9.

THE CFD PROCESS SPRING 2010

9.1 Introduction
9.2 The computational mesh
9.3 Boundary conditions
9.4 Flow visualisation
Examples

9.1 Introduction

9.1.1 Stages of a CFD Analysis

A complete CFD analysis consists of:

• pre-processing;
• solving;
• post-processing.

This course has focused on the “solving” process, but this is of little use without pre-
processing and post-processing facilities. Commercial CFD vendors supplement their flow
solvers with grid-generation and flow-visualisation tools, as well as graphical user interfaces
(GUIs) to simplify the setting-up of a CFD analysis.

Pre-Processing
The pre-processing stage consists of:
– determining the equations to be solved;
– specifying the boundary conditions;
– generating a computational mesh or grid.

It depends upon:
– the desired outputs of the simulation (e.g. force coefficients, heat transfer, ...);
– the capabilities of the solver.

Solving
In commercial CFD packages the solver is often operated as a “black box”. Nevertheless,
user intervention is necessary – to set under-relaxation factors and input parameters, for
example – whilst an understanding of discretisation methods and internal data structures is
required in order to supply mesh data in an appropriate form and to analyse output.

Post-Processing
The raw output of the solver is a huge set of numbers corresponding to the values of each
field variable (u, v, w, p, …) at each point of the mesh. This must be reduced to some
meaningful subset and/or manipulated further to obtain the desired predictive quantities. For
example, a subset of surface pressures and cell-face areas is required to compute a drag
coefficient.

Commercial packages routinely provide:

– plotting tools to visualise the flow;
– analysis tools to extract and manipulate data.

CFD 9–1 David Apsley

9.1.2 Commercial CFD

The table below lists some of the more popular commercial CFD packages.

Developer/distributor Code(s) Web address (liable to change!)

CD adapco STAR CD http://www.cd-adapco.com/
STAR CCM+
Fluent (now owned by Ansys) FLUENT http://www.fluent.com/
Ansys CFX http://www.ansys.com/products/cfx.asp
Flow Science FLOW3D http://www.flow3d.com/
EXA PowerFLOW http://www.exa.com/
CHAM PHOENIX http://www.cham.co.uk/

An excellent web portal for all things CFD is http://www.cfd-online.com/.

9.2 The Computational Mesh

9.2.1 Mesh Structure

The purpose of the mesh generator is to decompose the flow domain into control volumes.

The primary outputs are:

• cell vertices;
• connectivity information.

Precisely where the nodes are relative to the vertices depends on whether the solver uses, for
example, cell-centred or cell-vertex storage. Further complexity is introduced if a staggered
velocity grid is employed.

u p

cell-centred storage cell-vertex storage staggered velocity mesh

The shapes of control volumes depend on the

capabilities of the solver. Structured-grid codes use
quadrilaterals in 2-d and hexahedra in 3-d flows.
Unstructured-grid solvers often use triangles (2-d)
or tetrahedra (3-d), but newer codes can use
arbitrary polyhedra. tetrahedron hexahedron

CFD 9–2 David Apsley

In all cases it is necessary to specify connectivity: that is, which cells are adjacent to each
other, and which face they share. For structured grids, with (i,j,k) numbering this is
straightforward, but for unstructured grids quite complicated data structures must be set up to
store connectivity information.

9.2.2 Areas, Volumes and Cell-Averaged Derivatives (**** MSc Only ****)

In continuum mechanics, conservation laws take the form:

rate of change + net flux = source

To calculate fluxes requires the vector areas of cell faces; e.g.

mass flux = u • A
To find the total amount of some property in a cell requires its volume; e.g.
amount = Vφ

Areas and volumes are easy to evaluate in Cartesian meshes, but general-purpose CFD,
which employs arbitrary polyhedral meshes, requires more sophisticated geometrical
techniques.

