5
Statically Indeterminate Beams
5.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with the analysis of beams in which the number of reactions exceeds the
number of independent equations of equilibrium. The analysis is quite different from that
of statically determinate beams. When a beam is statically determinate, we can obtain all
reactions, shear forces, and bending moments from the free-body diagrams and equations of equilibrium. However, when a beam is statically indeterminate, the equilibrium
equations are not sufficient and additional equations are needed. The most fundamental
method for analysing a statically indeterminate beam is to solve the differential equations
of the deflection curve.
We will also be using the method of superposition, which is applicable to a variety of
structures.
In this method, we supplement the equilibrium equations with compatibility equations and
force displacement equations.
We are not going to do section 6.6 (G&G), but you are welcome to do it on your own. If
you experience any difficulty with it, call me.
MA
RxA
P
A
y
RA
B
O
P
O
RB
SOM401M/1
Figure 5.1
The reactions of the beam shown in the figure consist of horizontal and vertical forces at
support A, a moment at support A, and a vertical force at support B. We can see that there
are only three independent equations of equilibrium for this beam; as such it is not possible
to calculate all four of the reactions from equilibrium alone. The number of reactions in
43
excess of the number of equilibrium equations is called the degree of static indeterminacy.
Thus, a propped cantilever beam is statically indeterminate to the first degree.
The excess reactions are called static redundants and must be selected in each particular
case.
For example, the reaction R Aof the propped cantilever beam shown in fig. 5.1 (G&G) may
be selected as the redundant reaction. Since this reaction is in excess of those needed to
maintain equilibrium, it can be released from the structure by removing the support at B.
When support B is removed, we are left with a cantilever beam shown by fig. 5.1 (G&G).
The structure that remains when the redundants are released is called the released structure or the primary structure. The released structure must be stable (so that it is capable
of carrying loads), and it must be statically determinate (so that all force quantities can be
determined by equilibrium alone).
We can opt to choose the reactive moment MA as the redundant from fig. 5.1 (G&G).
When the moment restraint at support A is removed, the released structure is a simple
beam with a pin support at one end and a roller support at the other as shown in fig. 5.1.
These types of beams are usually identified by the arrangement of their supports, ie a beam
that is fixed at one end and simply supported at the other end, shown in fig. 5.1 (G&G).
This type of beam is referred to as a propped cantilever.
Another type of statically indeterminate beam known as a fixed-end beam is shown in
fig. 5.2.
It has fixed supports at both ends, resulting in a total of six unknown reactions. Because
there are only three equations of equilibrium, the beam is statically indeterminate to the
third degree.
We can start by selecting the three reactions at end B as redundants, and if we remove
the corresponding restraints, we are then left with a cantilever beam as shown in fig. 5.2
(G&G). If we release the two fixed-end moments and one horizontal reaction, the released
structure is a simple beam as shown in fig. 5.2.
Figure 5.2
44
Thesecond-orderequationintermsofthebendingmoment
Thethird-orderequationintermsoftheshearforce
Thefourth-orderequationintermsoftheintensityofthedistributedload
Theprocedureconsistsofwritingthedifferentialequation,integratingtoobtainitsgeneralsolution,andthenapplyingboundaryandotherconditionstoevaluatetheunknown
quantities.
Theunknownsconsistoftheredundantreactionsaswellastheconstantsofintegration.
Thissectionisnotincludedinthebookbutitisveryimportant!
Abeamrestingonmorethantwosupportsistermedcontinuous.Suchabeamisrepresentedinfig.5.3.Changesofcurvatureoccurineachspanowingtonegativebending
momentsatthesupports.
P
qkN/m
A
qkN/m
B
Figure5.3
Insolvingthiskindofproblem,weneedtofirstworkouttheleft-handsideaswellas
theright-handsideofthefollowingequation,sometimesseparatelyespeciallyifyou
becomeuncertain:
- MA L1 - 2MB ^ L1 + L2h - Mc L2 = 6 c A1 x 1 + A2 x 2 m
L1
L2
(5.1)
Forau.d.l,theright-handsideoftheequation5.1
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qL23
(5.1a)
andforapointload,theright-handsideoftheequation
= Pa ^ L22 - a2h
L2
(5.1b)
45
a is the distance from one support to the location of the load. If the point load is at the
centre of the span, our choice of a becomes quite easy but if the point load is otherwise,
we need to determine whether the point load comes first or last in which case the distance
that we need to take will be ^ L - ah .
This will be explained in a set of examples that will be dealt with in the Sample Problem
Workbook that can be downloaded from the myUNISA website.
/M
= Rc L2 - P^ L - bh
(5.1c)
if b is considered the distance from the right-hand support of the continuous beam. The
other reaction can be found from equilibrium of forces.
RA = qL - RB MA =
qL2
- RB L
2
The next step is to remove the restraint corresponding to the redundant (ie the support at B).
The released structure that remains is a cantilever beam (see fig.10.12b in G&G). The
uniform load q and the redundant force RB are now applied as loads on the released
structure (see fig. 10.12c and d in the textbook).
46
The deflection at end B of the released structure due to the uniform load is denoted by,
^dBh1 and the deflection at the same point due to the redundant is denoted by ^dBh2 . The
deflection at point B ^dBh is obtained by superposing these two deflections as follows:
dB = ^dBh1 - ^dBh2
Using table G-1 in appendix G, we will get the following expressions for the deflections:
^dBh1 =
qL4
8EI
and
3
^dBh2 = RB L
3EI
dB =
3
qL4
- RB L = 0
8EI
3EI
The remaining reactions (R A and MA) can be found from equilibrium equations:
RA =
5qL
qL2
and MA =
8
8
Complete this by analysing the beam with MA as redundant and finding the slopes in the
process.
In the examination you are free to use any method to solve the question.
Do example 103105 from Gere and Goodno.
5.10 Exercise
Do the following problems in chapter 6:
SOM401M/1
10.31, 10.32, 10.35, 10.39, 10.310, 10.41, 10.43, 10.47, 10.410 and 10.421
47
Strength
of Materials
Strength
of MaterialsIV
IV
Strength of Materials IV
Chapter 6
Columns
This chapter deals with the buckling of slender columns which support compressive
loads in structures. The critical axial load which indicates the onset of buckling is defined
and computed for a number of simple models composed of rigid bars and elastic springs.
The differential equation of the deflection curve is derived and solved to obtain expressions for the Euler buckling load (Pcr) and associated buckled shape for the fundamental
mode. The critical stress cr and slenderness ratio L are defined and the effects of large
r
deflections, column imperfections, inelastic behaviour, and optimum shapes of columns
are defined.
6.1 Introduction
A load-carrying structure may fail in a variety of ways, depending upon the type of structure, the condition of support, the kinds of loads, and the material used. As an example,
an axle in a vehicle may fracture suddenly from repeated cycles of loading, or a beam
may deflect excessively, so that the structure is unable to perform its intended functions.
The strength and stiffness are important factors in design.
We will be dealing strictly with buckling and we are going to consider specifically buckling
of columns, which are long, slender structural members loaded axially in compression, ie
fig. 6.1a. If a compression member is relatively slender, it may deflect laterally and fail by
bending, as shown in fig. 6.1b rather than failing by direct compression of the material.
When lateral bending occurs, we say that the column has buckled. Under an increasing
axial load, the lateral deflections will increase too, and eventually the column will collapse.
P
B
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(a)
(b)
Figure 6.1
49
P
C
BR
BR
B
MB
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 6.2
Suppose that the structure is disturbed by some external force that causes point B to move
a small distance laterally as shown in fig. 6.2b. The rigid bar rotates through small angles
and a moment develops in the spring. The direction of this moment is such that it tends to
return the structure to its original straight position, and hence it is called a restoring moment.