Areas

Triangles.
The vector area of a triangle with side vectors s1 and s2 is s2
A = 12 s1 ∧ s 2 A
The orientation depends on the order of vectors in the cross product. s1
A
Quadrilaterals
4 points do not, in general, lie in a plane. However, since the sum of the
outward vector areas from any closed surface is zero, i.e. r4
⌠ r3
 dA = 0
⌡∂V
or ∑A f = 0
faces

any surface spanning the same set of points has the same vector area.
A
By adding vector areas of, e.g., triangles 123 and 134, the vector area of
any surface spanned by these points and bounded by the side vectors is r2
found (see Examples) to be half the cross product of the diagonals: r1
A = 12 d13 ∧ d 24 = 12 (r3 − r1 ) ∧ (r4 − r2 )
(Again, the order of points determines the orientation of the area vector).

General polygons
The vector area of an arbitrary polygonal face may be found by breaking it
up into triangles and summing the individual vector areas. Again, the vector
area is independent of how it is broken up.

CFD 9–3 David Apsley

Volumes

∂x ∂y ∂z
If r ≡ ( x, y , z ) is the position vector, then ∇ • r =
+ + = 3 . Hence, integrating over
∂x ∂y ∂z
an arbitrary control volume and using the divergence theorem gives for the volume of a cell:
1⌠
V =  r • dA
3 ⌡∂V

If the cell has plane faces this can be evaluated as

1
V = ∑r f • A f
3 faces
where rf is any convenient position vector on a face and Af is the face vector area, since, for
any other vector r in that face,
r • A f = r f • A f + (r − r f ) • A f
142 4 43 4
=0

The last term vanishes because r – rf is perpendicular to Af for any point on a plane face.

If the cell faces are not planar, then the volume depends on how these
faces are broken down into triangles. Typically the area of a particular
face can be regarded as an assemblage of triangular elements connecting
the vertices of that face with a central reference point formed, e.g. rf
1
rf = ∑ ri
N vertices

Examples for the commonest shapes follow.

Tetrahedra
The volume of a tetrahedron formed from side s3 vectors s1, s2, s3
(taken in a right-handed sense) is s1
V = 16 s1 • s 2 ∧ s 3
s2

Hexahedra
Volumes of arbitrary polyhedral cells are:
1
V = ∑r f • A f
3 faces
For hexahedra, on each face the reference point and vector area are:
r f = 14 (r1 + r2 + r3 + r4 )
A f = 12 (r1 − r3 ) ∧ (r2 − r4 )
To obtain an outward-directed face vector, the points with position vectors r1, r2, r3, r4 should
be in clockwise order when viewed along the outward normal (right-hand screw).

This is a generalisation to arbitrary hexahedra of the result for Cartesian control volumes.

CFD 9–4 David Apsley

2-d Cases

In 2-d cases one can formally consider cells to be of unit depth. V

The “volume” of the cell is then numerically equal to its planar area.

The side “area” vectors are most easily obtained from their Cartesian projections:
 dy  dx
 
dA =  − dx 
 0  ds
  dy
To obtain an outward-directed dA, the edge increments (dx,dy,0) must dA
be taken anticlockwise around the cell.

Volume-Averaged Derivatives

By applying the divergence theorem to φex, where ex is the unit vector in the x direction, the
volume-averaged derivative of a scalar field φ is
∂φ ∂φ 1⌠
= ⌠
1
 dV =  φ dAx
∂x V ⌡ V ∂x V ⌡∂V
or
1
∇φ = ∑ φ f A f
V faces
Thus, for arbitrarily-shaped cells, average derivatives may be derived from the values of φ on
the cell faces, together with the components of the face area vectors and the cell volume.

e.g. for hexahedra: An

∂φ / ∂x
1
∂φ / ∂y = (φ w A w + φ e A e + φ s A s + φ n A n + φ b A b + φ t A t )
V
∂φ / ∂z Aw φn
The values on cell faces, φw, φe etc. can be obtained by interpolation φw φe
from the nodes on either side. φs Ae