Consider what happens when the disturbance force is removed. If the axial force P is
relatively small, the action of the restoring moment will predominate over the action of the
axial force and the structure will return to its straight position. Under these conditions, the
structure is said to be stable. However, if the axial force P is large, the lateral displacement
of point B will increase and the bars will rotate through larger and larger angles until the
structure collapses.
Under these conditions, the structure is unstable and fails by lateral buckling.
M = 2b R i
But since the angle is a small quantity, the lateral displacement of point B is iL
50
` MB - P a iL k = 0
2
PL
a2bR - 2 k i = 0
One solution of this equation is = 0, which is a trivial solution and only means that the
structure is in equilibrium when it is perfectly straight, regardless of the magnitude of the
force P.
A second solution is obtained by setting the term
PL
`2bR - 2 j = 0
and solving for the load P, which will be the critical load:
Pcr =
4b R
L
(6.1)
P
M
v
L
y
x
A
Figure 6.3
When the axial load has a small value, the column remains perfectly straight and undergoes
direct axial compression. The only stresses are the uniform compressive stress obtained
from the equation
v= P
A
(6.2)
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51
As the load is gradually increased, we reach a condition of neutral equilibrium in which the
column may have a bent shape. The corresponding value of the load is the critical load Pcr.
At higher values of the load, the column is unstable and may collapse by buckling, that is
excessive bending.
If P < Pcr: the column is in stable equilibrium in the straight position.
If P = Pcr: the column is in neutral equilibrium in either the straight position or slightly bent
position.
If P > Pcr: the column is in unstable equilibrium in the straight position and will buckle
under the slightest disturbance.
EIv" = M
(6.3)
in which M is the bending moment at any cross-section, V is the lateral deflection in the y
direction, and EI is the flexural rigidity for bending in the xy plane. (see fig. 6.4)
x
p
x
M
x
Figure 6.4
From equilibrium of moments about point A, we obtain
M + Pv = 0
` M =- Pv
(6.4)
EIv" + Pv = 0
(6.5)
k=
P
EI
(6.6)
v" + k2 v = 0
(6.7)
and from 2nd and 3rd year mathematics, we know that the general solution of this equation is
v = C1 sin kx + C2 cos kx
(6.8)
in which C1 and C2 are constants of integration (and are evaluated from the boundary
conditions or end conditions of the column).
Deflection is zero at x = 0 and at x = L
v = C1 sin kx
because
C2 = 0
C1 sin kx = 0
Case 2 in which sinkL = 0 will be dealt with, because our aim is to find all the values of
kL in which
C1 sin kL = 0
(6.9)
sin kL = 0
(6.10)
2 2
P = n r 2EI
L
(6.11)
(6.12)
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when n = 1
2
Pcr = r EI
L2
(6.13)
v = C1 sin rx
L
(6.14)
53
x
x
C1
B
C1
C1
A
Figure 6.5
2
vcr = Pcr = r EI2
A
AL
(6.15)
in which I is the moment of inertia for the principal axis about which buckling occurs.
r=
I
A
(6.16)
in which r is the radius of gyration of the cross-section in the plane of bending. The equation for the critical stress therefore becomes
2
vcr = Pcr = r E 2
A
^ L/r h
(6.17)
54
The column is assumed to be in the buckled state. With this information, an expression for the bending moment in the column is obtained.
A differential equation of the deflection curve is obtained using the bending-moment
equation ^ EIv" = M h .
A general solution containing two constants of integration plus any other unknown
quantities is obtained.
4
5
Boundary conditions pertaining to the deflection and the slope are applied and a set
of simultaneous equations is obtained.
Finally, we solve those equations to obtain the critical load and the deflected shape
of the buckled column.
v
L
x
(a)
(b)
Figure 6.6
The bending moment at distance x is written as follows:
M = P ^d - v h
(6.18)
where is the deflection at the free end of the column. The D.E. of the deflection curve
becomes
EIv" = M = P^d - vh
(6.19)
in which I is the moment of inertia for buckling in the xy plane. Taking note that k2 = P
EI
, we can write equation 6.18 into the form
v" + k2 = k2 d
(6.20)
This is a linear differential equation of the second order with constant coefficients.
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2
Pcr = r EI
4L2
(6.21)
55
Le = 2L
(6.22)
Since the effective length is the length of an equivalent pinned-end column, we can write
a general formula for critical loads as follows: (see fig. 6.7)
2
Pcr = r EI
L2e
(6.23)
P
L=2L
Figure 6.7
Figure 6.8
The column is free to shorten under an axial load. The effective length of a column with
fixed ends is as follows:
56
Le = L
2
(6.24)
2
Pcr = 4r 2EI
L
(6.25)
An observation can be made that the critical load for a column with fixed ends is four times
that for a column with pinned ends.
Figure 6.9
Le = L
2
` Pcr = r EI
L2
(6.26)
Fixed-free column
Le = 2L
2
` Pcr = r EI
L2
(6.27)
Fixed-fixed column
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Le = 0.5L
2
Pcr = 4r 2EI
L
(6.28)
Let us now consider a column being compressed by two loads of magnitude P, applied
with a small eccentricity e, measured from the axis as shown in fig. 6.10(a). Each eccentric
axial load is equivalent to a centric load P and a couple of moments Mo = Pe as shown
in fig. 6.10(b).
In order to analyse this pin-ended column, we need to make the same assumptions as in the
previous sections. The bending moment in the column at distance x from the lower end is
M = Mo + P^- vh = Pe - Pv
(6.29)
Figure 6.10
where v is the deflection of the column. It must be noted that the deflections of the column
are negative if the eccentricity of the load is positive.
The differential equation of the deflection curve is
EIv" = M = Pe - Pv
(6.30)
v" + k2 v = k2 e
(6.31)
or much better
v = C1 sin kx + C2 cos kx + e
sin kL
(6.32)
(6.33)
(6.34)
If e and P are known, we can use equation 6.33 to calculate the deflection at any point
along the x-axis. The critical load of the column, since it has pinned ends, is
58
2
Pcr = r EI
L2
(6.35)
d = e `sec kL - 1j
2
(6.36)
Figure 6.11
Mmax = P^e + dh
(6.37)
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6.21 Exercise
Do the following problems from this chapter:
11.21, 11.31, 11.39, 11.312, 11.315, 11.316, 11.419, 11.53, 11.510
60
Strength
of Materials
Strength
of MaterialsIV
IV
Strength of Materials IV
Chapter 7
Thick and Compound Cylinders
7.1 Introduction
It is very important to understand how to apply the principles of using equilibrium, compatibility and boundary conditions in thick cylinder theory. In this chapter we are going to start
with two simple beam-bending situations, followed by thick-walled cylinder similar to the
ones used in high-pressure chemical engineering.
Specified displacements. Over some part of the object boundary the displacement
of the material may be known.
Specified surface tractions. Over the remainder of the object boundary the direct
stress acting normal to the boundary, and /or the shear stress acting on the surface,
may be known.
Let us consider an example: A rubber hose is forced over a rigid bar whose outer diameter
is larger than the bore of the hose, as shown in fig. 7.1. The boundary conditions at the
inner diameter of the rubber hose are that every point has been forced radially outward
by an amount equal to the difference in radii. In terms of the radial and circumferential
displacements and respectively, this implies: at r = a,
and
v=0
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u=d
61
Figure 7.1
Note that the pressure exerted on the hose at r = a by forcing it over the tube must be found
from the analysis. The radial displacement and normal stress cannot both be specified.
At the outer diameter of the hose the resulting displacement is not known; this must be found
from the analysis. What is known, however, is that on that external surface, no normal or
shear stress is acting. This implies that at r = b,
vr = xri
Note that it is not possible to specify as a boundary condition in this problem, since all
the surfaces on which acts are in the interior of the hose.