As

CFD 9–5 David Apsley

9.2.3 Classification of Grid Types

Grids can be Cartesian or curvilinear (usually

body-fitting). In the former, grid lines are always
parallel to the coordinate axes. In the latter,
coordinate surfaces are curved to fit boundaries.
There is an alternative division into orthogonal and
non-orthogonal grids. In orthogonal grids (for
example, Cartesian or polar meshes) all grid lines
cross at 90°. Some flows can be treated as single-block structured cartesian mesh
axisymmetric, and in these cases, the flow
equations can be expressed in terms of polar
coordinates (r, ), rather than Cartesian coordinates (x,y), with minor modifications.

Structured grids are those whose control volumes

can be indexed by (i,j,k) for i = 1,..., ni, j = 1,.., nj,
k = 1,..., nk, or by sets of such blocks (multi-block
structured grids – see below). Each structured
block of control volumes, even if curvilinear, can
be distorted by a coordinate transformation into a
cube (or square in two dimensions). Multi-block
structured meshes can be used for many practical single-block structured curvilinear mesh
flow configurations.

Unstructured meshes can accommodate completely arbitrary geometries. However, there are
significant penalties to be paid for this flexibility, both in terms of the connectivity data
structures and solution algorithms. Grid generators and plotting routines for such meshes are
also very complex.

unstructured Cartesian mesh unstructured triangular mesh

CFD 9–6 David Apsley

9.2.4 Fitting Complex Boundaries With Structured Grids

Blocking Out Cells

The range of flows which can be computed

in a rectangular domain is rather limited.
Nevertheless, a number of significant bluff-
body flows can be computed using a single-
block Cartesian mesh by the process of
blocking out cells. Solid-surface boundary
conditions are applied to cell faces abutting
the blocked-out region, whilst values of
velocity and other flow variables are forced mesh for 2-d rib with blocked-out cells
to zero by a modification of the source term
for those cells. In the notation of Section 4, where the scalar-transport equations for a single
cell are discretised as
a P φ P − ∑ a F φ F = bP + s P φ P
the source terms are simply re-set:
bP → 0, s P → −
where is a large number (e.g. 1030). Rearranging for φP, this ensures that the computational
variable φP is effectively forced to zero in these cells. However, the computer still stores and
carries out operations for these points, so that it is essentially performing a lot of redundant
work. An alternative approach is to fit several structured grid blocks around the bluff body.
Multi-block grids will be discussed further below.

Volume-of-Fluid Approach

The numerical simplicity and solver

efficiency associated with Cartesian grids
mean that some practitioners still attempt to
f=0
retain this grid geometry even for complex
curved boundaries: both for solid walls and
free surfaces. In this volume-of-fluid approach
the fraction f of the cell filled with fluid is
f=1
stored: 0 outside the fluid domain, 1 within
the interior of the fluid and 0 < f < 1 for cells
which are cut by a boundary. At solid
boundaries f is determined by the surface
f=0
contour. At free surfaces, f emerges as part of
the solution procedure.
0<f<1

CFD 9–7 David Apsley

Body-Fitted Grids

The majority of general-purpose codes employ

body-fitted (curvilinear) grids. The mesh
lines/coordinate surfaces are distorted so as to fit
snugly around curved boundaries. Accuracy in
turbulent-flow calculations demands a high
density of grid cells close to solid surfaces and the
use of body-fitted meshes means that the grid need
only be refined in the direction normal to the
surface, with consequent saving of computer
resources.

However, the use of body-fitted grids has

important consequences.

• It is necessary to store detailed geometric components for each control volume; for
example, in our research code STREAM we need to store (x,y,z) components of the
cell-face-area vector for “east”, “north” and “top” faces of each cell, plus the volume
of the cell itself – a total of 10 arrays.
ξ=
const.
• Unless the mesh happens to be orthogonal, the diffusive flux
through the east face (say) is no longer given exactly by
t.
∂φ φE − φP ons
A= A E η =c
∂n PE P
because the discretised derivative of φ normal to the face
involves cross-derivative terms parallel to the cell face and
nodes other than P and E. The extra off-diagonal diffusion
terms are typically transferred to the source term.