Figure 7.2
Let us consider a simply supported beam carrying a uniformly distributed load as shown
in fig. 7.2, q over the entire length. The origin of the Cartesian coordinates are taken on
the neutral axis, with x positive left to right and y positive downward. This is treated as a
two-dimensional problem with no variation of stress across the width of the beam, and
therefore only two equations of equilibrium are applicable.
2vx + 2xxy = 0
2x
2y
(7.1)
2vy 2xxy
+
= 0
2y
2x
(7.2)
62
vx =
My
I
(7.3)
then equation 7.2 is not required, neither is any strain-displacement relationship. This is
because, in the derivative of equation 7.3, the geometry of deformation and the stressstrain relationship were included. Substituting for x in equation #.1 gives
2 ` My I j 2xxy
+
=0
2x
2y
Therefore
y
2xxy =- 2M 2y
2x I
But,
dM = V
dx
the shear force on the section, so that
2xxy =-
Vy
2y
I
(7.4)
Integrating gives
xxy =- V
I
# y dy + C =- Vy
2I
+ C
(7.5)
At the top and bottom free surface of the beam the shear stress must be zero; therefore
xxy = 0
at
y =! d
2
from which
2
C = Vd
8I
and
xxy =-
Vy2 Vd2
+
2I
8I
(7.6)
At the neutral axis y = 0 and the shear stress has its maximum value which is
2
xxy = Vd
8I
(7.7)
2vy 2xxy
+
=0
2y
2x
Now, the shear stress, xy, was determined in equation 7.5, and substituting that value in
equation 7.2 gives
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Vy2 Vd2
2vy
m)
+ 2 c+
2y
2x
2I
8I
(7.8)
63
Or
qy2 qd 2
q y2 d2 y
(7.9)
m dy + C =- c m+ C
I 6
2I
8I
8
Using the boundary condition that at the upper surface y =- d , the compressive stress
2
q , where b is the beam width; then
is vy =b
3
3
q q
C =- + c- d + d m
b
I
48 16
vy =- # c
Substituting
1 = d3
b
12I
we find the value of C to be equal to
C =-
qd 3
24I
Therefore
3
q y3 d 2 y
vy =- c + d m
8
24
I 6
(7.10)
Figure 7.3
For closure by pistons, it is evident that z=0 and z occurs only due to the Poissons ration
effect of r and .
64
Figure 7.4
From which the symmetry of the system and for a long cylinder, we come to the conclusion
that plane cross-sections remain plane when subjected to pressure and therefore axial
dq
deformation, w, across the section is independent of r and
=0
dr
dvr + vr - vi = 0
dr
r
(7.11)
dvz 0
=
dz
(7.12)
fr = du
dr
(7.13)
fi = u
r
(7.14)
fz =
dq
dz
(7.15)
fr = vr - v ^vi + vzh = du
E
E
dr
(7.16)
fi = vi - v ^vr + vzh = u
E
E
r
(7.17)
dq
fz = vz - v ^vi + vrh =
E
E
dz
(7.18)
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Substituting for du
dr
and u
(7.19)
65
dfz
= 0 and differentiating 7.18 yields
dr
dv
z
Substituting into equation 7.19
for from equation 7.19 and
dr
7.11 and simplifying yields
(7.20)
^vr - vih
from equation
dr
dr
(7.21)
dv
(7.22)
dvi + 2vr - 2A = 0
dr
r
(7.23)
And
By integration,
Ar2 - r2 vr = B
Hence
vr = A - B2
r
(7.24)
vi = A + B2
r
(7.25)
where A and B are constants which may be found using the boundary conditions.
vr = ` du + v u j E 2
dr
r ^1 - v h
(7.26)
vi = `v du + u j E 2
dr
r ^1 - v h
(7.27)
dvi = d2 u + v du - v u
E
c 2
m
dr
dr
r ^1 - v2h
dr
(7.28)
Substituting equations 7.26, 7.27 and 7.28 into equation 7.11 and simplifying, yields
d 2 u + 1 du - u = 0
r dr
dr 2
r2
(7.29)
u = Cr + C'
r
(7.30)
(7.31)
(7.32)
where C and C are constants. These equations may be rewritten with differential constants as
vr = A - B2
r
And
vi = A + B2
r
r = Pi
At r = ro = b
r = Po
The pressure is negative because at the inside the internal pressure tends to increase the
internal diameter while at the outside; the external pressure tends to decrease the external
diameter.