• A similar alignment problem occurs with the advection terms

because, in general, interpolated values of all three velocity v
components are needed to evaluate the mass flux through a
single face. This necessitates approximations in the pressure- u
correction equation that can slow down the solution algorithm.

Multi-Block Structured Grids

In multi-block structured grids the domain is

decomposed into a small number of regions, in
each of which the mesh is structured (i.e. cells
can be indexed by (i,j,k)). 2 3 4
A common arrangement (and that assumed by
our own code STREAM), is that grid lines
match at the interface between two blocks, so
1 5
2-d rib with multi-block mesh
that there are cell vertices that are common to
two blocks. However, some solvers do allow

CFD 9–8 David Apsley

overlapping blocks (chimera grids) or block boundaries where cell vertices do not align.
Interpolation is then needed at the boundaries
of blocks.

In the usual arrangement, with both cell

vertices matching at block boundaries and
blocks meeting “whole-face to whole-face”
the solver starts by adding additional lines of
cells from one block to those of the adjacent,
so that, in discretising, accuracy is not
compromised. On each iteration of a scalar chimera grid
transport equation the discretised equations
would be solved implicitly within each block, with values from the adjacent block providing
boundary conditions. At the end of each iteration, values in overlap cells would be explicitly
updated using data from the interior of the adjacent block.

Multiple blocks are employed to

2 3 4 maintain
configuration
a structured
around
grid
complex

1 6 7 5
boundaries. There are no hard and
fast rules, but it is generally
8 desirable to avoid sharp changes in
grid direction (which lead to lower
accuracy) in important and rapidly changing regions of the flow, such as near solid
boundaries. One should also strive to minimise the non-orthogonality of the grid.

9.2.5 Discretisation on Curvilinear Meshes

Non-Cartesian coordinate systems are called curvilinear.

The coordinates are denoted ( , , ) or ( i) and the direction
of the coordinate lines varies with location.

Coordinate systems in which coordinate lines cross at right angles are termed orthogonal.
Cartesian systems are obviously in this category, but other commonly-used orthogonal
systems include cylindrical and spherical polar coordinates.

However, most curvilinear systems are non-orthogonal. The direction normal to one face is
not necessarily along a coordinate line, and hence the diffusive flux, which depends on ∂φ/∂n,
cannot be approximated solely in terms of the nodes either side of the face. For example, in 2
dimensions, if the east face ( = constant) of a control volume ξ=
const.
coincides with x = constant, the normal derivative is
∂φ ∂φ ∂ ∂φ ∂
= + nst.
∂x ∂ ∂x ∂ ∂x η =co
E
The first derivative, ∂φ/∂ , can be discretised as (φ E − φ P ) / and
P
treated implicitly, but the derivative parallel to the cell face, ∂φ/∂ ,
depends on the values at other nodes; it has to be transferred to the
source side of the equation and treated explicitly.

CFD 9–9 David Apsley

The coordinate derivatives ∂ /∂x, ∂ /∂y, can be calculated analytically or (my preference)
determined from the cell volume and the cell-face-area vectors; e.g.
∂ ∂ ∂
( , , )≡∇ → A( )
∂x ∂y ∂z V
( )
where V is volume and A is the area vector normal to face = constant (in the direction of
increasing ). Curvilinear coordinates can be taken as the node indices, in which case = 1.

Non-orthogonal meshes are more computationally-intensive, but their additional geometric

flexibility makes them desirable in general-purpose solvers.

9.2.6 Disposition of Grid Cells

Only two points are necessary to resolve a straight-line profile, but the more curved the
profile the more points are needed to resolve it accurately. In general, more points are needed
in rapidly-changing regions of the flow, such as:
– solid boundaries;
– separation, reattachment and impingement points;
– flow discontinuities; e.g. shocks, hydraulic jumps.

Simulations must demonstrate grid-independence, i.e. that a finer-resolution grid would not
significantly modify the solution. This generally requires a sequence of calculations on
successively finer grids.

Boundary conditions for turbulence modelling do impose some limitations on the cell size
near walls. Low-Reynolds-number models (resolving the near-wall viscous sublayer)
generally require that y+ < 1 for the near-wall node, whilst high-Reynolds-number models
relying on wall functions require (in principle) the near-wall node to lie in the log-law region,
ideally 30 < y+ < 150.

9.2.7 Multiple Grids

Multiple grids – combining cells so that there are 1, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, ... times the number of cells
in some basic fine grid – are used deliberately in so-called multigrid methods. These calculate
the solution on alternately coarser and finer grids. The idea is that the solution is obtained
quickly on the coarsest grid where the number of cells is small and changes propagate rapidly
across the domain. The solution is then refined locally on the finest grid to obtain the most
accurate solution.

If two levels of grid are used then a process known as Richardson extrapolation may be used
to both estimate the error and, possibly, refine the solution. If the basic advection-diffusion
discretisation is known to be of order n and the exact (but unknown) solution of some
property φ is denoted φ*, then one would expect the error φ – φ* to be proportional to n,
where is the mesh spacing. Thus, for solutions φ
and φ2
respectively on two grids with
mesh spacing and 2 ,
φ  = φ* + C n
φ 2 = φ* + C (2 ) n
Two equations give us two equations for two unknowns, φ* and C, which we can solve to get

CFD 9 – 10 David Apsley

a better estimate of the solution:
2 n φ  − φ 2
φ* =
2n − 1
and the error in the fine-grid solution:
φ −φ
C n = 2n
2 −1

Unstructured-grid methods offer the possibility of local grid refinement: that is, adding more
cells in regions where the error is estimated to be high.

9.3 Boundary Conditions

The number and type of boundary conditions must accord with the governing equations of the
flow. There are a number of common boundary types:
• inflow
values specified on the boundary, either by a predefined profile or (my preference)
by doing an initial 1-d, fully-developed-flow calculation;
• stagnation (or reservoir)
total pressure and total temperature fixed; used mainly as an inflow condition in
compressible or buoyancy-driven flow;
• outflow
zero normal gradient (∂φ/∂n = 0 where n is normal to the boundary) for all
variables;
• pressure
as for outflow, except fixed value of pressure; usual situation in compressible flow
if the exit is subsonic;
• wall
usually non-slip (zero velocity; wall stress computed by viscous-stress or wall-
function expressions); sometimes a slip wall (only the velocity component normal
to the wall vanishes);
• symmetry plane
∂φ/∂n = 0, except for the velocity component normal to the boundary, which is
zero; used where there is a geometric plane of symmetry, but also as a far-field
side boundaries, because they ensure that there is no flow through, and no viscous
stresses on, the boundary;
• periodic
used in repeating flow.

CFD 9 – 11 David Apsley

9.4 Flow Visualisation

CFD has a reputation for producing colourful output and, whilst some of it is promotional,
the ability to display results effectively may be an invaluable design tool.

9.4.1 Available Packages

Visualisation tools are often packaged with commercial CFD products. However, many
excellent stand-alone applications or libraries are available. Some of the more popular in
CFD are listed below. Most have versions for various platforms, although some run only on
certain versions of unix. Some are aimed predominantly at the CFD user, but others are
general-purpose visualisation tools, which may equally well be applied in other branches of
engineering. Some are even free!