- Pi = A - rB2
and
- Po = A - rB2
o
B=
^ Pi - Poh r 2i r 2o
r -r
2
o
2
i
and
2
2
A = Pi r 2i - Po2 r o
ro - r i
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2
2
^ Pi - Poh r 2i r 2o
vr = Pi r 2i - Po2 r o - 2 2
ro - r i
r ^r o - r 2i h
(9.33a)
2
2
^ Pi - Poh r 2i r 2o
vi = Pi r 2i - Po2 r o + 2 2
ro - r i
r ^r o - r 2i h
(9.33b)
These equations were first derived by Lame and Clapeyron in 1833. If we now let the
radius ratio ro = k , then equations 9.33a and 9.33b may be written as
ri
67
vr =
r2
r2
2
1
; Pi `1 - 2o j - Po k c1 - 2i mE
k -1
r
r
(9.34a)
vi =
r2
r2
2
1
; Pi `1 + 2o j - Po k c1 + 2i mE
k -1
r
r
(9.34b)
It is important to note that the stresses depend on the k-ratio rather than on the absolute
dimensions.
vo =
vr =
r2
1
; Pi c1 - 02 mE
k -1
r
2
r2
1
; Pi c1 + 02 mE
k -1
r
2
(9.35)
(9.36)
At the inner surface, r and each have their maximum magnitude so that at r = ri,
r = Pi
It is appropriate at this point to note that the radial stress shown on the element in fig 7.4
is in the positive sense, ie tension is in fact in the opposite sense, ie compression. The
circumferential or hoop stress at r = ri = a is
2
2
2
vi = ro2 + r i2 Pi = k2 + 1 Pi
ro - r i
k -1
vr = 0 and vi =
2Pi
k -1
2
Figure 7.5
68
so that
2
vz = 2Pi r i 2 = 2 Pi
ro - ri
k -1
(7.37)
And
^1 - 2vh Pi
fz = vz - v ^vr = vih =
E
E
E^ k2 - 1h
vz = 0
(7.38)
And
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We can observe from fig. 7.5 that there is a marked variation in the stress in the wall of
a thick cylinder subjected to internal pressure, and this situation gets worse when designing for even higher pressures. In order to secure a more uniform stress distribution, one
method is to build up the cylinder by shrinking one tube on the outside of another. In this
case, the inner tube is subjected to hoop compression by shrink fit of the tension. When
the compound is subjected to working pressure, the resultant stresses are the algebraic
sum of that due to the shrinking and that due to the internal pressure. The resultant tensile
stress at the inner surface of the inner tube is not so large as if the cylinder were composed
of one thick tube. The final tensile stress at the inner surface of the outer tube is larger than
if the cylinder consisted of one thick tube.
Thus a more even stress distribution is obtained.
69
The second technique used in special industrial pressure vessels, is to wind around the
outside of a tube a high-tensile strength ribbon of a rectangular section with sufficient
tension to bring the tube into a state of hoop compression. Subsequent internal pressure
can be set up in the tube.
The other method for creating hoop compression at the bore of a cylinder is known as
auto-frettage.
This consists of applying internal pressure to a single cylinder until yielding and a prescribed
amount of plastic deformation occurs at the bore. Since strain increases along the radius
of the cylinder, on the release of pressure, the elastic recovery of the material causes the
bore of the cylinder to be subjected to compressive hoop stress. At the same time tensile
hoop stress occurs in the outer material.
vr = A - B2
r
and
vi = A + B2
r
^inner component h
(7.39a)
vr = C - D2
r
and
vi = C + D2
r
^outer component h
(7.39b)
where the constants A, B, C and D are determined from the boundary conditions. For
shrink-fit stresses only, the boundary conditions are that r = 0 at the inside of the inner
cylinder and outside of the outer cylinder, and at the mating surface, rm the radial stress
in each vessel must be the same; therefore
A - B2 = C - D2
rm
rm
(7.40)
Finally, at the mating surface the radial interference is the sum of the displacement of the
inner cylinder inwards, u and the outer cylinder outwards, u; thus
Where
70
f = 1 ^vi - vvrh
E
(7.41)
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One can write a spreadsheet program to do an analysis but it is important that you understand the theory of thick and compound cylinders before attempting to write excel
spreadsheets.
71
Strength
of Materials
Strength
of MaterialsIV
IV
Strength of Materials IV
Chapter 8
Theories of Elastic Failure
8.1 Introduction
When a ductile metal is subjected to simple axial loading, it is found that beyond a certain
point, stress is no longer proportional to strain, which results in there being a permanent
deformation when the stress is removed as shown in fig. 8.1 below. The material is then
said to have yielded. Knowing the stress at which yielding behaviour commenced, it would
then be a simple matter to design a component from the same material to withstand a
particular axial load without yielding occurring. This example is simple as there is only one
principal stress to consider.
Figure 8.1
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The problem when designing a pressure vessel, rotating disc, or some component containing a complex principal stress system so that the material remains elastic, ie no yielding,
when under full load is rather more complex. One could adopt a trial and error method
of building a component and testing it to find out when the deformations are no longer
recoverable, but this would obviously be very uneconomical. It is therefore essential to
find some criterion based on stresses or strains or perhaps conditions mentioned above.
If a theoretical criterion can be established which predicts complex material behaviour,
it is then only necessary to establish experimentally the yield point in a simple tension
or compression test.
73
A number of theoretical criteria for yielding have been proposed each seeking to obtain
adequate correlation between estimated component life and that actually achieved under
service load conditions for both brittle and ductile material applications. The five main
theories are:
1
2
3
4
5
The stress at yield point in a simple tension test is y, 1 2 and 3 and are the principal
stresses in the three-dimensional complex stress system.
v1 = vy
(8.1)
It should be noted, however, that failure also occurs in compression if the least principal
stress v3 were compressive and its value reaches the value of the yield stress in compression for the material concerned before the value of vyt is reached in tension. An additional
criterion is therefore
v3 = vy
(compressive)
(8.2)
v1 = vut
n
if v1 2 0
(8.3)
v3 = vuc
n
if v3 1 0
(8.4)
And
This theory should not be used for shafts since invariably they are made from a ductile
material and will incorrectly indicate a factor of safety larger than that indicated by two
theories of elastic failure.
While the theory can be shown to hold fairly well for brittle materials, there is considerable
experimental evidence that the theory should not be applied to ductile materials. For example,
even in the case of the pure tension test itself, failure for ductile materials takes place not
because of the direct stresses applied but in shear on planes at 45 to the specimen axis.
This theory was proposed by a French engineer Tresca. He made the assumption that yielding is dependent on the maximum shear stress in the material reaching a critical value. This
is taken as the maximum shear stress at yielding in a uniaxial tensile test. The maximum
shear stress in the complex stress system will depend on the relative values and signs of
the three principal stresses, always being half the difference between the maximum and
minimum. It should be remembered that the minimum stress can be zero or compressive,
in which case it is negative in value.