• TECPLOT (Tecplot Inc.) http://www.tecplot.com/

• AVS, Gsharp, Toolmaster (Advanced Visual Systems) http://www.avs.com/
• PV-WAVE (Visual Numerics) http://www.vni.com/
• Iris Explorer (NAG) http://www.nag.co.uk/visualisation_graphics.asp
• OpenDx (IBM) http://www.opendx.org/ (free, apparently)

But for simple line, contour and vector plots, many researchers are still happy with the
original free, open-source plotting package ...
• Gnuplot (open-source software community) http://www.gnuplot.info/

9.4.2 Types of Plot

x-y plots

These are simple, two-dimensional graphs. They can

be drawn by hand or by many plotting packages. They
are the most precise and quantitative way to present
numerical data and, since laboratory data is often
gathered by straight-line traverses, they are a popular
way of making a direct comparison between
experimental and numerical data. Logarithmic scales
also allow the identification of important effects
occurring at very small scales, particularly near solid
boundaries. They are widely used for line profiles of
flow variables (particularly velocity and stresses) and
for plots of surface quantities such as pressure or skin-
friction coefficients.

One way of visualising the development

of the flow is to use several successive
profiles.

CFD 9 – 12 David Apsley

Line Contour Plots

A contour line (“isoline”) is a line along

which some property is constant. The
equivalent in 3 dimensions is an
“isosurface”. Any field variable may be
contoured. In contrast to line graphs, contour
plots give a global view of the flow field,
but are less useful for reading off precise
numerical values. If the domain is linearly
scaled then detail occurring in small regions
is often obscured.

The actual numerical values of the isolines

are sometimes less important than their overall disposition. If contour intervals are the same
then clustering of lines indicates rapid changes in flow quantities. This is particularly useful
in locating shocks and discontinuities.

Shaded Contour Plots

WARNING: colour plots are expensive to

print or photocopy! This proviso apart, colour
is an excellent medium for conveying
information and good for on-screen and
presentational analysis of data. Simple
packages flood the region between isolines
with a fixed colour for that interval. The most
advanced packages allow a pixel-by-pixel
gradation of colour between values specified
at the cell vertices, together with lighting and
other special effects such as translucency.

Grey-scale shading is an option if plots are to

be reproduced in black and white.

Vector Plots

Vector plots display vector quantities (usually

velocity; occasionally stress) with arrows
whose orientation indicates direction and
whose size (and sometimes colour) indicates
magnitude. They are a popular and informative
means of illustrating the flow field in two
dimensions, although if grid densities are high
then either interpolation to a uniform grid or a
reduced set of output positions are necessary to
prevent the number density of arrows
blackening the plot. There can sometimes be

CFD 9 – 13 David Apsley

problems when selecting scales for the arrows when large velocity differences are present,
especially in important areas of recirculation where the mean flow speed is low. In three
dimensions, vector plots can be deceptive because of the angle from which they are viewed.

Streamline Plots

Streamlines are parallel to the mean

velocity vector. They can generally be
obtained by integration:
dx
=u
dt
(the only option in three dimensions).

In 2-d incompressible flow a more accurate method is to contour the 2

streamfunction . This function is defined (and calculated) by fixing
arbitrarily at one point and then setting the change in between
two points as the volume flow rate (per unit depth) across any curve
joining them:
2
⌠
2− 1 =  u • n ds 1
⌡1
(The sense used here is clockwise about the start point, although the opposite sign convention
is equally valid). is well-defined because the flow rate across any path connecting two
points must be the same or mass would accumulate between them. Contouring produces
streamlines because a curve of constant is one across which there is no flow.
2
For a short path making orthogonal increments dx and dy then
d = udy − vdx
dy u
and hence the velocity components are related to by
∂ ∂ v
u= , v=− 1
∂y ∂x dx

ψ3 Computationally, is stored at cell vertices. This is

convenient because the flow rates across the cell edges are
ue already stored as part of the calculation. In the Cartesian cell
shown:
2 = 1 − vs y
vs
ψ1 ψ2 3 = 2 + ue x

If isolines are at equal increments in , then clustering of lines corresponds to high velocities,
whilst regions where the streamlines are further apart signify low velocities. However, as
with vector plots, this has the effect of making it difficult to visualise the flow pattern in low-
velocity regions such as recirculation zones and a smaller increment in is needed here.