For a general three-dimensional stress system, or in the two-dimensional case with one
of the stresses tensile, one compressive and the third zero, the maximum shear stress is
xmax = v1 - v2
2
(8.5)
Under uniaxial tension there is only one principal stress, v1 ^v2 = v3 = oh , so that the
maximum shear stress is
xmax = v1
(8.6)
xy =
vy
2
(8.7)
Therefore the Tresca criterion states that yielding will occur when the value of 3 being
algebraically the smallest value, ie taking account of sign and the fact that one stress may
be zero. This produces a fairly accurate correlation with experimental results particularly for
ductile materials, and is often used for ductile materials in machine design. The criterion
is often referred to as the Tresca theory and is one of the widely used laws of plasticity.
v1 - v3 = vy
(8.8)
Figure 8.2
(8.9)
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ie
v1 - vv2 - vv3 = vy
(8.10)
This theory is contradicted by the results obtained from tests on flat plates subjected to
two mutually perpendicular tensions. The Poissons ratio effect of each tension reduces the
strain in the perpendicular direction so that according to this theory failure should occur at
75
a higher load. This is not always the case. The theory holds reasonably well for cast iron
but is not generally used in design procedures these days.
(8.11)
(8.12)
ie
The theory gives fairly good results for ductile materials but is seldom used. The theory by
Guest and Tresca below is generally preferred.
8.7 Maximum shear strain energy per unit volume theorydistortion energy
This theory states that failure occurs when the maximum shear strain energy component in
the complex stress system is equal to that at the yield point in the tensile test,
(8.13)
This theory has received considerable verification in practice and is widely regarded as the
most reliable basis for design, particularly when dealing with ductile materials. It is often
referred to as the von Mises criterion and is probably the best theory of the five. It is also
sometimes referred to as the distortion energy or maximum octahedral shear stress theory.
76
2-tension
ut
uo
ut
1-compression
1-tension
0
uc
2-compression
Figure 8.3
Examples will be posted on myUnisa in lecture no 5 or 6. Other notes have already been
posted on the website, so make sure that you check it: www.unisa.ac.za/myunisa/som401M/
additional~resources.htm
8.10 Exercise
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c)
can be applied to the cylinder before yielding commences according to the maximum
shear stress theory.
The yield stress of the material in simple tension is 240MPa. Assume that the radial
stress in the wall of the cylinder is zero. Sketch the plane yield stress locus for the
maximum shear stress theory, and show the two points representing the cases above.
3 A thin-walled cylindrical tank has a diameter of 2 m. If it is subjected to an internal
pressure of 1MPa, calculate the required wall thickness for the tank if yielding is not
to occur. The von Mises theory should be used to check for yielding. The yield stress
in simple tension for the material is 280MPa and a factor of safety of 1.5 should
be used.
4 A hollow tube with an external diameter of 100 mm and a wall thickness of 5 mm
is subjected to an axial force of 100kN. If the tensile yield stress for the material
is 280MPa, use the Tresca criterion to establish whether or not a torque of 6kNm
could be applied without causing the tube to yield. A safety factor of 2 should be
used to allow for stress concentrations.
5 A cast-iron cylinder of 60 mm internal and 5 mm wall thickness is to be used to
check the Mohr theory of failure. The tensile and compressive strengths of the material have been measured as 400MPa and 1200MPa respectively. Determine the
following:
b) The axial compressive load to cause failure when combining with an internal
pressure of 50MPa
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11 A cast iron cantilever has a length of 0.5 m and is subjected to a point load of
50kN and a moment of 20kNm at the free end. The moment deflects the beam in
the same direction as the point load. The component has a T-cross section with an
overall height of 250 mm and both the web and flange are 50 mm thick. Calculate
the factor of safety of the component using both Rankine and modified Mohr criteria.
vut = 290MPa, and vuc = 950MPa .
12 A thin cylinder 1 m diameter and 3 m long is filled with a liquid to a pressure of
2MPa. Assuming a yield stress for the material of 240MPa in simple tension and
a safety factor of 4, determine the necessary wall thickness of the cylinder, taking
the maximum shear strain energy and the maximum shear stress as the criteria of
failure. E = 207GPa and v = 0.286 .
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