Particle paths can also be traced along solid surfaces using the wall stress vector. This often
reveals important features connected with separation/reattachment/impingement on 3-d
surfaces, which defines the basic flow topology.

CFD 9 – 14 David Apsley

Mesh Plots

The computational mesh is usually visualised by plotting the edges of control volumes – for
one coordinate surface only in 3 dimensions. It can be very difficult indeed to visualise fully-
unstructured 3-d meshes, and usually only the surface mesh and/or its projection onto a plane
section is portrayed.

Composite Plots

In 3 dimensions it is common to combine plots of the above types, emphasising the behaviour
of several important quantities in one plot. In this way, some sense can be made of the highly
complex flows now being studied with CFD.

Finally, just to put things in perspective ...

“On two occasions I have been asked [by members of Parliament],
‘Pray, Mr. Babbage, if you put into the machine wrong figures, will the
right answers come out’. I am not able rightly to apprehend the kind
of confusion of ideas that could provoke such a question.”
Charles Babbage

(Robert Peel’s government eventually pulled the plug on Babbage’s research and he was
unable to build his “analytical engine”. Ever since then the British Government has preferred
to fight wars on the other side of the world rather than funding scientific research!)

CFD 9 – 15 David Apsley

Examples

Q1.
(a) Explain what is meant (in the context of computational meshes) by:
(i) structured;
(ii) multi-block structured;
(iii) unstructured;
(iv) chimera.

(b) Define the following terms when applied to structured meshes:

(i) Cartesian
(ii) curvilinear
(iii) orthogonal

Q2.
Suppose that you are equipped with a flow solver that can cope with multi-block structured
curvilinear grids, where grid nodes must match at block interfaces. Indicate by sketches
suitable grid topologies that might be used to compute the following flow configurations. Use
symmetry where appropriate and “body-fitting” meshes, not “blocked-out” regions of cells.
Avoid sharp changes in grid direction where possible and certainly near solid boundaries.

(a) Harbour configuration (treat as 2-d)

(b) Circular to square-section pipe expansion

(c) Outfall (treat as 2-d)

CFD 9 – 16 David Apsley

Q3.
(a) Two adjacent cells in a 2-dimensional Cartesian mesh are shown below, along with
the cell dimensions and some of the velocity components (in m s–1) normal to cell
faces. The value of the stream function at the bottom left corner is A = 0. Find the
value of the stream function at the other vertices B – F. (You may use either sign
convention for the stream function).

D E 3 F

2 3 1 0.1 m
5
A B C

0.3 m 0.2 m

(b) Sketch the pattern of streamlines across the two cells in part (a).

Q4.
The figure below shows a quadrilateral cell, together with the coordinates of its vertices and
the velocity components on each face. If the value of the stream function at the bottom left
corner is = 0, find:
(a) the values of at the other vertices;
(b) the unknown velocity component vn.

(4,5)

velocity
n face u v
(1,3) w 3 –3
e e 3 1
s 0 2
w n 1 vn
s
(1,1) (3,1)

CFD 9 – 17 David Apsley

(**** Remaining questions for MSc Course only ****)
Q5. Show that the vector area of a (possibly non-planar) quadrilateral is half the cross product
of its diagonals; i.e.
A = 12 d13 ∧ d 24 = 12 (r3 − r1 ) ∧ (r4 − r2 )

Q6.
(a) Derive the following formulae for the volume of a cell and the cell-averaged
derivative of a scalar field:
V= ⌠
1
(i)  r • dA ;
3 ⌡∂V
∂φ 1⌠
(ii) =  φ d Ax ;
∂x V ⌡∂V
where r is a position vector and dA a small element of (outward-directed) area on the
closed surface V.

A tetrahedral cell has vertices at A(2, –1, 0), B(0, 1, 0), C(2, 1, 1) and D(0, –1, 1).
(b) Find the outward vector areas of all faces. Check that they sum to zero.

(c) Find the volume of the cell.

(d) If the values of φ at the centroids of the faces (indicated by their vertices) are
φBCD = 5, φACD = 3, φABD = 4, φABC = 2,
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
find the volume-averaged derivatives , ,
∂x ∂y ∂z

Q7.
The figure shows part of a non-Cartesian 2-d mesh. A
single quadrilateral cell is highlighted and the coordinates
of the corners marked. The values of a variable φ at the cell- N
centre nodes (labeled geographically) are: (0,4)
W
φP = 2, φE = 5, φW = 0, φN = 3, φS = 1. (3,3)

Find: (-2,2) P
(a) the area of the cell;
∂φ ∂φ
E
(b) the cell-averaged derivatives and , (2,0)
∂x ∂y S
assuming that cell-face values are the average of those at
the nodes either side of that cell face.

Q8.
One quadrilateral face of a hexahedral cell in a finite-volume mesh has vertices at
(2,0,1), (2,2,–1), (0,3,1), (–1,0,2)
(a) Find the vector area of this face (in either direction).
(b) Determine whether or not the vertices are coplanar.

CFD 9 – 18 David Apsley

Q9.
In a 2-dimensional unstructured mesh, one cell has the (1,3)
form of a pentagon. The coordinates of the vertices are as 2
shown in the figure, whilst the average values of a scalar 3
φ on edges 1 – 5 are: (5,1)
φ1 = –7, φ2 = 8, φ3 = –2, φ4 = 5, φ5 = 0 (-3,0)

Find: 4 1
(a) the area of the pentagon; (-2,-3)
∂φ ∂φ 5
(b) the cell-averaged derivatives and . (2,-4)
∂x ∂y

Q10. (MSc exam, June 2009)

(a) Give a physical definition of the stream function in a 2-d incompressible flow, and
show how it is related to the velocity components.

(b) Show that if the flow is irrotational then satisfies Laplace’s equation. If the flow is
not irrotational how is ∇2 related to the vorticity?

The figure below and the accompanying table show a 2-d quadrilateral cell, with coordinates
at the vertices and velocity components on the cell edges. The flow is incompressible. All
quantities are non-dimensional.

(4,4) velocity
face u v
(0,3) n w 3 2
e 3 –1
w e s 0 2
n 1 vn
s
(1,1) (3,1)

(c) Assuming that the stream function at the bottom left (SW) corner is 0, calculate the
stream function at the other vertices.

(d) Find the y-velocity component vn, whose value is not given in the table.

(e) By calculating ⌠
 u • ds for the quadrilateral cell estimate the cell vorticity.
⌡

CFD 9 – 19 David Apsley

Selected Answers

Q3. ( A , B , C , D , E , F ) = (0, − 1.5, − 1.9, 0.2, − 1.2, − 1.8) m 2 s −1

Q4. se = –4, ne = 7, nw = 6, vn = 1/3

 − 1 1  −1  1 
       
Q6. (b) A BCD =  1  , A ACD =  − 1 , A ABD =  − 1  , A ABC =  1 
2 2  − 2  − 2
       
(c) 4/3
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
(d) = −3 , =0, =3
∂x ∂y ∂z

Q7. (a) 11.

∂φ 8 ∂φ
(b) = , =0
∂x 11 ∂y

 9/ 2 
 
Q8. (a) A= 3 
 13 / 2 
 
(b) No.

Q9. (a) 34
∂φ 14 ∂φ 20
(b) =− , =
∂x 17 ∂y 17

Q10. (c) se = –4, ne = 6, nw =8

(d) vn = 3/4
(e) z = –23/30

CFD 9 – 20 David Apsley